The Empty Fort Strategy involves using reverse psychology to deceive the enemy into thinking that an empty location is full of traps and ambushes, and therefore induce the enemy to retreat. It is listed as the 32nd of the Thirty-Six Stratagems . Some examples are listed in the following sections.
77-679: According to the Sanguozhi , in 195, the Empty Fort Strategy was used by the warlord Cao Cao against his rival Lü Bu in one incident at Chengshi County (乘氏縣; southwest of present-day Juye County , Shandong ). In the summer of that year, Lü Bu went to Dongmin County (東緡縣; northeast of present-day Jinxiang County , Shandong) and gathered about 10,000 troops to attack Cao Cao. At the time, Cao Cao had very few soldiers with him, but he set up an ambush and managed to defeat Lü Bu. The Wei Shu (魏書) gave
154-716: A xiaolian (civil service candidate) and subsequently appointed as the Chief of Jiangyang County (江陽縣; present-day Luzhou , Sichuan). He was later reassigned to be the Prefect of Fuling County (涪陵縣; present-day Pengshui County , Chongqing), and subsequently promoted to the rank of commandery administrator. He consecutively served as the Administrator of Zitong (梓潼; around present-day Zitong County , Sichuan), Guanghan (廣漢; around present-day Guanghan , Sichuan) and Shu (蜀; around present-day Chengdu , Sichuan) commanderies. Zhang Yi served as
231-562: A Master of Writing (尚書) in the imperial secretariat. Within a short period of time, he was sent back to the frontline to serve as the Area Commander of Jianwei (建威; in present-day Longnan , Gansu ) near the Wei–Shu border. In addition to his new appointment, he was granted acting imperial authority, promoted to Senior General Who Attacks the West (征西大將軍), and had his marquis rank increased from that of
308-524: A Secondary Marquis to a Marquis of a Chief Village (都亭侯). In 255, Zhang Yi returned to the Shu capital Chengdu for a discussion on Shu general Jiang Wei 's plan to launch another invasion of Wei. During the discussion in the imperial court, Zhang Yi strongly objected to Jiang Wei's plan and pointed out that Shu lacked the resources to go to war and that the people were already tired of war. Jiang Wei ignored him and proceeded with his plan. He reassigned Zhang Yi to
385-457: A calm and composed image by playing his guqin . When the Wei army led by Sima Yi arrived, Sima was surprised by the sight before him and he ordered a retreat after suspecting that there was an ambush inside the city. Zhuge Liang later explained that his strategy was a risky one. It worked because Zhuge Liang had a reputation for being a careful military tactician who hardly took risks, so Sima Yi came to
462-741: A full translation of fascicle 29. Rafe de Crespigny , in addition to his translation of Sun Jian's biography (Fascicle 46), also translated excerpts of the Records of the Three Kingdoms in his translation of the Zizhi Tongjian that deals with the last years of the Han dynasty, as does Achilles Fang , who translated the Zizhi Tongjian fascicles that deal with the Three Kingdoms period proper. The Zizhi Tongjian fascicles in question draw heavily from Records of
539-439: A more detailed account of the ambush. Cao Cao had sent most of his troops out to collect grain so he had less than 1,000 men available in his base, which could not be well defended with so few men. When Lü Bu showed up, Cao Cao ordered all his available soldiers to defend the base and even ordered women to stand guard on the walls. To the west of Cao Cao's base was a dyke, and to its south was a deep forest. Lü Bu suspected that there
616-449: A noble, courageous retreat. When Takeda forces led by Baba Nobuharu and Yamagata Masakage heard the drums, and saw the braziers and open gates, they assumed that Tokugawa was planning a trap, and so they stopped and made camp for the night. The authenticity of this story has been disputed by some, however, as it appears to be copied straight from Zhuge Liang's story, perhaps in an attempt to embellish Tokugawa's career. Records of
693-418: A note or even offer a correction. In regard to historical events and figures, as well as Chen Shou's original text, he added his own commentary. Crucially, he cited his sources in almost every case. The Records of the Three Kingdoms was the main source of inspiration for the 14th century Romance of the Three Kingdoms , one of the four great Classic Chinese Novels . As such the records is considered one of
770-613: A professor from Xiamen University , commented on this incident in his book Pin San Guo (品三国). He pointed out three problems in the story: According to historical sources such as the Old Book of Tang , New Book of Tang and Zizhi Tongjian , Li Yuan , the founding emperor of the Tang dynasty , used a similar strategy in 618 CE in a battle against the Göktürks before he started his rebellion against
847-449: A shortcut, bypassing Wei Yan's army and arriving at a place 60 li away from Zhuge Liang's location. Upon inspection, Sima Yi realised that Zhuge Liang's city was weakly defended. Zhuge Liang knew that Sima Yi was near, so he thought of recalling Wei Yan's army back to counter Sima Yi, but it was too late already and his men were worried and terrified. Zhuge Liang remained calm and instructed his men to hide all flags and banners and silence
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#1732844207850924-453: A single work. Pei collected other records to add information he felt should be added. He provided detailed explanations to some of the geography and other elements mentioned in the original. He also included multiple accounts of the same events. Sometimes, the accounts he added contradicted each other, but he included them anyway since he could not decide which version was the correct one. If Pei added something that sounded wrong, he would make
1001-572: A snake." Jiang Wei did not heed Zhang Yi's warning and continued to besiege Wang Jing at Didao but failed to breach Didao's walls. Upon learning that Wei reinforcements led by Chen Tai were approaching Didao, Jiang Wei gave up on the fortress and retreated back to Zhongti (鐘堤; south of present-day Lintao County , Gansu ). Although Zhang Yi strongly disagreed with Jiang Wei's aggressive stance towards Wei and did not get along well with him, Jiang Wei still brought him along on his military campaigns against Wei. Zhang Yi also reluctantly participated in
