Christianity in Ethiopia is the country's largest religion with members making up 68% of the population.
179-690: Christianity in Ethiopia dates back to the ancient Kingdom of Aksum , when the King Ezana first adopted the faith in the 4th century AD. This makes Ethiopia one of the first regions in the world to officially adopt Christianity . Various Christian denominations are now followed in the country. Of these, the largest and oldest is the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church , an Oriental Orthodox church centered in Ethiopia . The Orthodox Tewahedo Church
358-576: A Jewish ethnicity or was from a southern region. According to one traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her dynasty lasted until 1137 AD, when it was overthrown by Mara Takla Haymanot , resulting in the inception of the Agaw -led Zagwe dynasty . According to an oral tradition, Gudit rose to power after she killed the Beta Israel king and then reigned for 40 years. She brought her Jewish army from Semien Mountains and Lake Tana to orchestrate
537-464: A Nubian Greek ruler, King Moses Georgios , but remained unanswered. She was said to have been succeeded by Dagna-Jan, whose throne name was Anbasa Wudem. Her reign was marked by the displacement of the Aksumite population into the south. According to one Ethiopian traditional account, she reigned for forty years and her dynasty was eventually overthrown by Mara Tekla Haymanot in 1137 AD, who ushered in
716-438: A Jewish Queen named Yodit (Judith) or " Gudit " defeated the empire and burned its churches and literature. While there is evidence of churches being burned and an invasion around this time, her existence has been questioned by some western authors. Gudit sacked Aksum by destroying churches and buildings, persecuted Christians and committed Christian iconoclasm . Her origin has been debated among scholars. Some argued that she had
895-754: A Muslim background in the country, most of them Protestants of some form. During the 6th century, the Patriarchate of Alexandria encouraged clerical immigration to Aksum and a program of careful recruitment of religious leaders in the kingdom to ensure that the rich and valuable diocese of Aksum remained under the control of the Alexandrian patriarchate. The kings and bishops who encouraged these settlements assigned missionaries to appropriate areas in Aksum. They donated money to communities and religious schools while protecting their occupants from local anti-Christians. Students of
1074-783: A belief in Penance as a Sacrament among the ancient Nestorians or for the practice of auricular confession among the Malabar Nestorians are not conclusive. The Chaldeans have a similar form to that of the Roman Rite. The Assyrian Church of the East omits Matrimony from the list, and make up the number of the mysteries to seven by including the Holy Leaven and the Sign of the Cross , but they are now rather vague about
1253-472: A bishop be sent to proselytize, a council decided that Frumentius be appointed as a bishop for Ethiopia. By 331 AD, Frumentius returned to Ethiopia, he was welcomed with open arms by the rulers who were at the time 'not' Christian. Ten years later, through the support of the kings, the majority of the kingdom was converted and Christianity was declared the official state religion. The Syriac Nine Saints and Sadqan missionaries expanded Christianity far beyond
1432-517: A considerable impact." and that "their influence was diffused throughout Ethiopian culture in its formative period. By the time Christianity took hold in the fourth century, many of the originally Hebraic-Jewish elements had been adopted by much of the indigenous population and were no longer viewed as foreign characteristics. Nor were they perceived as in conflict with the acceptance of Christianity." Before converting to Christianity, King Ezana II's coins and inscriptions show that he might have worshiped
1611-541: A crucial role in sustaining both urban and rural populations. Aksumite farmers cultivated a variety of cereal crops with origins from both Africa and the Near East. These crops included teff , finger millet , sorghum , emmer wheat, bread wheat, hulled barley, and oats. In addition to cereal crops, Aksumite farmers also grew linseed, cotton, grapes, and legumes of Near Eastern origin such as lentils, fava beans, chickpeas, common peas, and grass peas. Other important crops included
1790-475: A distinctive architectural style. Aksumite architecture featured massive dressed granite blocks, smaller uncut stones for walling, mud mortar, bricks for vaulting and arches, and a visible wooden framework, known as "monkey-heads" or square corner extrusions. Walls inclined inwards and incorporated several recessed bays for added strength. Aksum and other cities, such as Adulis and Matara , boasted substantial "palace" buildings employing this architectural style. In
1969-560: A few generations, Ewostathian monasteries and communities spread throughout the Eritrean highlands. The spread of Ewostathianism alarmed the Ethiopian establishment who still considered them to be dangerous due to their refusal to follow state authorities. In response, in 1400, Emperor Dawit I (r. 1380–1412) invited the Sabbatarians to come to court and participate in a debate. Abba Filipos led
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#17328517198582148-831: A great power, with an overall weakening of Aksumite authority and over-expenditure in money and manpower. Aksumite trade in the Red Sea likely suffered due to the Persian conquests in Egypt and Syria, followed by the defeats in Yemen. However, a more enduring impact occurred with the rise of Islam in the early 7th century and the expansion of the Rashidun Caliphate . Axum initially had good relations with its Islamic neighbours. In 615 AD for example, early Muslims from Mecca fleeing Qurayshi persecution traveled to Axum and were given refuge; this journey
2327-476: A justification for the idea of Ethiopians as a chosen people of God. More importantly to the Solomonic Dynasty however, it provided the grounds for the “restored Solomonic” Empire, so named because of its renewed fervor for the connection of King Solomon to Ethiopian royalty, which began under Emperor Yekuno Amlak (r. 1270-1285) and was ruled and justified by Christianity until the late twentieth century. By
2506-462: A modest regional center to a significant power, remain largely obscure. Stone Age artifacts have been unearthed at Gobedra , two kilometers west of Aksum . Excavations on Beta Giyorgis, a hill to the northwest of Aksum, validate the pre-Aksumite roots of a settlement in the vicinity of Aksum, dating back to approximately the 7th to 4th centuries BC. Further evidence from excavations in the Stele Park at
2685-528: A name which can be defended on archaeological grounds. Brightman, in his "Liturgies Eastern and Western", includes Chaldean and Malabar Catholics and Assyrians under "Persian Rite". The catalogue of liturgies in the British Museum has adopted the usual Roman Catholic nomenclature: Most printed liturgies of those rites are Eastern Rite Catholic. The language of all three forms of the East Syriac Rite
2864-515: A organized military. Around 200 AD, Aksumite ambitions had expanded to Southern Arabia, where Aksum appears to have established itself in Al-Maafer and engaged in conflicts with Saba and Himyar at various points, forming different alliances with chief kingdoms and tribes. During the early part of the 3rd century, the kings GDRT and ʽDBH dispatched military expeditions to the region. Inscriptions from local Arabian dynasties refer to these rulers with
3043-604: A parapet and water spout on the roof. Both were found in Hawelti . Another depicts a square house with what appear to be layers of pitched thatch forming the roof. The stelae are perhaps the most identifiable part of the Aksumite architectural legacy. These stone towers served to mark graves and represent a magnificent multi-storied palace. They are decorated with false doors and windows in typical Aksumite design. The largest of these towering obelisks would measure 33 meters high had it not fractured. The stelae have most of their mass out of
3222-499: A religion that worshiped the serpent-king Arwe , and others adhering to what scholars call "a Judaized form of religion". Although Christianity existed in the region long before the rule of King Ezana of Aksum , the religion took a strong foothold when it was declared a state religion in 330 AD. Rufinus of Tyre , a church historian, recorded a personal account as did other Church historians such as Socrates of Constantinople and Sozomen . The Garima Gospels are thought to be
3401-521: A ruler. King Solomon agreed to take Makeda as his student and taught her how to be a good queen. Queen Makeda was so impressed with Solomon that she converted to Judaism and provided Solomon with many gifts. Before Makeda returned home, the two had a son together. Solomon had a dream in which God said that his and Makeda’s son would be the head of a new order. In response, he sent Makeda home but told her to send their son back to Jerusalem when he came of age to be taught Jewish lore and law. Makeda did as she
3580-683: A short period of time and inheriting from it the Greek exonym "Ethiopia". Aksumite dominance in the Red Sea culminated during the reign of Kaleb of Axum (514–542), who, at the behest of the Byzantine Emperor Justin I , invaded the Himyarite Kingdom in Yemen in order to end the persecution of Christians perpetrated by the Jewish king Dhu Nuwas . With the annexation of Himyar, the Kingdom of Aksum
3759-458: A significant portion of the highlands in the northern Horn of Africa, with the majority located in northeastern Tigray , Ethiopia, as well as the Akele Guzai and Seraye regions of Eritrea. Despite the concentration in these areas, some Aksumite settlements such as Tchika Beret are located as far as South Wollo . In addition to the highlands, sites from the Aksumite period were discovered along
