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110-401: The one responsible for this Spanish creole was Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera , then governor of Panama, who was also responsible for settling Zamboanga City by employing Peruvian soldiers and colonists. There was an Asian-American route, which led to traders and adventurers carrying silver from Peru through Panama to reach Acapulco , Mexico before sailing to Manila , Philippines using

220-498: A "parallel-development" theory proposed by Frake in 1971. According to the monogenetic theory or one-way theory advanced by Whinnom, all varieties of Chavacano result from a single source, and all such varieties are related to each other. The parallel development theory or two-way theory as advocated by Frake in 1971, the variants found in Luzon and Mindanao had evolved autonomously from each other. On 23 June 1635, Zamboanga City , which

330-670: A Spanish-based creole. In 2000, The Instituto Cervantes in Manila hosted a conference entitled "Shedding Light on the Chavacano Language" at the Ateneo de Manila University . Starting school year 2012–13, the Zamboangueño variant has also been taught at schools following the implementation of the Department of Education's policy of Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE). It serves as

440-450: A battle that started at Malabang (a town close to Gandamatu Macadar, Lanao ) and ended close to the town of Ganassi, Lanao . Davao City was among the earliest to be occupied by the invading Japanese forces. They immediately fortified the city as a bastion of the Japanese defense system. Davao City was subjected by the returning forces of Gen. Douglas MacArthur to constant bombing before

550-650: A cycle of violence are still felt today due to the creation of the Ilaga. The Jabidah massacre in 1968 is commonly cited as the major flashpoint that ignited the Moro insurgency, and the ensuing ethnic tensions led to the formation of secessionist movements, such as the Muslim Independence Movement and the Bangsamoro Liberation Organization . These movements were largely political in nature, but

660-403: A female slave named María, with whom he was having illicit relations. The archbishop, upon learning this, ordered Nava to sell the slave. When he refused, she was taken from him and sold. The artilleryman soon tried to get the slave back, declaring he wanted to marry her. One day he saw the woman passing in a carriage with her new mistress, who happened to be the governor-general's wife. Going up to

770-597: A growing call center sector in the region, mostly centered in Davao City . Some 2,130 government-led infrastructure projects worth P547.9 billion have also been lined up for Mindanao until 2022. NEDA official said that 68% of that budget will be allotted for the transportation sector, while 16% will go to water resources, and 6% to social infrastructure. Of this amount, 18 infrastructure projects have been identified as "flagship projects," five of them have already been approved by President Rodrigo Duterte. The projects include

880-517: A hero and his return to Manila was attended with pomp and jubilation. Qudarat took refuge at Lake Lanao, where he delivered a famous speech against the Spanish, exhorting his listeners to renounce submission and take up arms against the invaders. The speech was successful, and the Lake Moros soon recaptured the fort the Spanish had left behind. By 1637 Qudarat had extended his political influence over almost

990-406: A medium of instruction from kindergarten to grade 3 and as a separate subject (Mother Tongue) from grades 1 to 3. Because of the grammatical structures, Castilian usage, and archaic Spanish words and phrases that Chavacano (especially Zamboangueño) uses, between speakers of both contemporary Spanish and Chavacano who are uninitiated, both languages appear to be non-intelligible to a large extent. For

1100-542: A nation active in the Crusades. He replaced Juan Cerezo de Salamanca , who had been serving in an interim capacity since 1633. Cerezo had taken over from the Audiencia, which had governed for 12 months following the death in Manila of Governor Alonso Fajardo y Tenza . The same day that Hurtado arrived in Manila, the cabildo (city council) of that city confirmed Hernando Guerrero as Archbishop of Manila . Guerrero had been in

1210-609: A nuestros héroes; que estamos preparados también a sacrificarnos por el pueblo. ¿Cómo lo haremos? ¿Hay que escribir también novelas como José Rizal? English : We can say what great sacrifices our heroes have done to achieve our independence. We should therefore not forget them. How do we do that? We should do things to let it be known that we appreciate the heroes; that we are prepared to make sacrifices for our people. How? Should we write novels like José Rizal? Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera Sebastián Hurtado de Corcuera y Gaviria (baptized March 25, 1587 – August 12, 1660)

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1320-465: A number of theories on how these different varieties of Chavacano have evolved and how they are related to one another. According to some linguists, Zamboangueño Chavacano is believed to have been influenced by Caviteño Chabacano as evidenced by prominent Zamboangueño families who descended from Spanish Army officers (from Spain and Latin America ), primarily Caviteño mestizos, stationed at Fort Pilar in

1430-537: A point of reference. Language speakers in Ternate also use the term Bahra to refer to their language and their city. Chavacano varieties usually have their area name attached to the language. In Zamboanga City, most people are using the V in spelling the language as Chavacano. In the three-day Chavacano Orthography Congress held on Nov 19–21, 2014, wherein it included the presentation by researchers on Chavacano, mostly results from surveys conducted among selected respondents in

1540-676: A result of Spanish colonization, according to a genetic study written by Maxmilian Larena, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States, the Philippine ethnic groups with the highest amount of Spanish/European descent are the Chavacanos, with 4 out of 10 Chavacanos having detectable Spanish descent, followed by Bicolanos , with 1–2 out of 10, while most of

1650-626: A short period in 1662 when Spain sent soldiers from the city to Manila after a threat of invasion from the Chinese general Koxinga , was Zamboanga City which was settled by soldiers from Peru and Mexico. The sultanates resisted Spanish pressure and attempts to convert them to Christianity during this period. The Sultanate of Ternate of the Maluku Islands formed a close alliance with the sultanates of Mindanao, especially Maguindanao . Ternate regularly sent military reinforcements to Mindanao to assist