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#17328517198583938-863: A small community of around 50,000 people in the Hakkari Mountains under the headship of the Shimun line. A small group of Indians eventually rejoined the Assyrian Church of the East, forming the Chaldean Syrian Church in the 1900s, although the main body of the Malabar Christians remained as the Syro-Malabar Church . A large group joined the Oriental Orthodox West Syriac rite churches in their own set of schisms. Additionally,
4117-476: A state during this time, agricultural products. The land was much more fertile during the time of the Aksumites than now, and their principal crops were grains such as wheat, barley and teff . The people of Aksum also raised cattle , sheep, and camels. Wild animals were also hunted for things such as ivory and rhinoceros horns. They traded with Roman traders as well as with Egyptian and Persian merchants. The empire
4296-594: A tribute arrangement with the king of Aksum. After Abraha 's death, his son Masruq Abraha continued the Aksumite vice-royalty in Yemen, resuming payment of tribute to Aksum. However, his half-brother Ma'd-Karib revolted. Ma'd-Karib first sought help from the Roman Emperor Justinian the Great , but having been denied, he decided to ally with the Sassanid Persian Emperor Khosrow I , triggering
4475-514: A viceroy in the region and troops to defend it until 570 AD when the Sassanids invaded. The Kingdom of Aksum was ideally located to take advantage of the new trading situation. Adulis soon became the main port for the export of African goods, such as ivory, incense, gold, slaves, and exotic animals. In order to supply such goods the kings of Aksum worked to develop and expand an inland trading network. A rival, and much older trading network that tapped
4654-407: Is a selection of from four to seven psalms, varying with the day of the week, and also a Shuraya, or short psalm, with generally a portion of Ps. cxviii, varying with the day of the fortnight. At the morning service the invariable psalms are cix, xc, ciii (1–6), cxii, xcii, cxlviii, cl, cxvi. On ferias and "Memorials" Ps. cxlvi is said after Ps. cxlviii, and on ferias Ps. 1, 1–18, comes at the end of
4833-620: Is always associated an anointing , which as in other eastern rites answers to Confirmation, Holy Order and Matrimony , but not Penance or Unction of the sick. The Chaldean Catholics now have a form not unlike the Byzantine and West Syriac. The nearest approach to Penance among the Nestorians is a form, counted as a sacrament, for the reconciliation of apostates and excommunicated persons, prayers from which are occasionally used in cases of other penitents. Assemani's arguments (ibid., cclxxxvi–viii) for
5012-539: Is anointed all over, and there are four consecration crosses on the four interior walls of the sanctuary, and these and the lintel of the door and various other places are anointed. The oil is not that of the Holy Horn, but fresh olive oil consecrated by the bishop. Few of the manuscripts, except some lectionaries in the British Museum, were written before the 15th century, and most, whether Chaldean or Nestorian, are of
5191-510: Is based on the liturgical use of East Syriac dialect, and other terms reflect particular historical and denominational characteristics. The Syrian and Mesopotamian (Iraqi) Eastern Catholics are now commonly called Chaldeans (or Assyro-Chaldeans ). The term Chaldean , which in Syriac generally meant magician or astrologer, denoted in Latin and other European languages (Greater) Syrian nationality, and
5370-524: Is believed that at some point staged the conversion of the empire. We know that the Aksumites converted to Christianity because in their coins they replaced the disc and crescent with the cross. Frumentius was in contact with the Church of Alexandria , and was appointed Bishop of Ethiopia around the year 330. The Church of Alexandria never closely managed the affairs of the churches in Aksum, allowing them to develop their own unique form of Christianity. However,
5549-630: Is called Nithi Mar (May He come, O Lord) from its opening words. The Liturgy of the Apostles is so vague as to the purpose of the Invocation that, when the words of Institution are not said, it would be difficult to imagine this formula to be sufficient on any hypothesis, Eastern or Western. The Anaphorae of Nestorius and Theodore, besides having the Words of Institution, have definite Invocations, evidently copied from Antiochean or Byzantine forms. The older Chaldean and
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5728-457: Is considered Holy Scripture in Ethiopia and is available in print. [1] The Solomonic Dynasty ’s legendary origins come from an Ethiopian account called the Kebre Negast. According to the story, Queen Makeda , who took the Ethiopian throne in the 10th century, B.C., traveled to Jerusalem to learn to be a good ruler from King Solomon , who was famous worldwide for his wisdom and capabilities as
5907-719: Is known in Islamic history as the First Hijrah . In 630, Muhammad sent a naval expedition against suspected Abyssinian pirates, the Expedition of Alqammah bin Mujazziz . Trade with the Roman/Byzantine world came to a halt as the Arabs seized the eastern Roman provinces. Consequently, Aksum experienced a decline in prosperity due to increased isolation and eventually ceased production of coins in
6086-651: Is notable for a number of achievements, such as its own alphabet, the Geʽez script , which was eventually modified to include vowels , becoming an abugida . Furthermore, in the early times of the empire, around 1700 years ago, giant obelisks to mark emperors' (and nobles') tombs (underground grave chambers) were constructed, the most famous of which is the Obelisk of Aksum . Under Emperor Ezana , Aksum adopted Coptic Christianity in place of its former polytheistic and Judaic religions around 325. The Axumite Coptic Church gave rise to
6265-456: Is preceded by a preparation, or "Office of the Prothesis", which includes the solemn kneading and baking of the loaves. These were traditionally leavened, the flour being mixed with a little oil and the holy leaven ( malka ), which, according to tradition, "was given and handed down to us by our holy fathers Mar Addai and Mar Mari and Mar Toma", and of which and of the holy oil a very strange story
6444-572: Is quite possible that at the death of a King-of-Kings, a new one would be selected from among all the kings in the confederacy, rather than through some principle of primogeniture." The first historical mention of Axum comes from the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea , a trading guide which likely dates to the mid-1st century AD. Axum is mentioned alongside Adulis and Ptolemais of the Hunts as lying within
6623-495: Is the Ethiopian Evangelical Church Mekane Yesus , with about 5 million members. Catholicism has been present in Ethiopia since the nineteenth century, and numbers over 530,000 believers as of the 2007 census. In total, Christians make up about 63% of the total population of the country. Before the fourth century, a mixture of religions existed in Ethiopia, with parts of the population adhering to
6802-630: Is the Eastern dialect of Syriac , a modern form of which is still spoken by the Assyrian Church of the East , the Ancient Church of the East (which broke away from the Assyrian Church of the East in the 1960s due to a dispute involving changes to the liturgical calendar, but is now in the process of reunification), and the Chaldean Catholic Church. The Chaldean rite originally grew out of
6981-488: Is the Ta'akha Maryam, which measured 120 × 80m, though as its pavilion was smaller than others discovered it is likely that others were even larger. Some clay models of houses survive to give us an idea of what smaller dwellings were like. One depicts a round hut with a conical roof thatched in layers, while another depicts a rectangular house with rectangular doors and windows, a roof supported by beams that end in 'monkey heads', and
7160-619: Is told. The real leavening, however, is done by means of fermented dough (khmira) from the preparation of the last Eucharistic Liturgy. The Chaldean and Syro-Malabar Catholics now use unleavened bread. The Liturgy itself is introduced by the first verse of the Gloria in Excelsis and the Lord's prayer, with "farcings" (giyura), consisting of a form of the Sanctus. Then follow: There are four or five Lections: (a)
7339-405: Is uncertain. While some hold that this essential passage dropped out in times of ignorance, others say it never was there at all, being unnecessary, since the consecration was held to be effected by the subsequent Epiklesis alone. Another theory, evidently of Western origin and not quite consistent with the general Eastern theory of consecration by an Epiklesis following Christ's words, is that, being
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7518-507: Is very similar to that of the Byzantine Rite, and to some extent the Jewish rite . The Mystery of Crowning , while not viewed as a sacrament in much of East Syriac Christianity, features several rituals, including the crowning of the couple and, within the Assyrian Church of the East, the consumption of hanānā –a mixture made with the dust of a martyr's tomb–by the betrothed. The orders of
7697-659: The Aksumite–Persian wars . Khosrow I sent a small fleet and army under commander Vahrez to depose the king of Yemen. The war culminated with the Siege of Sana'a , capital of Aksumite Yemen. After its fall in 570, and Masruq's death, Ma'd-Karib's son, Saif, was put on the throne. In 575, the war resumed again, after Saif was killed by Aksumites. The Persian general Vahrez led another army of 8000, ending Axum rule in Yemen and becoming hereditary governor of Yemen. According to Stuart Munro-Hay , these wars may have been Aksum's swan-song as