1760-708: A state of martial law following the Maguindanao massacre . On September 9, 2013, an MNLF faction attempted to raise the flag of a self-proclaimed Bangsamoro Republik at Zamboanga City Hall in an armed incursion into parts of the city. On January 25, 2015, a shootout took place during a police operation by the Special Action Force (SAF) of the Philippine National Police (PNP) in Tukanalipao, Mamasapano, Maguindanao. The operation, codenamed Oplan Exodus,

1870-468: A word of its own in different spellings with no negative connotation, but to simply being the name of the language itself (Banquicio, 2021). During the Spanish colonial period, what is today called Chavacano was also called by the Spanish-speaking population as the " lenguaje de la calle ", " lenguaje de parian " (language of the street), or " lenguaje de cocina " (language of the kitchen) to refer to

1980-636: Is based on their substrate languages and the regions where they are commonly spoken. The three known varieties of Chavacano with Tagalog as their substrate language are the Luzon -based creoles of which are Caviteño (spoken in Cavite City ), Bahra or Ternateño (spoken in Ternate, Cavite ) and Ermiteño (once spoken in the old district of Ermita in Manila and is now extinct). of households (2020 census) There are

2090-730: Is called Ternate after the island of Ternate in the Moluccas, and the descendants of the Merdicas continue to use their Spanish creole (with Portuguese influence), which has come to be known as Caviteño or Ternateño Chavacano. The following is a sample of Ermitaño taken from the April 1917 publication of The Philippine Review . The poem was written by the Filipino Spanish-language writer Jesús Balmori (who also wrote other texts in Ermitaño), and it

2200-595: Is considered the major breadbasket of the Philippines. The name Mindanao is a Spanish variation of the name of the Maguindanao people , the dominant ruling ethnic group in the Sultanate of Maguindanao in southwestern Mindanao during the Spanish colonial period . The name itself means "people of the lake", although it is usually translated to "people of the flood plains " in modern sources. Archaeological findings on

2310-575: Is entitled "Na Maldito Arena": Ta sumí el sol na fondo del mar, y el mar, callao el boca. Ta jugá con su mana marejadas com'un muchacha nerviosa con su mana pulseras. El viento no mas el que ta alborota, el viento y el pecho de Felisa que ta lleno de sampaguitas na fuera y lleno de suspiros na dentro... According to Keith Whinnom's "Spanish contact vernaculars in the Philippine Islands" (1956), there were reportedly still an estimated 12,000 speakers in 1942 of Ermitaño. After World War II, much of Manila

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2420-631: Is not included on the Spanish East Indies area as stated on the Protocol and control by the United Kingdom , Chavacano has still a little impact in Semporna. From then on, constant Spanish military reinforcements as well as increased presence of Spanish religious and educational institutions have fostered the Spanish creole. The Merdicas (also spelled Mardicas or Mardikas) were Catholic natives of

2530-582: Is not part of any region after the Supreme Court declared its inclusion in Bangsamoro unconsitutional as the majority of its residents voted against it during the 2019 plebiscite . The list of largest cities and municipalities in Mindanao in terms of population is shown in the table below. Mindanao is the second-largest island in the Philippines at 97,530 square kilometres (37,660 sq mi), and

2640-405: Is now developing into a center for agro-industrial business, trade and tourism. Its competitive advantage is in agri-industry as its products, papayas, mangoes, bananas, pineapples, fresh asparagus, flowers, and fish products are exported internationally. The region can be a vital link to markets in other parts of Mindanao, Brunei Darussalam and parts of Malaysia and Indonesia . There is also

2750-419: Is one defined growth corridor in the island, namely Metro Davao . Other growth centers are: Cagayan de Oro, General Santos, Zamboanga City, Cotabato City, and Pagadian City. Being the top-performing economy in Mindanao, Davao Region has the 5th-biggest economy in the country and the second-fastest-growing economy next to Cordillera Autonomous Region. While the region's economy is predominantly agri-based, it

2860-624: Is the seventh-most populous island in the world . The island is mountainous, and is home to Mount Apo , the highest mountain in the country. Mindanao is surrounded by four seas: the Sulu Sea to the west, the Philippine Sea to the east, the Celebes Sea to the south, and the Mindanao Sea to the north. The island itself is part of an island group of the same name, which consists of the mainland,

2970-405: Is the only one that is not an Austronesian language , but like Malayo-Polynesian languages , it uses reduplication . The word Chabacano is derived from Spanish, roughly meaning "poor taste" or "vulgar", though the term itself carries no negative connotations to contemporary speakers. Linguists have identified at least six Spanish creole varieties in the Philippines. Their classification

3080-633: The Agusan River would pass through 16 kilometers (9.9 mi) of broad saddle across the mountains at a maximum elevation of less than 250 meters (820 ft); while the existing east–west road from Lianga , 48 km (30 mi) north of Bislig , reaches a maximum elevation of only 450 m (1,480 ft). The Diwata Mountains, north of these low points, are considerably higher and more rugged, reaching an elevation of 2,012 m (6,601 ft) in Mount Hilong-Hilong , 17 miles (27 km) along

3190-573: The Caraga region, the Davao region , Soccsksargen , and the autonomous region of Bangsamoro . According to the 2020 census, Davao City is the most populous city on the island, with 1,776,949 people, followed by Zamboanga City (pop. 977,234), Cagayan de Oro (pop. 728,402), General Santos (pop. 697,315), Butuan (pop. 372,910), Iligan (pop. 363,115) and Cotabato City (pop. 325,079). About 70% of residents identify as Christian and 24% as Muslim. Mindanao

3300-781: The Filipino diaspora . All the same, Zamboangueño is the variety with the most number of speakers, being the official language of Zamboanga City whose population is now believed to be over a million; is also an official language in Basilan. Chavacano speakers are also found in Semporna and elsewhere in Sabah via immigration to Sabah during the Spanish colonial period and via Filipino refugees who escaped from Zamboanga Peninsula and predominantly Muslim areas of Mindanao like Sulu Archipelago . A small number of Zamboanga's indigenous peoples and of Basilan, such as

3410-486: The Sulu Archipelago and the outlying islands of Camiguin , Dinagat , Siargao , and Samal . The mountains of Mindanao can be grouped into ten ranges, including both complex structural mountains and volcanoes. The structural mountains on the extreme eastern and western portions of the island show broad exposures of Mesozoic rock, and Ultrabasic rocks at the surface in many places along the east coast. Other parts of

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3520-1112: The Tausugs , the Samals , and the Yakans , majority of those people are Sunni Muslims , also speak the language. In the close provinces of Sulu and Tawi-Tawi areas, there are Muslim speakers of the Chavacano de Zamboanga , all of them are neighbors of Christians. Speakers of the Chavacano de Zamboanga , both Christians and Muslims, also live in Lanao del Norte and Lanao del Sur . Christians and Muslims in Maguindanao , Sultan Kudarat , Cotabato , South Cotabato , Cotabato City , and Saranggani speak Chavacano de Zamboanga . Take note that Zamboanga Peninsula , Basilan, Sulu, Tawi-tawi, Maguindanao , Cotabato City , Soccsksargen (region that composed of Sultan Kudarat , Cotabato , South Cotabato , and Saranggani ) and Davao Region became part of short-lived Republic of Zamboanga , which chose Chavacano as official language . As

3630-456: The sarong (known as malong or patadyong ), the pudong turban , silk , and batik and ikat weaving and dyeing methods were introduced. Artifacts found from this era include a golden kinnara , a golden image believed by some to be a Tara , and a Ganesha pendant. These cultural traits passed from Mindanao into the Visayas and Luzon , but were subsequently lost or heavily modified after

3740-631: The ₱ 35.26 billion Tagum-Davao-Digos Segment of the Mindanao Railway , the ₱40.57 billion Davao airport, the ₱14.62 billion Laguindingan airport, the ₱4.86 billion Panguil Bay Bridge Project, and the ₱5.44 billion Malitubog-Maridagao Irrigation Project, Phase II. Projects in the pipeline are the second and third phases of the Mindanao Railway; the Agus-Pulangi plant rehabilitation; the Davao expressway;

3850-408: The 1883 work of German linguist Hugo Schuchardt Uber das Malaiospanische der Philippinen , he presents fragments of texts and comments of what he calls "Malayo-Spanish". However, the first to give a general study and investigation of the varieties of Chavacano as a group was by Keith Whinnom in his 1956 work The Spanish Contact Vernaculars in the Philippine Islands . Whinnom gives an overall view of

3960-515: The 19th century. When Caviteño officers recruited workers and technicians from Iloilo to man their sugar plantations and rice fields to reduce the local population's dependence on the Donativo de Zamboanga, the Spanish colonial government levied taxes on the islanders to support the fort's operations. With the subsequent migration of Ilonggo traders to Zamboanga, the Zamboangueño Chavacano

4070-814: The American Liberation Forces landed in Leyte in October 1944. Filipino soldiers and local guerrilla fighters were actively fighting Japanese forces until liberation at the conclusion of the Battle of Mindanao . Mindanao was peaceful and increasingly progressive in the postwar period, including the 1950s and the mid-1960s. Ethnic tensions were minimal, and there was essentially no presence of secessionists groups in Mindanao. Under Ferdinand Marcos 's administration, Christian groups began to settle in Mindanao, displacing many locals. The population boom resulted in conflicts as

4180-542: The Chabacano spoken by the people of Manila, particularly in Ermita) to distinguish it from the Spanish language spoken by those of the upper class, which consisted of Spaniards and educated Natives. Linguists use the term Philippine Creole Spanish which can be further divided into two geographic classifications: Manila Bay Creoles (which includes Ternateño and Caviteño) and Mindanao Creole (including Zamboangueño). The varieties of

4290-551: The MILF after it committed a series of terrorist attacks on government buildings, civilians, and foreigners. A number of livelihood intervention projects, from organisations such as USAID and the Emergency Livelihood Assistance Program (ELAP), aided in the reconstruction of areas affected by constant battles on the island. In December 2009, President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo officially placed Maguindanao under

4400-705: The Marcos dictatorship led to the killings of many Mindanao journalists, with prominent examples being Alex Orcullo of Mindanao Currents and Mindaweek , and Jacobo Amatong of the Mindanao Observer . In 1989, the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) was established, constituted by several provinces in Western Mindanao. In March 2000, President Joseph Estrada declared an "All Out War" against

4510-546: The Moluccas to the Dutch in doing so). A number of Merdicas volunteered to help, eventually being resettled in a sandbar near the mouth of the Maragondon river (known as the Barra de Maragondon ) and Tanza , Cavite , Manila. The invasion did not occur as Koxinga fell ill and died. The Merdicas' community eventually integrated into the local population. Today, the location of the community

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4620-699: The Muslim polities in mainland Mindanao was the Sultanate of Maguindanao , which controlled the southern floodplains of the Rio Grande de Mindanao and most of the coastal area of Illana Bay , Moro Gulf , Sarangani Bay and Davao Gulf . The name Mindanao was derived from this sultanate. But most of Mindanao remained animist, especially the Lumad people in the interior. Most of the northern, eastern, and southern coastal regions inhabited by Visayans ( Surigaonon and Butuanon ) and other groups were later converted to Christianity by