7876-561: The Awash Valley . The Yafit defeat allowed Alexandria to send Abuna Yaqob , to Ethiopia in 1337 to be its metropolitan. Yakob reinvigorated the Ethiopian Church, which had been without a leader for almost 70 years, by ordaining new clergy and consecrating long-standing churches that had been built during the power void. Furthermore, Yaqob deployed a corps of monks into the newly obtained lands. These monks were often killed or injured by
8055-615: The Byzantine Empire , which regarded itself as the protector of Christendom . Three inscriptions on the Ezana Stone documents the conversion of King Ezana to Christianity and two of his military expeditions against neighboring areas, one inscribed in Greek and the other in Geez. The two expeditions refers to two distinct campaigns, one against the " Noba ", and the other against the Beja . According to
8234-680: The Church of the East , the Armenian Apostolic Church , the Syriac Orthodox Church , the Greek Orthodox Church , and the Coptic Church of Egypt . It has a membership of 32 to 36 million, the majority of whom live in Ethiopia, and is thus the largest of all Oriental Orthodox churches. Next in size are the various Protestant congregations, who include 13.7 million Ethiopians. The largest Protestant group
8413-638: The Divine Liturgy of Saints Addai and Mari and utilizes the East Syriac dialect as its liturgical language . It is one of the two main liturgical rites of Syriac Christianity , along with the West Syriac Rite (Syro-Antiochene Rite). The East Syriac Rite originated in Edessa , Mesopotamia , and was historically used in the Church of the East —the largest branch of Christianity operating primarily east of
8592-472: The Eritrean highlands as the Aksum could no longer maintain its sovereignty over the frontier. As a result the connection to the Red Sea ports was lost. Around this same time, the Aksumite population was forced to go farther inland to the highlands for protection, abandoning Aksum as the capital. Arab writers of the time continued to describe Ethiopia (no longer referred to as Aksum) as an extensive and powerful state, though they had lost control of most of
8771-445: The Kingdom of Axum , or the Aksumite Empire , was a kingdom in East Africa and South Arabia from classical antiquity to the Middle Ages , based in what is now northern Ethiopia and Eritrea , and spanning present-day Djibouti and Sudan . Emerging from the earlier Dʿmt civilization, the kingdom was founded in 1st century. The city of Axum served as the kingdom's capital for many centuries until it relocated to Kubar in
8950-452: The Ming Dynasty , the large Church of the East structure was all but destroyed- reducing it to a few small communities in Persia, their homeland in Mesopotamia, Cyprus, the Malabar Coast of India, and the Island of Socotra . These remaining communities were later whittled away at in other events. The Church of the East in Cyprus united themselves to Rome in 1445, there was a Schism in 1552 between Mar Shimun and Mar Elia which weakened
9129-540: The Nestorian Schism , the Church of Seleucia-Ctesiphon cut itself off from Western Christianity. In 498 the Catholicos assumed the title of " Patriarch of the East ", and up until the 1400s the Church of the East spread throughout Persia, Tartary, Mongolia, China, and India due to the efforts of Missionaries. However, at the end of the fourteenth century due to the conquests of Tamerlane and his destruction of Christian settlements across Asia, in addition to other factors such as anti-Christian and Buddhist oppression during
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#17328517198589308-423: The Roman Empire —, with pockets of adherents as far as South India , Central and Inner Asia , and a strong presence in the Sasanian (Persian) Empire . The Church of the East traces its origins to the 1st century, when Saint Thomas the Apostle and his disciples Saint Addai and Saint Mari brought the faith to ancient Mesopotamia (today’s modern Iraq , eastern Syria , southeastern Turkey , and regions along
9487-509: The Syriac or Aramaic language. For Aramaic, it especially refers to the form that is found in certain chapters of Daniel. That usage continued until the Latin missionaries at Mosul in the 17th century adopted it to distinguish the Catholics of the East Syriac Rite from those of the West Syriac Rite , which they call "Syrians". It is also used to distinguish from the Assyrian Church of the East , some of whom call themselves Assyrians or Surayi or even only "Christians", but they do not repudiate
9666-445: The Turkish–Syrian and Iran–Iraq borders). According to traditional accounts, Thomas the Apostle is believed to have traveled as far as the Malabar coast of southwestern India. This account is not yet confirmed, as the earliest-record for an organised Christian presence in India is from the 6th century account of Alexandrian traveller Cosmas Indicopleustes . The East Syriac rite remains in-use within churches descended from
9845-436: The UNESCO sponsored General History of Africa French archaeologist Francis Anfray, suggests that the Aksumites worshipped Astar , his son, Mahrem , and Beher . Steve Kaplan argues that with Aksumite culture came a major change in religion, with only Astar remaining of the old gods, the others being replaced by what he calls a "triad of indigenous divinities, Mahrem, Beher and Medr." He also suggests that Aksum culture
10024-452: The Vatican in 1994; the Common Christological Declaration (1994) document asserted that the split that occurred due to the Council of Ephesus in 431 AD was "due in large part to misunderstandings," affirmed for both that "Christ is true God and true man," recognized "each other as sister Churches" and vowed to resolve remaining differences. In 2001, the committee, established from the 1994 dialogue, drew-up guidelines for mutual admission to
10203-432: The patriarch of the Coptic church in Egypt , and Ethiopian monks had certain rights in the church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem . Ethiopia was the only region of Africa to survive the expansion of Islam as a Christian state. In 1441 some Ethiopian monks traveled from Jerusalem to attend the Council in Florence which discussed possible union between the Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches. The arrival of
10382-406: The "Antiphon of the Bema" (Communion) is sung. The Communion is in both species separately, the priest giving the Host and the deacon the Chalice. Then follows a variable antiphon of thanksgiving, a post-communion, and a dismissal. Afterwards the Mkaprana, an unconsecrated portion of the holy loaf, is distributed to the communicants, but not, as in the case of the Greek antidoron, and as the name of
10561-499: The 2nd century AD, Ptolemy 's geographer referred to Aksum as a powerful kingdom. Both archaeological findings and textual evidence suggest that during this period, a centralized regional polity had emerged in the Aksumite area, characterized by defined social stratification. By the beginning of the 4th century AD, the Aksumite state had become well-established, featuring urban centers, an official currency with coinage struck in gold, silver, and copper, an intensive agricultural system, and
10740-420: The 7th century at the reign of Ashama ibn-Abjar , when the first followers of the Islamic prophet Muhammad (also known as the Sahabah ) migrated from Arabia due to their persecution by the Quraysh , the ruling Arab tribal confederation of Mecca . The Quraysh appealed to the Ashama ibn-Abjar , arguing that the early Muslim migrants were rebels who had invented a new religion, the likes of which neither
10919-414: The 7th century's Muslim conquests in the Middle East and North Africa, which effectively isolated Axum from the Greco-Roman world, Geʿez replaced Greek entirely. Before its conversion to Christianity, the Aksumites practiced a polytheistic religion related to the religion practiced in southern Arabia. This included the use of the crescent-and-disc symbol used in southern Arabia and the northern horn. In
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#173285171985811098-413: The 9th century due to declining trade connections and recurring external invasions. The Kingdom of Aksum was considered one of the four great powers of the 3rd century by the Persian prophet Mani , alongside Persia , Rome , and China . Aksum continued to expand under the reign of Gedara ( c. 200–230 ), who was the first king to be involved in South Arabian affairs. His reign resulted in
11277-414: The African oil crop, Guizotia abyssinica , as well as gourds and cress. This diverse range of crops, combined with the herding of domesticated cattle, sheep, and goats, contributed to the creation of a highly productive indigenous agropastoral food-producing tradition. This tradition played an integral role in the development of the Aksumite economy and the consolidation of state power. The Empire of Aksum
11456-413: The Aksumites led by an anonymous king achieved significant territorial expansion in the Ethiopian Highlands and the Arabian Peninsula , with their influence extending as far as Lake Tana and the borders of Egypt. By the end of the 3rd century AD, Aksum had gained recognition by the prophet Mani in the Kephalaia , as one of the four great powers of the world alongside Rome, Persia, and China. As
11635-415: The Anaphora of Theodore. Then follows the Preface of the usual type ending with the Sanctus . The Post-Sanctus (to use the Hispanico-Gallican term) is an amplification—similar in idea and often in phraseology to those in all liturgies except the Roman —of the idea of the Sanctus into a recital of the work of Redemption, extending to some length and ending, in the Anaphorae of Nestorius and Theodore, with
11814-442: The Apostles, Summer, "Elias and the Cross", "Moses", and the "Dedication" (Qudash idta). "Moses" and the "Dedication" have only four weeks each. The Sundays are generally named after the Shawu'a in which they occur, "Fourth Sunday of Epiphany", "Second Sunday of the Annunciation ", etc., though sometimes the name changes in the middle of a Shawu'a. Most of the "Memorials" (dukhrani), or saints' days, which have special lections, occur on
11993-438: The Bible and other religious texts from Greek and Aramaic into Ethiopic so that their Ethiopian converts could actually read Scripture. These translations were vital to the spread of Christianity, no longer a religion for the small percentage of Ethiopians who could read Greek or Aramaic/Syriac, throughout Ethiopia. With the translation of Scripture into Ethiopic allowing for common people to learn about Christianity, many of
12172-403: The Chaldean Catholic Rite) which seem as if they were already consecrated. He sets aside a "memorial of the Virgin Mary, Mother of Christ" (Chaldean; usual Malabar Rite, "Mother of God"; but according to Raulin's Latin of the Malabar Rite, "Mother of God Himself and of the Lord Jesus Christ"), and of the patron of the Church (in the Malabar Rite, "of St.Thomas"). Then follows the proper "Antiphon of
12351-456: The Christian monks caused something of a sensation. It began two centuries of contact in which there were hopes to bring the Ethiopians into the Catholic fold (the doctrinal problem was that they inclined to miaphysitism (considered a heresy by the Catholics) associated with the Coptic church of Egypt). In 1554 Jesuits arrived in Ethiopia to be joined in 1603 by Pedro Páez , a Spanish missionary of such energy and zeal that he has been called
12530-417: The Church of Alexandria probably did retain some influence considering that the churches of Aksum followed the Church of Alexandria into Oriental Orthodoxy by rejecting the Fourth Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon . Aksum is also the alleged home of the holy relic the Ark of the Covenant. The Ark is said to have been placed in the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion by Menelik I for safekeeping. Islam came in
12709-424: The Church of the East are those of reader ( Qaruya ), subdeacon ( Hiupathiaqna ), deacon ( Mshamshana ), presbyter ( Qashisha ), archdeacon ( Arkidhyaquna ) and bishop ( Apisqupa ). The degree of archdeacon, though has an ordination service of its own, is only counted as a degree of the presbyterate, and is by some held to be the same as that of chorepiscopus (Kurapisqupa), which never involved episcopal ordination in
12888-520: The Church of the East had monasteries (which is no longer the case) seven hours of prayer were the custom in them, and three hulali of the Psalter were recited at each. This would mean a daily recitation of the whole Psalter. The present arrangement provides for seven hulali at each ferial night service, ten on Sundays, three on "Memorials", and the whole Psalter on feasts of Our Lord. At the evening service there
13067-601: The Church of the East is attributed to these two, but it is said to have been revised by the Patriarch Yeshuyab III in about 650. Some, however, consider this liturgy to be a development of the Antiochian. After the First Council of Ephesus (431) -- the third Ecumenical Council —the Church of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, which had hitherto been governed by a catholicos , refused to condemn Nestorius . Therefore, as part of
13246-521: The Church of the East, namely the Assyrian Church of the East of Iraq (including its archdiocese, the Chaldean Syrian Church of India) and the Ancient Church of the East , as well as in two Eastern Catholic churches, the Chaldean Catholic Church of Iraq and the Syro-Malabar Church of India, which are both now in full communion with the See of Rome . The words of Institution are missing in
13425-467: The Church of the East. When a priest is engaged in sacerdotal functions, he is called Kahna (i.e., lereus; sacerdos) and a bishop is similarly Rab kahni (Chief of the Priests, archiereus , pontifex ). Quashisha and Apisqupa only denote the degree. Kahnutha, priesthood, is used of the three degrees of deacon, priest, and bishop. The ordination formula is: "N. has been set apart, consecrated, and perfected to
13604-514: The Church return to the teachings of the Bible. Ewostatewos’s followers were called Ewostathians or Sabbatarians, due to their emphasis on observing the Sabbath on Saturday. The Ewostathians retreated into remote northeastern Ethiopia to escape religious persecution. Over time, however, the Sabbatarians engaged in missionary activities that successfully converted adjacent non-Christian communities and, within
13783-612: The Church, and the Christians of Socotra were Islamized in the 16th century. The Church in India was divided and cut off from their hierarchy due to the Portuguese support for Synod of Diamper in 1599. Due to these events, the diaspora of the Church of the East diminished. The Elia line eventually developed into the Chaldean Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East was turned into
13962-559: The Eritrean highlands. The concertation of these Aksumite ancient settlements suggests high population density in the highlands of Tigray and central Eritrea. According to Taddesse Tamrat , the integral regions of the Aksumite Kingdom included "much of the province of Tigre , the whole of the Eritrean plateau" and the regions of Wag , Lasta and Angot . A complex agricultural system in the Aksumite area, which involved irrigation, dam construction, terracing, and plough-farming, played
14141-407: The Ethiopian clergy, attracting even more people to join, which allowed the Church to grow beyond its origins as a royal cult to a widespread religion with a strong position in the country. By the beginning of the sixth century, there were Christian Churches throughout northern Ethiopia. King Kaleb , of the Aksumite Kingdom, led crusades against Christian persecutors in southern Arabia, where Judaism
14320-510: The Eucharist between the Chaldean Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East, overcoming all other issues. Versions of the East Syriac Rite are currently used by Churches descended from the erstwhile Church of the East : Eastern Catholic Churches , in full communion with Rome . The variety of terms used as designations for the rite reflects its complex history and consequent denominational diversity. The common term East Syriac Rite
14499-630: The Evangelist, who added to it some of the water which fell from the pierced side. At the Last Supper Jesus gave two loaves to St. John, bidding him keep one for the Holy Leaven. With this St. John mingled some of the Blood from the side of Christ. After Pentecost the Apostles mixed oil with the sacred water , and each took a horn of it, and the loaf they ground to pieces and mixed it with flour and salt to be
14678-605: The Ewostathian delegation, which argued their case with passion, refusing to repudiate the Sabbath, until the Ethiopian bishop ordered that the delegation be arrested. The goal of the arrests was to kill Ewostathianism by removing its leaders, but its localized nature allowed it to survive, and, as a result, the arrest of the Ewostathians only led to a rift in the Ethiopian Church, between the ruling class’s traditional Christianity and what
14857-621: The Fridays between Christmas and Lent, and are therefore movable feasts, such as Christmas, Ephiphany, the Assumption, and about thirty smaller days without proper lections are on fixed days. There are four shorter fasting periods besides the Great Fast (Lent); these are: The Fast of the Ninevites commemorates the repentance of Nineveh at the preaching of Jonas, and is carefully kept. Those of Mar Zaya and
15036-558: The Holy Horn and the blessing of the oil take the place of the Offertory. The Anaphora is paralleled by Sursum corda, Preface, and Sanctus, a Nithi Mar, or Epiklesis, upon the oil, a commixture of the new oil with that of the Holy Horn, and the Lord's Prayer. Then the font is blessed and signed with the holy oil, and in the place of the Communion comes the Baptism itself. The children are signed with
15215-528: The Holy Leaven. The Holy Horn is constantly renewed by the addition of oil blessed by a bishop on Maundy Thursday. The baptismal service is modeled on the Eucharistic. The Mass of the Catechumens is almost identical, with of course appropriate Collects, psalms, Litanies, and Lections. After the introductory Gloria, Lord's Prayer, Marmitha (in this case Psalm 88) and its Collect, follow the imposition of hands and
15394-835: The Interpreter . The first is the most popularly and extensively used. The second was traditionally used on the Epiphany and the feasts of St. John the Baptist and of the Greek Doctors , both of which occur in Epiphany-tide on the Wednesday of the Rogation of the Ninevites, and on Maundy Thursday. The third is used (except when the second is ordered) from Advent to Palm Sunday . The same pro-anaphoral part serves for all three. The Eucharistic Liturgy
15573-549: The Late Middle Ages. Carlo Conti Rossini believed that the word Aksum derives from a Semitic root, and means 'a green and dense garden' or 'full of grass'. Before the establishment of Axum, the Tigray plateau of northern Ethiopia was home to a kingdom known as Dʿmt . Archaeological evidence shows that the kingdom was influenced by Sabaeans from modern-day Yemen; scholarly consensus had previously been that Sabaeans had been
15752-776: The Law and (b) the Prophecy, from the Old Testament, (c) the Lection from the Acts, (d) the Epistle, always from St. Paul, (e) the Gospel. Some days have all five lections, some four, some only three. All have an Epistle and a Gospel, but, generally, when there is a Lection from Law there is none from the Acts, and vice versa. Sometimes there is none from either Law or Acts. The first three are called Qiryani (Lections),
15931-476: The Mai Hejja stelae field, where complex sedimentology of the land can be observed. The foundations for the monuments are around 8.5 m below the surface of the Mai Hejja stelae field. Sediments in this area have undergone a lot of weathering over the years, so the surface of this area has undergone a lot of changes. This is part of the reason for the complex stratigraphic history in this site, some previous layers under