4730-529: The Native American languages Nahuatl , Taino , Quechua , etc. as can be evidenced by the words chongo ("monkey", instead of Spanish mono ), tiange ("mini markets"), etc. In contrast with the Luzon-based dialects, the Zamboangueño variety has the most borrowings and/or influence from other Philippine Austronesian languages including Hiligaynon and Tagalog . Words of Malay origin are present in

4840-590: The Philippines are creoles based on Mexican Spanish , southern peninsular Spanish and possibly, Portuguese . In some Chavacano languages, most words are common with Andalusian Spanish , but there are many words borrowed from Nahuatl , a language native to Central Mexico, which aren't found in Andalusian Spanish. Although the vocabulary is largely Mexican, its grammar is mostly based on other Philippine languages , primarily Ilonggo , Tagalog and Bisaya . By way of Spanish, its vocabulary also has influences from

4950-412: The Philippines, Estadismos de las Islas Filipinas , notes that "In Cavite and in its suburb of San Roque, a very corrupted Spanish is spoken, whose phraseology is entirely taken from the language of the country". Mentions of a vernacular referred to as "kitchen Spanish" and "language of the market" (referring to the Manila variety), or other terms are found in a number of texts of the 19th century. However,

5060-405: The Philippines, reviving the movement started by congressman Pantaleon Alvarez . Mindanao's economy accounts for 14% of the country's gross domestic product. The region grew 4.9% in 2016 against Luzon's 5.5% and Visayas' 9.1%. Agriculture, forestry and fishing make up more than 40% of Mindanao's market, being the country's largest supplier of major crops such as pineapples and bananas. There

5170-514: The Philippines, a major difficulty in tracing the development of Chabacano is the confusion attributed to in accounts of travelers to the Philippines between a coherent creole language, `broken Spanish', and fluent Spanish. The earliest believed attestation of a coherent creole language spoken in Cavite City comes from the Augustinian priest Martínez de Zúñiga who in his 1803 accounts of his travels in

5280-507: The Portuguese manuscript Summa Orientalis, noted that Mottama in Burma (Myanmar) had a large presence of merchants from Mindanao. In 1521 Antonio Pigafetta wrote an account of reaching 'Maingdano.' He was with Magellan on the first circumnavigation of the globe and sailing for the king of Spain. On February 2, 1543, Ruy López de Villalobos was the first Spaniard to reach Mindanao. He called

5390-672: The Southwestern Mindanao and Basilan Islands communities. Its influence has spread to other islands in the west, such as the Jolo Islands, as well as to Cotabato and Davao in Mindanao. The other varieties of Chavacano with Cebuano as their primary substrate language are the Mindanao -based creoles of which are Castellano Abakay or Chavacano Davaoeño (spoken in some areas of Davao ), influenced by Hokkien Chinese and Japanese , and divided into two varieties, Castellano Abakay Chino and Castellano Abakay Japón , and Cotabateño (spoken in Cotabato City ). Both Cotabateño and Davaoeño are very similar to Zamboangueño. The Chavacano languages in

5500-403: The Spanish Viceroyalty of Peru . He arrived in Manila as governor and captain general of the Philippines and president of the Audiencia of Manila on June 25, 1635. He had sailed from Acapulco , New Spain , bringing with him a large reinforcement of soldiers from Peru and Panama. Including even the Genoese from Panama Viejo , who descend from the crusaders in the Republic of Genoa ,

5610-429: The Spanish arrival in the 16th century. Hindu-Buddhist cultural influence took root in the coastal settlements, syncretizing with indigenous animist beliefs and customs among the tribes of the interior. The Butuan Rajahnate , a Hinduized kingdom mentioned in Chinese records as a tributary state in the 10th century, was concentrated along the northeastern coast of Butuan Bay . The Rajahnate of Sanmalan in Zamboanga,

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5720-419: The Spanish. In agreement with the previous governor, and responding to the exigencies of war with the Sangleys, Hurtado de Corcuera had recommended to the Crown the abandoning of the Spanish fort on Formosa (Taiwan), as expensive and not useful. This became moot on August 24, 1642, when the Dutch captured it. Note, however, that the Dutch had badly failed to capture Spanish Formosa in 1641, and only succeeded

5830-503: The Spanish. Mindanao was then embroiled between a conflict with the Boholano (Visayan) Dapitan Kingdom and the Moluccan Sultanate of Ternate . Dapitan which was originally at Bohol was destroyed by an expeditionary force from the Ternate Sultanate and Dapitenyos were forced to relocate to Northern Mindanao where they waged war against the Sultanate of Lanao and established a new Dapitan there. Mindanaoans then spread out of Mindanao across Southeast Asia, Historian William Henry Scott, quoting

5940-598: The Sulu Sultanate only recognised partial Spanish sovereignty to Sulu and Tawi-tawi), Spanish settlers and soldiers brought the language to the region until Spain, Germany , and United Kingdom signed an agreement named the Madrid Protocol of 1885 that recognised Spanish rule of Sulu Archipelago. Chavacano becomes a lingua franca of Sulu Archipelago (composing of Sulu, Tawi-tawi, Basilan), as these were formerly part of Western Mindanao (presently named Zamboanga Peninsula) , only Isabela City (Basilan's capital) remained part of Zamboanga Peninsula; although North Borneo (now Sabah)