16110-648: The Malabar Catholic books have inserted the Words of Institution with an Elevation, after the Epiklesis. But the 1901 Mosul edition puts the Words of Institution first. Here follow a Prayer for Peace, a second Lavabo and a censing. The Host is broken in two, and the sign of the Cross is made in the Chalice with one half, after which the other with the half that has been dipped in the chalice. The two halves are then reunited on
16289-765: The Malabar Rite the Karazutha, the Offertory, and the Expulsion of the Unbaptized come before the Lections and the Creed follows immediately on the Gospel, but in the Propaganda edition of 1774 the Offertory follows the Creed, which follows the Gospel. The first Lavabo, followed by a Kushapa ("beseeching", i.e., prayer said in kneeling) and a form of the "Orate fratres", with its response. Then
16468-643: The Meccans nor the Aksumites had heard of. The king granted them an audience, but ultimately refused to hand over the migrants. A second migration consisting of 100 Muslim migrants occurred a few years later. Arabic inscriptions on the Dahlak Archipelago dated to the mid 9th century AD. confirm the existence of an early Muslim presence in Aksum. The Empire of Aksum was one of the first African polities to issue its own coins , which bore legends in Geʽez and Greek. From
16647-799: The Mysteries" (Unitha d' razi), answering to the offertory. This is a variant of the Nicene Creed . It is possible that the order or words "and was incarnate by the Holy Ghost and was made man, and was conceived and born of the Virgin Mary ", may enshrine a Nestorian idea, but the Chaldean Catholics do not seem to have noticed it, their only alteration being the addition of the Filioque . The Malabar Book has an exact translation of Latin. In Neale's translation of
16826-656: The Paten. Then a cleft is made in the Host "qua parte intincta est in Sanguine" (Renaudot's tr.), and a particle is put in the chalice, after some intricate arranging on the paten. The veil is thrown open, the deacon exhorts the communicants to draw near, the priests breaks up the Host for distribution. Then follows the Lord's Prayer , with Introduction and Embolism, and the Sancta Sanctis, and then
17005-478: The Red Sea caused Aksum to suffer economically, and the population of the city of Axum shrank. Alongside environmental and internal factors, this has been suggested as the reason for its decline. Aksum's final three centuries are considered a dark age, and through uncertain circumstances, the kingdom collapsed around 960. Despite its position as one of the foremost empires of late antiquity, the Kingdom of Aksum fell into obscurity as Ethiopia remained isolated throughout
17184-451: The Red Sea coast of Eritrea, near the Gulf of Zula . Numerous Aksumite settlements were strategically positioned along an axis that traversed from Aksum to the Gulf of Zula , forming a route connecting the Aksumite capital in the highlands to the principal Aksumite port of Adulis on the Red Sea. Along this route, two of the largest Aksumite-era settlements, Matara and Qohaito , were situated in
17363-533: The Red Sea from Roman Egypt to the Arabian Sea and India. Although excavations have been limited, fourteen Roman coins dating to the 2nd and 3rd centuries have been discovered at Aksumite sites like Matara. This suggests that trade with the Roman Empire existed at least since this period. In 525 AD, the Aksumites attempted to take over the Yemen region to gain control over The Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb; one of
17542-578: The Sabatarians' observance of the Sabbath, and the Sabbatarians agreed to adopt the sacrament of Holy Orders , which they had previously considered to be illegitimate due to its dependence on the authority of the church in Alexandria. With the emergence of Islam in the 7th century, Ethiopia's Christians became isolated from the rest of the Christian world. The head of the Ethiopian church has been appointed by
17721-656: The Virgins are nearly obsolete. As compared with the Latin and Greek Calendars, that of the Chaldeans, whether Catholic or Assyrian, is very meagre. The Malabar Rite has largely adopted the Roman Calendar, and several Roman days have been added to that of the Chaldean Catholics. The Chaldean Easter coincides with that of the Roman Catholic Church. The other Sacraments in use in the Church of the East are Baptism , with which
17900-419: The aid of irrigation). Askum was also located on a plateau 2,000 m (6,600 ft) feet above sea level, making its soil fertile and the land good for agriculture. This appears to explain how one of the marginal agricultural environments of Ethiopia was able to support the demographic base that made this far flung commercial empire possible. It may also explain why no Aksumite rural settlement expansion into
18079-409: The bishops that if Alexandria agreed to accept the Ewostathian view of the Sabbath, then the Ewostathians would agree to recognize Alexandrian authority. Next, Yakob traveled to Aksum for his coronation, remaining there until 1439 and reconciling with the Sabbatarians, who agreed to pay feudal dues to the emperor. In 1450, the conflict officially came to an end, as Mikail and Gabriel agreed to recognize
18258-516: The capital of Kush. During the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD the Kingdom of Aksum continued to expand their control of the southern Red Sea basin. A caravan route to Egypt was established which bypassed the Nile corridor entirely. Aksum succeeded in becoming the principal supplier of African goods to the Roman Empire, not least as a result of the transformed Indian Ocean trading system. Climate change and trade isolation have also been claimed as large reasons for
18437-589: The caravan routes and the royal court through monastic communities and missionary settlements from which Christianity was taught. The efforts of these Eastern Rite Syriac missionaries from Assyria (Mesopotamia and south east Anatolia), Asia Minor and Aramea (Syria) facilitated the Church’s expansion deep into the interior and caused friction with the traditions of the local people. The Syriac Christian missions also served as permanent centers of Christian learning in which Syriac speaking monks finally began to translate
18616-405: The coast and their tributaries. While land was lost in the north, it was gained in the south; and, though Ethiopia was no longer an economic power, it still attracted Arab merchants. The capital was then moved south to a new location called Kubar . The Arab writer Ya'qubi was the first to describe the new Aksumite capital. The capital was probably located in southern Tigray or Angot ; however,
18795-569: The coastal plain and highland of Yemen, along with "all their Arabs", highlighting the extensive influence of Aksum across the Red Sea into Arabia. Dhu Nuwas was deposed and killed and Kaleb appointed an Arab viceroy named Esimiphaios ("Sumuafa Ashawa"), but his rule was short-lived as he was ousted in a coup led by an Aksumite named Abraha after five years. Kaleb sent two expeditions against Abraha, but both were decisively defeated. According to Procopius , following Aksum's unsuccessful attempts to remove him, Abraha continued to govern Yemen through
18974-435: The coin after the conversion of the empire to Christianity. The presence of coins also simplified trade, and was at once a useful instrument of propaganda and a source of profit to the empire. In general, elite Aksumite buildings such as palaces were constructed atop podia built of loose stones held together with mud-mortar, with carefully cut granite corner blocks which rebated back a few centimeters at regular intervals as
19153-413: The conquered people, but, through hard work, faith, and promises that local elites could keep their positions through conversion, the new territories were converted to Christianity. One of the more fervent monks appointed by Abuna Yakob was Abba Ewostatewos (c. 1273–1352). Ewostatewos designed a monastic ideology stressing the necessity for isolation from state influences. He insisted that the people and
19332-419: The consequence of so many different peoples being part of the same church was that there were often many different messages spread throughout the empire, as the clergy was split between followers of Alexandria and Ewostathians, who refused to follow the hierarchy of Alexandria. Emperor Yakob called for a compromise in 1436, meeting with two bishops, Mikail and Gabriel, sent by the sea of St. Mark. Yakob convinced
19511-507: The control of much of western Yemen , such as the Tihama , Najran , Al-Maʿafir , Ẓafar (until c. 230 ), and parts of Hashid territory around Hamir in the northern highlands until a joint Himyarite-Sabean alliance pushed them out. Aksum-Himyar conflicts persisted throughout the 3rd century. During the reign of Endubis (270–310), Aksum began minting coins that have been excavated as far away as Caesarea and southern India. As
19690-444: The decline of the culture. The local subsistence base was substantially augmented by a climatic shift during the 1st century AD that reinforced the spring rains, extended the rainy season from 3 1/2 to six or seven months, vastly improved the surface and subsurface water supply, doubled the length of the growing season, and created an environment comparable to that of modern central Ethiopia (where two crops can be grown per annum without
19869-460: The definition or numeration. The only other rite of any interest is the consecration of churches. Oil, but not chrism, plays a considerable part in these rites, being used in Baptism, possibly in Confirmation, in the reconciliation of apostates, etc., in the consecration of churches, and the making of bread for the Eucharist. It is not used in ordination or for the sick. There are two sorts of oil;
20048-482: The early 6th century, Cosmas Indicopleustes described his visit to Aksum, mentioning the four-towered palace of the Aksumite king, adorned with bronze statues of unicorns. Aksum also featured rows of monumental granite thrones, likely bearing metal statues dedicated to pre-Christian deities. These thrones incorporated large panels at the sides and back with inscriptions, attributed to Ousanas , Ezana , Kaleb , and his son Wazeba , serving as victory monuments documenting
20227-554: The early 8th century. The Islamic conquests were not solely responsible for the decline of Aksum. Another reason for the decline was the expansions of the Beja nomads. Due to the poverty of their country, many of them began to migrate into the northern Ethiopian plateau. At the end of the 7th century AD, a strong Beja tribe known as the Zanafaj entered the Eritrean plateau through the valley of Gash-Barka . They overran and pillaged much of
20406-487: The early period of the kingdom of Aksum, and here Stuart Munro-Hay concludes that; "Quite probably, the kingdom was a confederacy, one which was led by a district-level king who commanded the allegiance of other petty kings within the Axumite realm. The ruler of the Axumite kingdom was thus 'King-of-Kings' — a title often found in inscriptions of this period. There is no evidence that a single royal lineage has yet emerged, and it
20585-436: The exact location of this city is currently unknown. Famine is noted in Ethiopia in the ninth century. The Coptic patriarchs James (819–830) and Joseph (830–849) of Alexandria attribute Ethiopia's condition to war, plague, and inadequate rains. Under the reign of Degna Djan , during the 9th century, the empire kept expanding south, undertaking missionary activities south of Angot . Local history holds that, around 960,
20764-680: The exchange of Ethiopian products for foreign imports. Both Pliny the Elder and the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea make reference to this port, situated three days away from the initial ivory market at Coloe , itself five days distant from Aksum. This trade across the Red Sea, spanning from the Roman Empire in the north to India and Ceylon in the east, played a crucial role in Aksum's prosperity. The city thrived by exporting goods such as ivory, tortoiseshell, and rhinoceros horn. Pliny also mentioned additional items like hippopotamus hide, monkeys, and slaves. During
20943-485: The exterior and sometimes the interior. Both the podia and the walls above exhibited no long straight stretches but were indented at regular intervals so that any long walls consisted of a series of recesses and salients. This helped to strengthen the walls. Worked granite was used for architectural features including columns, bases, capitals, doors, windows, paving, water spouts (often shaped like lion heads) and so on, as well as enormous flights of stairs that often flanked
21122-553: The formation of the Zagwe dynasty by bearing children with a descendant of the last Aksumite emperor, Dil Na'od. After a short Dark Age, the Aksumite Empire was succeeded by the Zagwe dynasty in the 11th or 12th century (most likely around 1137), although limited in size and scope. However, Yekuno Amlak , who killed the last Zagwe king and founded the modern Solomonic dynasty around 1270 traced his ancestry and his right to rule from
21301-644: The formula of consecration , it was held too sacred to be written down. It does not seem to be quite certain whether Church of the East priests did or did not insert the Words of Institution in old times, but it seems that many of them do not do so now. The Prayer of the Great Oblation with a second memorial of the Living and the Dead, a Kushapa. The G'hantha of the Epiklesis , or Invocation of Holy Spirit. The Epiklesis itself
21480-450: The founders of Semitic civilization in Ethiopia, though this has now been refuted, and their influence is considered to have been minor. The Sabaean presence likely lasted only for a matter of decades, but their influence on later Aksumite civilization included the adoption of Ancient South Arabian script , which developed into Geʽez script , and Ancient Semitic religion . The initial centuries of Aksum's development, transitioning from
21659-680: The gods Astar, Beher, Meder/Medr, and Mahrem. Another of Ezana's inscriptions is clearly Christian and refers to "the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit". Around 324 AD the King Ezana II was converted to Christianity by his teacher Frumentius , who established the Axumite Coptic Church, which later became the modern Ethiopian Orthodox Church . Frumentius taught the emperor while he was young, and it
21838-520: The ground, but are stabilized by massive underground counter-weights. The stone was often engraved with a pattern or emblem denoting the king's or the noble's rank. For important monuments built in the region, a particular type of granite is used called nepheline syenite . It is fine grained and has also been used in historic monuments like the Stelae. These monuments are used to celebrate key figures in Axum history, especially kings or priests. These Stelae's are also called "Obelisk's," they are located in
22017-474: The heart of Aksum corroborates continuous activity in the area from the outset of the common era. Two hills and two streams lie on the east and west expanses of the city of Aksum; perhaps providing the initial impetus for settling this area. Archeological evidence suggests that the Aksumite polity arose between 150 BC and 150 AD. Small scale district "kingdoms" denoted by very large nucleated communities with one or more elite residences appears to have existed in
22196-404: The inscription, the Noba were settled somewhere around the Nile and Atbara confluence, where they seemed to have taken over much of the Kingdom of Kush . Yet they did not drive the Kushites away from their heartland, since the inscription states that the Aksumites fought them at the junction of the two rivers. Also mentioned in the inscription are the mysterious "red Noba" against whom an expedition
22375-529: The kingdom became a major power on the trade route between Rome and India and gained a monopoly of Indian Ocean trade , it entered the Greco-Roman cultural sphere . Due to its ties with the Greco-Roman world, Aksum adopted Christianity as the state religion in the mid-4th century, under Ezana (320s – c. 360 ). Following their Christianization, the Aksumites ceased construction of stelae . The kingdom continued to expand throughout late antiquity , conquering Kush under Ezana in 330 for
22554-412: The language of Agʿazi , was spoken alongside Greek in the court of Aksum. Although during the early kingdom, Geʿez was a spoken language, it has attestations written in the Old South Arabian language Sabaic . In the 4th century, Ezana of Axum promoted the Geʽez script and made Geʽez an official state language alongside Greek; by the 6th century literary translations into Geʿez were common. After
22733-399: The last emperor of Aksum, Dil Na'od . It should be mentioned that the end of the Aksumite Empire didn't mean the end of Aksumite culture and traditions; for example, the architecture of the Zagwe dynasty at Lalibela and Yemrehana Krestos Church shows heavy Aksumite influence. The Aksumite population mainly consisted of Semitic -speaking groups, one of these groups were the Agʿazian or
22912-436: The latter implies, to non-communicants. The Chaldean Catholics are communicated with the Host dipped in the Chalice. They reserve what is left of the Holy Gifts, while the Church of the East priests consume all before leaving the church. Properly, and according to their own canons, the Church of the East ought to say Mass on every Sunday and Friday, on every festival, and daily during the first, middle, and last week of Lent and
23091-407: The liturgy of the Church in Edessa. The tradition, resting on the legend of Abgar and of his correspondence with Christ, which has been shown to be apocryphal — is to the effect that St. Thomas the Apostle , on his way to India, established Christianity in Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Persia, and left Thaddeus of Edessa (or Addai), "one of the Seventy", and Saint Mari in charge there. The liturgy of
23270-546: The local people joined the Syriac Christian missions and monasteries, received religious training through monastic rule based around communalism, hard work, discipline, obedience, and asceticism , and caused the growth of the Church’s influence, especially among young people who were attracted to the mystical aspects of the religion. Newly trained Ethiopian ministers opened their own schools in their parishes and offered to educate members of their congregations. Ethiopian kings encouraged this development because it gave more prestige to
23449-407: The moister, more fertile, and naturally productive lands of Begemder or Lasta can be verified during the heyday of Aksumite power. East Syriac Rite The East Syriac Rite , or East Syrian Rite (also called the Edessan Rite , Assyrian Rite , Persian Rite , Chaldean Rite , Nestorian Rite , Babylonian Rite or Syro-Oriental Rite ), is an Eastern Christian liturgical rite that employs
23628-432: The most significant trading routes in the medieval world, connecting the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean. Rulers were inclined to establish a spot of imperialism across the Red Sea in Yemen to completely control the trading vessels that ran down the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. It is located in the maritime choke point between Yemen and Djibouti and Eritrea. Because of the ruler of Yemen's persecution of Christians in 523 AD, Kaleb I,
23807-465: The name, etc." It is not quite clear whether oil should be used with this signing or not. Then any oil that remains over is poured into the Holy Horn, held over the font, and the water in the font is loosed from its former consecration with rather curious ceremonies. The Chaldean Catholics have added the renunciations, profession of faith, and answers of the sponsors from the Roman Ritual, and anoint with chrism. The marriage service ( Burakha , 'Blessing")
23986-402: The names of the authors and call the Anaphorae of Nestorius and Theodore the "Second Hallowing" and "Third Hallowing". Otherwise there are no alterations except the addition of Words of Institution to the first Anaphorae. The recent Catholic edition has made the same alterations and substituted "Mother of God" for "Mother of Christ". In each edition the added Words of Institution follow the form of