6050-419: The United States for $ 20 million. The 1900 Treaty of Washington and the 1930 Convention Between the United States and Great Britain clarified the borders between Mindanao and Borneo. In early 1900s the Commonwealth government (led by Americans) encouraged citizens from Luzon and Visayas to migrate to Mindanao. Consisting mostly of Ilocanos, Cebuanos, and Ilonggos. Settlers streaming into Soccsksargen led to

6160-443: The Visayas as well as the current migration from other Visayan-speaking areas of the Zamboanga Peninsula. Zamboangueño (Chavacano) is spoken in Zamboanga City , Basilan , parts of Sulu and Tawi-Tawi , and Zamboanga del Sur , Zamboanga Sibugay and Zamboanga del Norte . Zamboangueño Chavacano is the most dynamically spoken language of Philippine Creole Spanish. It is used as a lingua franca between both Muslim and Christians in

6270-490: The Zamboanga Fish Port Complex rehabilitation; the Balo-i Plains Flood Control Project; Asbang Small Reservoir Irrigation Project; the Ambal Simuay Sub-Basin of the Mindanao River Basin Flood Control and River Protection Project; as well as the Road Network Development Project in Conflict-Affected Areas in Mindanao project. The island consists of six administrative regions , 23 provinces , and 30 cities (28 provinces and 33 cities if associated islands are included). Sulu

6380-404: The Zamboangueño variety; the latter is included because although not local in Philippines, it was the lingua franca of maritime Southeast Asia and is still spoken in Muslim areas of Mindanao. As the Zamboangueño variety is also spoken by Muslims, the variety has some Arabic loanwords, most commonly Islamic terms . In spite of this, it's difficult to trace whether these words have their origin in

6490-468: The assault. He had with him about 800 Peruvian men. They defeated the forces of Sultan Qudarat, capturing many cannons and killing many fighters. Qudarat himself narrowly escaped. Commentators of the time stressed the governor's personal bravery. This victory gave rise to the Moro-Moro , a blood-and-thunder play which recounts the Spanish defeat of the Moros. The play has become an integral part of Filipino folk and religious festivals. Governor Hurtado became

6600-465: The battle, although Marawi residents believe the number of civilians killed was far higher. The official death toll in the five-month conflict is 1,109, most of which were members of a militant alliance which drew fighters from radical factions of domestic Islamist groups. In 2019, the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao was established, replacing the former ARMM. In 2024, former President Rodrigo Duterte called for Mindanao to secede from

6710-435: The carriage, he spoke to the woman, but she replied that she preferred to be the slave of another than his wife. Thereupon Nava, blind with anger, drew his dagger and killed her. Before the astonished spectators could react, Nava ran to the Augustinian church, claiming the right of sanctuary . When Governor Hurtado heard of the events, he ordered the church surrounded and searched, the murderer seized. While soldiers surrounded

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6820-496: The ceramic objects are from the Yuan and Ming periods. Evidently, there was a long history of trade between the Subanon and the Chinese. In the classic epoch of Philippine history (900 AD onwards), the people of Mindanao were heavily exposed to Hindu and Buddhist influence and beliefs from Indonesia and Malaysia. Indianized abugida scripts such as Kawi and baybayin were introduced from Java and an extinct intermediate from Sulawesi or Borneo respectively. Cultural icons of

6930-429: The church and prevented anyone from escaping, they would not enter for fear of divine reprisal. Corcuera, upon hearing this, rode his horse directly into the threshold and, with about a dozen emboldened guardia civil, seized Nava, who was summarily tried and sentenced to death. Officials of the archdiocese requested the release of the prisoner and his return to the church, but the governor refused to see them. The sentence

7040-453: The city, the newly organized Chavacano Orthography Council met with the officials of the Department of Education and agreed among others that the language is to be spelled with the V. Most people in support of this move would like to distance their language Chavacano to the word Chabacano which also means ‘vulgar” in Spanish. There is no definite conclusion on the precise history of how these different varieties of Chavacano developed. Prior to

7150-444: The city, with a royal appointment to the position, since 1632, but had not taken possession of his office because the necessary papal bull had not been received. The cabildo had therefore refused him recognition. Almost immediately disputes arose between Governor Hurtado and Archbishop Guerrero. This came to a head when a fugitive criminal claimed sanctuary in an Augustinian church in Manila . An artilleryman, Francisco de Nava, owned

7260-513: The civil and military payrolls with the aim of lowering their demands on the colonial treasury. Moro raiders had harassed the Spanish and their allies for years. In 30 years, an estimated 20,000 persons were taken captive by the Moro pirates and sold in the markets of Batavia, Ternate, Amboina, Makassar, Java and Madras. A royal decree of 1636 ordered the pacification of Mindanao , where many of these raiders were based. On March 13, 1637, Hurtado de Corcuera left Zamboanga and landed at Lamitan to begin

7370-528: The colonial government. The military authorities decided to import labour from Luzon and the Visayas. Thus, the construction workforce eventually consisted of Spanish, Mexican and Peruvian soldiers, masons from Cavite (who comprised the majority), sacadas from Cebu and Iloilo, and those from the various local tribes of Zamboanga like the Samals and Subanons. Language differences made it difficult for one ethnic group to communicate with another. To add to this, work instructions were issued in Spanish. The majority of

7480-530: The continuing bad state of the treasury. However, the pay warrants issued during the last year had been redeemed at one third their face value, thanks to a "voluntary" donation on the part of the holders. He urged that future governors of the colony be appointed in Spain, rather than in New Spain . In addition, he stated he had reorganized the armed forces and enrolled several companies of Pampango "Indians", whom he predicted would make good soldiers and be much cheaper than Spaniards. He further stated he had reorganized