24165-404: The octave of Easter. In practice it is only said on Sundays and greater festivals, at the best, and in many churches not so often, a sort of "dry Mass" being used instead. The Chaldean Catholic priests say Mass daily, and where there are many priests there will be many Masses in the same Church in one day, which is contrary to the Church of the East canons. The Anglican editions of the liturgies omit
24344-404: The official and literary language of the Axumite state, coming from the influence of the significant Ethiopian Greek communities established in Axum , the port of Adulis , Ptolemais Theron , and other cities in the region during Ptolemaic times. Greek was used in the state's administration, international diplomacy, and trade; it can be widely seen in coinage and inscriptions. Geʿez ,
24523-412: The oil on the breast and then anointed all over, and are dipped thrice in the font. The formula is: "N., be thou baptized in the name of the Father, in the name of the Son, in the name of the Holy Ghost. Amen." Then follows the post-baptismal thanksgiving. Confirmation follows immediately. There are two prayers of Confirmation and a signing between the eyes with the formula: "N., is baptized and perfected in
24702-422: The one is ordinary olive oil, blessed or not blessed for the occasion, the other is the oil of the Holy Horn. The last, which, though really only plain oil, represents the chrism (or myron) of other rites, is believed to have been handed down from the Apostles with the Holy Leaven. The legend is that the Baptist caught the water which fell from the body of Christ at His baptism and preserved it. He gave it to St. John
24881-402: The original version of the Liturgy of Saints Addai and Mari. However, the Eastern Catholic churches have added-in the words of Institution in their version of the liturgy. Although Nestorius was condemned in 431 AD through the Council of Ephesus (resulting in a schism with the Catholic Church), the Assyrian Church Patriarch Mar Dinkha IV and Pope John Paul II signed a common declaration at
25060-485: The pillage against Aksum and its countryside. She was determined to destroy all members of the Aksumite dynasty, palaces, churches and monuments in Tigray . Her notorious deeds are still recounted by peasants inhabiting northern Ethiopia. Large ruins, standing stones and stelae are found in the area. Gudit also killed the last emperor of Aksum, possibly Dil Na'od , while other accounts say Dil Na'od went into exile in Shewa , protected by Christians. He begged assistance from
25239-411: The political influence of Aksum expanded, so did the grandeur of its monuments. Excavations by archaeological expeditions revealed early use of stelae, evolving from plain and rough markers to some of the largest monuments in Africa. The granite stelae in the main cemetery, housing Aksumite royal tombs, transformed from plain to carefully dressed granite, eventually carved to resemble multi-storey towers in
25418-411: The present day Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (only granted autonomy from the Coptic Church in 1959) and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahdo Church (granted autonomy from the Ethiopian Orthodox church in 1993). Since the schism with Orthodoxy following the Council of Chalcedon (451), it has been an important Miaphysite church, and its scriptures and liturgy continue to be in Geʽez. Greek became
25597-531: The psalms, are those of the feast or day, which are very few, and those of the day of the fortnight. These fortnights consist of weeks called "Before" (Qdham) and "After" (Wathar), according to which of the two choirs begins the service. Hence the book of the Divine Office is called Qdham u wathar, or at full length Kthawa daqdham wadhwathar, the "Book of Before and After". The year is divided into periods of about seven weeks each, called Shawu'i; these are Advent (called Subara, "Annunciation"), Ephiphany, Lent, Easter,
25776-415: The psalms. The rest of the services consist of prayers, antiphons, litanies, and verses (giyura) inserted, like the Greek stichera, but more extensively, between verses of psalms. On Sundays the Gloria in Excelsis and Benedicte are said instead of Ps. cxlvi. Both morning and evening services end with several prayers, a blessing, (Khuthama, "Sealing" ), the kiss of peace, and the Creed. The variables, besides
25955-422: The realm of Zoskales . The area is described as a primarily producing ivory, as well as tortoise shells. King Zoskales had a Greek education, indicating that Greco-Roman influence was already present at this time. It is evident from the Periplus that, even at this early stage of its history, Axum played a role in the transcontinental trade route between Rome and India . The Aksumite control over Adulis enabled
26134-450: The recital of the Institution. In the Anaphora of the Apostles the recital of the Institution is wanting, though it has been supplied in the Anglican edition of the Church of the East book. Hammond (Liturgies Eastern and Western, p. lix) and most other writers hold that the Words of Institution belong to this Liturgy and should be supplied somewhere; Hammond (loc.cit) suggests many arguments for their former presence. The reason of their absence
26313-400: The reign of Endubis up to Armah (approximately 270 to 610), gold, silver and bronze coins were minted. Issuing coinage in ancient times was an act of great importance in itself, for it proclaimed that the Aksumite Empire considered itself equal to its neighbours. Many of the coins are used as signposts about what was happening when they were minted. An example being the addition of the cross to
26492-415: The rite of the edition. The prayers of the Mass, like those of the Orthodox Eastern Church, are generally long and diffuse. Frequently they end with a sort of doxology called Qanuna which is said aloud, the rest being recited in a low tone. The Qanuna in form and usage resembles the Greek ekphonesis. The vestments used by the priest at Mass are the Sudhra , a girded alb with three crosses in red or black on
26671-399: The ruler of Aksum (a Christian region) at the time, responded to the persecutions by attacking the Himyarite king Yūsuf As'ar Yath'ar, known as Dhu Nuwas, a Jewish convert who was persecuting the Christian community of Najran,Yemen in 525 AD, with the help of the Byzantine empire, with whom had ties with his kingdom. Victoriously, the Aksum empire was able to claim the Yemen region, establishing
26850-415: The same interior region of Africa was that of the Kingdom of Kush , which had long supplied Egypt with African goods via the Nile corridor. By the 1st century AD, however, Aksum had gained control over territory previously Kushite. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea explicitly describes how ivory collected in Kushite territory was being exported through the port of Adulis instead of being taken to Meroë ,
27029-481: The schools were recruited, ordained, and sent to work in parishes in new Christian areas. There is little evidence about the activities of the daily life of the early Aksumite Church, but it is clear that the essential doctrinal and liturgical traditions were established in the first four centuries of its creation. The strength of these traditions was the main driving force behind the Church’s survival despite its distance from its patriarch in Alexandria. The Kebra Nagast
27208-414: The secession of a large number to the Russian Church due to the Russian Ecclesiastical Mission in Urmia , a Kurdish massacre in 1843, and an attempt to form an Independent Catholic Chaldean Church on the model of the Old Catholics all resulted in more Eastern rite Assyrians separating. There are three Anaphorae ; those of the Holy Apostles (Saints Addai and Mari ), Mar Nestorius , and Mar Theodore
27387-611: The second apostle of Ethiopia (Frumentius being the first). The Jesuits were expelled in 1633 which was then followed by two centuries of more isolation until the second half of the 19th century. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church dates back to the introduction of Christianity to the country in 330, and in 2022 it has between 36 million and 49.8 million adherents in Ethiopia. Kingdom of Aksum The Kingdom of Aksum ( Ge'ez : አክሱም , romanized: ʾÄksum ; Sabaean : 𐩱𐩫𐩪𐩣 , ʾkšm ; Ancient Greek : Ἀξωμίτης , romanized : Axōmítēs ) also known as
27566-530: The shoulder, the Urara (orarion) or stole worn crossed by priests, but not by bishops (as in the West), and the Ma'apra , a sort of linen cope. The deacon wears the sudhra, with a urara over the left shoulder. The nucleus of this is, as it is usual, the recitation of the Psalter . There are only three regular hours of service (Evening, Midnight, and Morning) with a rarely used compline. In practice only Morning and Evening are commonly used, but these are extremely well attended daily by laity as well as clergy. When
27745-429: The signing with oil, after which follow an Antiphon of the Sanctuary and Ps. xliv, cix, cxxxi, with giyuri, Litanies, and Collects, then the lakhumara, Trisagion, and Lections (Epistle and Gospel ), and the Karazutha, after which the priest says the prayer of the imposition of hands, and the unbaptized are dismissed. An antiphon answering to that "of the mysteries" follows, and then the Creed is said. The bringing forward of
27924-406: The southern frontier of the Aksumite kingdom. Aksum also had a sizeable Ethiopian Greek population, which resided in the cities of Ptolemais Theron and Adulis . Nilotic groups also inhabited Aksum, as inscriptions from the time of Ezana note the "Barya", an animist tribe who lived in the western part of the empire, believed to be the Naras . Aksumite settlements were distributed across
28103-437: The speakers of Geʽez , the commenter of the Adulis inscription identifies them as the main inhabitants of Aksum and its surroundings. The Cushitic -speaking Agaw people were also known to have lived within the kingdom, as Cosmas Indicopleustes notes that a "governor of Agau", was entrusted by King Kaleb of Axum with the protection of the vital long-distance caravan routes from the south, suggesting that they lived within
28282-566: The surface of the site. Covering parts of what is now northern Ethiopia and southern and eastern Eritrea , Aksum was deeply involved in the trade network between the Indian subcontinent and the Mediterranean ( Rome , later Byzantium ), exporting ivory , tortoise shell, gold and emeralds , and importing silk and spices. Aksum's access to both the Red Sea and the Upper Nile enabled its strong navy to profit in trade between various African ( Nubia ), Arabian ( Yemen ), and Indian states. The main exports of Aksum were, as would be expected of
28461-413: The theological name " Nestorian ". Modern members of the Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East distinguish themselves from the rest of Christendom as the " Church of the East " or "Easterns" as opposed to "Westerns" by which they denote Greek Orthodox , Syriac Orthodox or Latin Catholics . In recent times they have been called, chiefly by the Anglicans, the "Assyrian Church",
28640-447: The third Shlikha (Apostle). Before the Epistle and Gospel, hymns called Turgama (interpretation) are, or should be, said; that before the Epistle is invariable, that of the Gospel varies with the day. They answer to the Greek prokeimena. The Turgama of the Epistle is preceded by proper psalm verses called Shuraya (beginning), and that of the Gospel by other proper psalm verses called Zumara (song). The latter includes Alleluia between
28819-400: The time that Amda Siyon (r. 1314-1344) took the throne in 1314, Sabradin of Ifat led a united Muslim front made up of people angered by Christian rule, destroying churches in Ethiopia and forcing Christians to convert to Islam. Siyon responded with a savage attack that resulted in the defeat of Yifat. Furthermore, Siyon's victory caused the frontier of Christian power in Africa to expand past
28998-462: The time, there was a small population of West Asian Christians living in Aksum who sought refuge from Roman persecution. Once of age, Frumentius and Edesius were allowed to return to their homelands, however they chose to stay at the request of the queen. In doing so, they began to secretly promote Christianity through the lands. During a trip to meet with church elders, Frumentius met with Athanasius , Pope of Alexandria . After recommending that
29177-450: The title "nagasi of Aksum and Habashat," and a metal object discovered in eastern Tigray also mentions a certain "GDR negus of Aksum." Later in the century the mlky hhst dtwns wzqrns (kings of Habashat DTWNS and ZQRNS ) are also mentioned fighting in Arabia. According to a Greek inscription in Eritrea known as the Monumentum Adulitanum recorded by Cosmas Indicopleustes , in around the mid to late 3rd century (possibly c. 240–c. 260),
29356-404: The variations of the three Anaphora begin. The Kiss of Peace, preceded by a G'hantha, i.e., a prayer said with bowed head. The prayer of Memorial (Dukhrana) of the Living and the Dead, and the Diptychs; the latter is now obsolete in the Church of the East. As in all liturgies this begins with a form of a Sursum corda , but the East Syriac form is more elaborate than any other, especially in
29535-406: The verses. The Deacon's Litany, or Eklene, called Karazutha (proclamation), resembles the "Great Synapte" of the Greeks. During it the proper "Antiphon [Unitha] of the Gospel" is sung by the people. The deacons proclaim the expulsion of the unbaptized, and set the "hearers" to watch the doors. The priest places the bread and wine on the altar, with words (in the Church of the East, but not in
29714-413: The wall got higher, so the walls narrowed as they rose higher. These podia are often all that survive of Aksumite ruins. Above the podia, walls were generally built with alternating layers of loose stone (often whitewashed, like at Yemrehana Krestos Church ) and horizontal wooden beams, with smaller round wooden beams set in the stonework often projecting out of the walls (these are called 'monkey heads') on
29893-567: The walls of palace pavilions on several sides. Doors and windows were usually framed by stone or wooden cross-members, linked at the corners by square 'monkey heads', though simple lintels were also used. Many of these Aksumite features are seen carved into the famous stelae as well as in the later rock hewn churches of Tigray and Lalibela . Palaces usually consisted of a central pavilion surrounded by subsidiary structures pierced by doors and gates that provided some privacy (see Dungur for an example). The largest of these structures now known
30072-407: The wars of these kings. King Ezana became the first Christian ruler of Aksum in the 4th century. Ezana's coins and inscriptions make the change from pre-Christian imagery to Christian symbolism around 340 AD. The conversion to Christianity was one of the most revolutionary events in the history of Ethiopia as it gave Aksum a cultural link with the Mediterranean . Aksum gained a political link with
30251-412: The work of the diaconate [or of the presbyterate] to the Levitical and stephanite Office [or for the office of the Aaronic priesthood], in the Name, etc., In the case of a bishop it is : "to the great work of the episcopate of the city of ..." A similar formula is used for archdeacons and metropolitans. The Consecration of churches (Siamidha or Qudash Madhbkha) consists largely of unctions. The altar
30430-402: The world's oldest surviving illuminated Christian manuscripts. Frumentius , a Phoenician Christian , was a slave to the Ethiopian king and there is evidence Judaism was in the land before his arrival (mythically due to King Solomon of Israel ). After being shipwrecked and captured at an early age, Frumentius was carried to Aksum, where he was treated well with his companion Edesius . At
30609-460: Was also rich with gold and iron deposits. These metals were valuable to trade, but another mineral was also widely traded: salt . Salt was abundant in Aksum and was traded quite frequently. It benefited from a major transformation of the maritime trading system that linked the Roman Empire and India . This change took place around the start of the 1st century. The older trading system involved coastal sailing and many intermediary ports. The Red Sea
30788-405: Was at its largest territorial extent, being around 2,500,000 km (970,000 sq mi). However, the territory was lost in the Aksumite–Persian wars . Aksum held on to Southern Arabia from 520 until 525 when Sumyafa Ashwa was deposed by Abraha . The kingdom's slow decline had begun by the 7th century, at which point currency ceased to be minted. The Persian (and later Muslim) presence in
30967-405: Was becoming a large movement of Ewostathian Christians. Ewostathianism enjoyed impressive growth in the first half of the 15th century. This growth was noticed by Dawit's successor, Emperor Zara Yakob (r. 1434-1468) who realized that the energy of the Sabbatarians could be useful in reinvigorating the church and promoting national unity. The Church, when Yakob took the throne, was widespread, but
31146-512: Was carried out. This people seems to be settled further north and may be identical with the "other Nobades" mentioned in the inscription of the Nubian king Silko carved on the wall of the Temple of Kalabsha . King Kaleb sent an expedition against the Jewish Himyarite King Dhu Nuwas , who was persecuting the Christian community in Yemen. Kaleb gained widespread acclaim in his era as the conqueror of Yemen. He expanded his royal title to include king of Hadramawt in southeastern Yemen, as well as
31325-410: Was experiencing a resurgence that led to the persecution of Christians. King Kaleb’s reign is also significant for the spread of Christianity among the Agaw tribes of central Ethiopia. In the late 16th century Christianity spread among petty kingdoms in Ethiopia's west, like Ennarea , Kaffa or Garo . Christianity has also spread among Muslims . A 2015 study estimated some 400,000 Christians from
31504-489: Was of secondary importance to the Persian Gulf and overland connections to the Levant . Starting around 1st century, a route from Egypt to India was established, making use of the Red Sea and using monsoon winds to cross the Arabian Sea directly to southern India . By about 100 AD, the volume of traffic being shipped on this route had eclipsed older routes. Roman demand for goods from southern India increased dramatically, resulting in greater number of large ships sailing down
31683-413: Was part of the Coptic Orthodox Church until 1959 when it was granted its own patriarch by the Coptic Orthodox Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of All Africa Cyril VI . Religion in Ethiopia (2020) Religion in Ethiopia with breakdown of Christian denominations (2007) The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church is one of the largest original and oldest Christian churches in Africa; only surpassed in age by
31862-439: Was significantly influenced by Judaism, saying that "The first carriers of Judaism reached Ethiopia between the reign of Queen of Sheba BC and conversion to Christianity of King Ezana in the fourth century AD." He believes that although Ethiopian tradition suggests that these were present in large numbers, that "A relatively small number of texts and individuals dwelling in the cultural, economic, and political center could have had
32041-426: Was told and sent Menilek I , their son, to Jerusalem to be taught by Solomon, who offered to make him the prince of Jerusalem. However, Menilek declined and instead returned to Ethiopia, anointed by his father and God to be the king of Ethiopia. The Kebre Negast exemplifies the importance of Judaism, and subsequently, of Christianity to the Ethiopian people, serving as a source of Ethiopian national pride and providing
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