7590-449: The country, and violent crackdowns on protests led to the radicalization of many students, with some joining the New People's Army , bringing the New People's Army rebellion to Mindanao for the first time. Marcos' declaration led to the shuttering of press outlets – television stations, national newspapers, weekly magazines, community newspapers, and radio stations – throughout the country, including in Mindanao. The remaining years of

7700-488: The displacement of the Blaan and Tboli tribes. In April 1942 Mindanao, along with the rest of the Philippines, officially entered World War II after Japanese soldiers invaded key cities in the islands. Many towns and cities were burned to the ground in Mindanao, most notably Davao City, Zamboanga City, Lanao, Cagayan de Oro, Iligan City, and Butuan. In the months of April and May 1942, Japanese forces defeated US troops commanded by William F. Sharp and Guy Fort , in

7810-411: The east, and Davao in the island's gulf coast. Spain continued to engage in battles with Muslim sultanates until the end of the 19th century. At the same time as the Philippine revolution against Spain, the Republic of Zamboanga rose as a revolutionary state in Mindanao before it was absorbed by the oncoming Americans. In the Treaty of Paris in 1898 Spain sold the entire Philippine archipelago to

7920-439: The famed Manila galleons . The different varieties of Chavacano differ in certain aspects like vocabulary but they are generally mutually intelligible by speakers of these varieties, especially between neighboring varieties. While a majority of the lexicon of the different Chavacano varieties derive from Spanish , their grammatical structures are generally similar to other Philippine languages . Among Philippine languages , it

8030-408: The following year because Hurtado ordered most troops back to Manila, leaving the position lightly defended. Hurtado de Corcuera had made enemies during his administration, particularly among the clergy. With the arrival of his successor, Diego Fajardo Chacón , in 1644, his enemies had him brought to court. He received a substantial fine and was sent to prison. He spent five years in prison before he

8140-410: The formation of what is today the Philippines, what existed were a collection of various islands and different ethnolinguistic groups inhabiting them. The Spanish colonisation of the Philippine islands had led to the presence of the Spanish language in the islands. Though Spanish was the language of the government, the various languages originating and found in the islands remained the mother tongue of

8250-436: The history and grammar of what he calls "Ermitaño" of Ermita in Manila, "Caviteño" of Cavite and "Zamboangueño" of Zamboanga. In it, he also postulates his monogenetic theory on the origin of these vernaculars. Linguists are unsettled about how these vernaculars formed and how they connect to one another, if any. There are many theories, but the two main theories of the origin of Chavacano are Whinnom's "monogenetic theory" and

8360-475: The influence of Muslim merchants from the western Malay Archipelago . The first mosque in the Philippines was built in the mid-14th century in the town of Simunul , Tawi-Tawi . Around the 16th century, the Muslim sultanates of Sulu , Lanao and Maguindanao were established from formerly Hindu-Buddhist rajahnates. As Islam colonised Mindanao, the natives of the sultanates had to either convert to Islam or pay tribute to their new Muslim rulers. The largest of

8470-428: The initiated speakers, Chavacano can be intelligible to some Spanish speakers, and while most Spanish words can easily be understood by Chavacano speakers, many would struggle to understand a complete Spanish sentence. The term Chavacano or Chabacano originated from the Spanish word chabacano which literally means "poor taste", "vulgar", "common", "of low quality", or "coarse". Chavacano has since evolved into

8580-572: The island "Caesarea Caroli" after Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire (and I of Spain). Shortly after Spain's colonization of Cebu, it moved on to colonize the Caraga region in northeast Mindanao and discovered significant Muslim presence on the island. Over time a number of tribes in Mindanao converted to Catholicism and built settlements and forts throughout the coastal regions. These settlements endured despite attacks from neighboring Muslim sultanates. The most heavily fortified of them, apart from

8690-579: The island consist mainly of Cenozoic and Quaternary volcanic or sedimentary rocks. In the eastern portion of the island, from Bilas Point in Surigao del Norte to Cape San Agustin in Davao Oriental , is a range of complex mountains known in their northern portion as the Diwata Mountains . This range is low and rolling in its central portion. A proposed road connecting Bislig on the east coast with

8800-670: The island point to evidence of human activity dating back about ten thousand years. Around 1500 BC, Austronesian people spread throughout the Philippines. The Subanon are believed to have settled in the Zamboanga Peninsula during the Neolithic era c. 4500–2000 BC. Evidence of stone tools in Zamboanga del Norte may indicate a late Neolithic presence. Ceramic burial jars, both unglazed and glazed, Chinese celadons , gold ornaments, beads, and bracelets have been found in caves. Many of

8910-669: The islands of Ternate and Tidore of the Moluccas in the vicinity of New Guinea , converted during the Portuguese occupation of the islands by Jesuit missionaries. The islands were later captured by the Spanish who vied for their control with the Dutch . In 1663, the Spanish garrison in Ternate was forced to pull out to defend Manila against an impending invasion by Koxinga , the new ruler of Kingdom of Tungning in Formosa ( Taiwan ) (sacrificing

9020-925: The kind of vernacular referred to by these terms are imprecise and these terms may refer to a fully fledged creole or to a Spanish-pidgin spoken by Chinese and Filipino merchants. The manner of formation of this type of speech found in a number of communities around the Philippines remains unclear today. A sample of what is today called Chabacano may be found in dialogues contained in chapters 18 ( Supercherías ) and 28 ( Tatakut ) of Filipino writer José Rizal 's 1891 work El Filibusterismo . The dialogue found in chapter 18 is: ¿Porque ba no di podí nisós entrá? preguntaba una voz de mujer. ― Abá, ñora, porque ‘tallá el maná prailes y el maná empleau , contestó un hombre; ‘ta jasí solo para ilós el cabesa de espinge . ― ¡Curioso también el maná prailes! dijo la voz de mujer alejándose; ¡no quiere pa que di sabé nisos cuando ilos ta sali ingañau! ¡Cosa! ¡Querida be de praile el cabesa! In

9130-471: The language are geographically related. The Manila Bay Creoles have Tagalog as their substrate language while The Mindanao Creoles have Visayan (mostly Cebuano , Tausug , and Hiligaynon ), Subanon , and Sama as their substrate language(s). Chavacano/Chabacano speakers themselves have different preferences on whether to spell the language with a V or a B. They emphasise the difference between their variety and others using their own geographical location as

9240-645: The local government, there have been few literary work written in Zamboangueño and access to these resources by the general public isn't readily available; Bibles of Protestant Christians are also written in standard Chavacano. As Chavacano is spoken by Muslims as second language not only in Zamboanga City and Basilan but even in Sulu and Tawi-tawi, a number of Qur'an books are published in Chavacano. The Zamboangueño variety has been constantly evolving especially during half of

9350-548: The local population or in Spanish itself, given that Spanish has about 6,000 words of Arabic origin. Chavacano also contains loanwords of Persian origin which enter Chavacano via Malay and Arabic; both Persian and Spanish are Indo-European languages . The highest number of Chavacano speakers are found in Zamboanga City and in the island province of Basilan . A significant number of Chavacano speakers are found in Cavite City and Ternate. There are also speakers in some areas in

9460-456: The local sultanates in their war against Spanish-controlled Manila. By the late 18th century Spain had geographic dominance over the island, having established settlements and forts in most of Mindanao, including Zamboanga City and Misamis Occidental to the northwest, Iligan City , Misamis Oriental , Bukidnon , and Camiguin Island to the north, Surigao and Agusan in the Caraga region to

9570-416: The lowland urbanized Christian ethnic groups have some Spanish descent. Chavacano has been primarily and practically a spoken language. In the past, its use in literature was limited and chiefly local to the geographical location where the particular variety of the language was spoken. Its use as a spoken language far exceeds its use in literary work in comparison to the use of Spanish in the Philippines which

9680-559: The original owners sought their ancestral land domains. The Marcos administration encouraged new settlers who had emigrated to Mindanao to form a militia, which was eventually called the Ilaga . Anecdotal evidence states that the Ilaga often committed human rights abuses by targeting the Moro and Lumad people, as well as attempting to seize additional territory. It resulted in a lingering animosity between Moro and Christian communities. Mistrust and

9790-420: The past century until the present. Zamboangueño has been experiencing an infusion of English and more Tagalog words and from other languages worldwide in its vocabulary and there have been debates and discussions among older Chavacano speakers, new generation of Chavacano speakers, scholars, linguists, sociologists, historians, and educators regarding its preservation, cultivation, standardization, and its future as

9900-714: The prohibition of political parties after Marcos' 1972 declaration of Martial Law led to the founding and dominance of armed groups such as the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF). Ethnic conflicts continued to escalate, leading to incidents like the 1971 Manili massacre , the Pata Island massacre , and the Palimbang massacre . Additionally, an economic crisis in late 1969 led to social unrest throughout

10010-500: The provinces of Zamboanga del Sur , Zamboanga Sibugay , Zamboanga del Norte , Davao, and in Cotabato City. According to the official 2000 Philippine census, there were altogether 607,200 Chavacano speakers in the Philippines in that same year. The exact figure could be higher as the 2000 population of Zamboanga City, whose main language is Chavacano, far exceeded that census figure. Also, the figure doesn't include Chavacano speakers of

10120-772: The relationship with the individual being the speaker as well as the listener. This includes polite as well as casual foundations of speech, for example, yo (casual) versus (éle). Caviteño Chavacano : Puede nisós hablá: que grande nga palá el sacrificio del mga héroes para niso independencia. Debe nga palá no niso ulvida con ilos. Ansina ya ba numa? Debe hací niso mga cosa para dale sabí que ta aprecia niso con el mga héroes. Que preparáo din niso hací sacrificio para el pueblo. ¿Qué laya? ¿Escribí mga novela como José Rizal? Spanish : Nosotros podemos decir qué grandes sacrificios ofrecieron nuestros héroes para obtener nuestra independencia. Entonces, no nos olvidemos de ellos. ¿Cómo lo logramos? Necesitamos hacer cosas para que sepan que apreciamos

10230-430: The various inhabitants. Instead of using Spanish to spread Christianity, Spanish missionaries preferred to learn the various local languages. With over 300 years of Spanish colonial rule, the Spanish language came to influence the various Philippine languages to varying degrees by way of aspects like new loanwords and expressions. Creole languages (such as French-based creoles ) have formed at various points in time around

10340-408: The whole of Mindanao. On January 4, 1638, Governor Hurtado led another force, this time of 500 Peruvians and 1,000 native allies in 80 vessels, to invade the island of Sulu . Jolo , the capital of the island, was defended by about 4,000 fighters, including allies from Borneo and Makassar . After three months of heavy fighting and great losses on each side, neither side could claim victory. A truce

10450-622: The workers were unschooled and therefore did not understand Spanish but needed to communicate with each other and the Spaniards. A pidgin developed and became a full-fledged creole language still in use today as a lingua franca and/or as an official language , mainly in Zamboanga City . When the Sultanate of Sulu gave up its territories in Sulu Archipelago to Spain within late 1700s (Sulu Sultanate gave up Basilan to Spain in 1762, while Sulu and Tawi-tawi were not given up by sultanate because

10560-491: The world due to colonialism. As a result of contact between speakers of two mutually non-intelligible languages, creole languages have evolved in some cases to facilitate communication. This usually involves taking the vocabulary of another language and grammatical features of the native language. In contrast to the numerous French-based creole languages, only three creole languages have been found to be Spanish-based or heavily influenced: Papiamento , Palenquero , and Chavacano. In

10670-439: The world. Located in the southern region of the archipelago , the island is part of an island group of the same name that also includes its adjacent islands, notably the Sulu Archipelago . According to the 2020 census, Mindanao had a population of 26,252,442, while the entire island group had an estimated population of 27,021,036. Mindanao is divided into six administrative regions: the Zamboanga Peninsula , Northern Mindanao ,

10780-631: Was a Spanish soldier and colonial official. From 1632 to 1634, he was governor of Panama . From June 25, 1635 to August 11, 1644 he was governor of the Philippines . And from 1659 to his death in 1660 he was governor of the Canary Islands . He is remembered as one of the two greatest Spanish military leaders in the Philippines. Hurtado de Corcuera was born in Bergüenda , in the mountains of Burgos , to Pedro Hurtado de Corcuera y Montoya and María Gaviria. He

10890-546: Was a knight of the military Order of Alcántara . He served many years in the army in Flanders , where he was one of the Spanish military leaders in the Siege of Breda and a member of the Council of War. Thereafter, he was master-of-camp at the port of Callao , Peru , and captain general of cavalry in that colony. From 1632 to 1634 he served as governor of Panama , at that time part of

11000-453: Was absolved. In the course of his case and appeals, evidence was given that the governor had stated before witnesses that if an order were given to him to arrest the pope , he would arrest him, and even drag him along by one foot. The interdict was soon lifted. In this dispute the Jesuits sided with the governor, and the other orders with the secular archbishop. A truce between the two parties

11110-460: Was agreed on. The second Chinese insurrection began in November 1639, and lasted until March 1640. This conflict began with a rebellion of 3,000 Chinese laborers whom Corcuera impressed into farming rice in difficult conditions in the marsh of Calamba. By the end of the conflict some 24,000 Chinese had been killed, and the remaining 8,000 former rebels were taken prisoner and largely forced to work for

11220-502: Was agreed to in January 1636, but it soon fell apart. In May of that year the governor ordered the archbishop exiled to Marivales Island, in Manila Bay. The cabildo (council) of the cathedral took over administration of the archdiocese. Within a month the archbishop was allowed to return, but under humiliating conditions. Corcuera, in his annual report to the king dated June 30, 1636, reported

11330-584: Was also in Mindanao. The Darangen epic of the Maranao people harkens back to this era as the most complete local version of the Ramayana . The Maguindanao at this time also had strong Hindu beliefs, evidenced by the Ladya Lawana (Rajah Ravana ) epic saga that survives to the present, albeit highly Islamized from the 17th century onward. The spread of Islam in the Philippines began in the 14th century, mostly through

11440-565: Was destroyed and its citizens displaced. This variety is considered to be virtually extinct. Ternateño follows a pronominal system of three different pronouns, including subjects, objects and possession. The system follows the same pattern as Spanish, including both singular and plural conjugations based on what the speaker is explaining. For example yo (Spanish singular) becomes bo (Ternateño), whereas nosotros (Spanish plural) becomes mihótro ( Ternateño). Additionally Ternateño incorporates alternate language forms for different participles to denote

11550-516: Was finally freed by royal order. In 1651, he was named governor of Panama for a second time, but he declined. He did accept the post of governor and captain general of the Canary Islands in 1659, serving there until his death the following year. Mindanao Mindanao ( / ˌ m ɪ n d ə ˈ n aʊ / MIN -də- NOW ) is the second-largest island in the Philippines , after Luzon , and seventh-most populous island in

11660-463: Was infused with Hiligaynon words as the previous migrant community was assimilated. Most of what appears to be Bisaya words in Zamboangueño Chavacano are actually Hiligaynon. Although Zamboangueño Chavacano's contact with Bisaya began much earlier when Bisaya soldiers were stationed at Fort Pilar during the Spanish colonial period, it was not until closer to the middle of the 20th century that borrowings from Bisaya accelerated from more migration from

11770-667: Was intended to capture or kill wanted Malaysian terrorist and bomb-maker Zulkifli Abdhir and other Malaysian terrorists or high-ranking members of the Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters (BIFF). In May 2017, President Rodrigo Duterte declared martial law on the entire island group of Mindanao following the Marawi siege by the Maute terrorist group. More than 180,000 people were forced to evacuate Marawi City . Around 165 security forces and 47 residents were confirmed killed in

11880-459: Was more successful as a written language than a spoken language. In recent years, there have been efforts to encourage the use of Chavacano as a written language, but the attempts were mostly minor attempts in folklore and religious literature and few pieces of written materials by the print media. In Zamboanga City, while the language is used by the mass media, the Catholic Church, education, and

11990-548: Was part of the Subanon people 's ancestral land, became a permanent foothold of the Spanish government with the construction of the San José Fortress . Bombardment and harassment from pirates and raiders of the sultans of Mindanao and Jolo and the determination to spread Christianity further south (as Zamboanga was a crucial strategic location) of the Philippines forced the Spanish missionary friars to request reinforcements from

12100-407: Was soon carried out (September 6, 1635), on a specially built gallows directly in front of the church where Nava had claimed sanctuary. This was the spot where Nava had killed María. The same day the archbishop ordered an interdict and suspension of religious services. The commander of artillery, who had served as judge at Nava's trial, was subsequently condemned to a monetary fine, but appealed and

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