1078-837: A subordinate of Zhao Yun during the Hanzhong Campaign where they scored a major victory against Cao Cao 's forces at the Battle of Han River with many of the enemy soldiers being killed during their retreat. In 231, the Shu government commissioned Zhang Yi as General of the Household Who Pacifies the South (綏南中郎將) and appointed him as the Area Commander of Laixiang to replace Li Hui , who went to serve in Zhuge Liang 's Northern Campaign in Hanzhong , (庲降都督), putting him in charge of maintaining
1155-457: Is present-day Pengshan District , Meishan , Sichuan . He was a 10th-generation descendant of Zhang Liang , a strategist and statesman who served under Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) , the founding emperor of the Han dynasty. His great-great-grandfather Zhang Hao (張晧) and great-grandfather Zhang Gang (張綱) served as the Minister of Works and Administrator of Guangling Commandery respectively during
1232-449: The Battle of Han River in 219, fought between Liu Bei and his rival Cao Cao as part of the Hanzhong Campaign . This incident took place after Cao Cao's general Xiahou Yuan was defeated and killed in action at the earlier Battle of Mount Dingjun . Cao Cao's forces were transporting food supplies to the north hill when Liu Bei's general Huang Zhong , heard about it and led a group of soldiers, including some of Zhao Yun's men, to seize
1309-473: The Battle of Jiangling of 223. The Wu leader Sun Quan led thousands of troops to attack a fortress defended by the Wei general Wen Ping. At the time, there were heavy rains and many fortifications were damaged. The civilians in the fortress had retreated to the fields further back so they could not help with repairs to the fortifications, and some repairs were still uncompleted when Sun Quan arrived with his men. When Wen Ping heard that Sun Quan had arrived, he
1386-445: The Book of Shu in the Records was composed by Chen Shou himself based on his earlier personal notes about events in Shu and other primary sources he collected, such as his previously compiled writings of Zhuge Liang . The Records of the Three Kingdoms used the year 220 CE—when the last emperor of the Han dynasty was forced to abdicate to Cao Pi—as the year in which the Wei dynasty
1463-452: The Book of Wei by Wang Chen , Xun Yi , and Ruan Ji ; and the Book of Wu by Wei Zhao , Hua He , Xue Ying , Zhou Zhao ( 周昭 ), and Liang Guang ( 梁廣 ). Additionally, Yu Huan had completed his privately compiled history of Wei, the Weilüe . Chen Shou used these texts as the foundation of the Records of the Three Kingdoms . However, since the state of Shu lacked an official history bureau,
1540-549: The Han River in their haste to get away and drowned. When Liu Bei came to inspect the camp later, he praised Zhao Yun and held a banquet to celebrate his victory. The Weilüe mentioned an incident about the Empty Fort Strategy being used by a general Wen Ping during a battle between the forces of the states of Cao Wei and Eastern Wu in the Three Kingdoms period. It is not clear which battle this was, but it could have been
1617-498: The Jin dynasty (266–420) , the work chronicles the political, social, and military events within rival states Cao Wei , Shu Han and Eastern Wu into a single text organized by individual biography. The Records are the primary source of information for the 14th-century historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms , considered to be one of the four classic novels emblematic of written vernacular Chinese . While large subsections of
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#17328442078501694-454: The Romance of the Three Kingdoms , though the Romance also includes a number of characters and stories that are fictional. However, most of the historical facts were drawn from Chen's Records . The Records of the Three Kingdoms has not been fully translated into English. William Gordon Crowell alludes to a project to translate Chen Shou's work with Pei Songzhi's commentary in full, but it
1771-554: The Sanguozhi refers to the ambush that Lü Bu's forces fell into a trap on the second day, as described in the Wei Shu . The incident is also mentioned in Sima Guang 's Zizhi Tongjian . However, the Zizhi Tongjian account, which combined the Sanguozhi and Wei Shu accounts, did not mention the events on the first day – which were about Cao Cao sending all his available soldiers to defend
1848-654: The Sui dynasty . In early 618, Li Yuan was still a general in the Sui army and was based in Jinyang (晉陽; present-day Taiyuan , Shanxi ). When he heard rumours that Emperor Yang of Sui wanted to execute him, he started making preparations for a rebellion against the Sui dynasty to save himself. In May 618, the Göktürks allied with the warlord Liu Wuzhuo to attack the Sui dynasty in order to gain territory. Jinyang became one of their targets. Around
1925-459: The Weilüe account did not match the original account in the Sanguozhi . The Sanguozhi mentioned: "Sun Quan led 50,000 troops to besiege Wen Ping at Shiyang (石陽). The situation was very critical but Wen Ping put up a firm defence. Sun Quan withdrew his forces after more than 20 days, and Wen Ping led his men to attack them as they were retreating and defeated them." One of the best known examples of
2002-536: The Shu emperor Liu Shan when Wei launched a large-scale invasion of Shu . In the following year, Zhang Yi was killed by mutineers during a rebellion by the Wei general Zhong Hui . Like Liao Hua and Zong Yu , Zhang was one of few officials who served the Shu-Han state throughout its entire existence. Zhang Yi was born sometime in the late Eastern Han dynasty in Wuyang County (武陽縣), Jianwei Commandery (犍為郡), which
2079-501: The Sui dynasty. Li Yuan thus ordered his soldiers to hide in Jinyang and leave the city gates wide open. Shibi Khan , leading a force of Göktürk cavalrymen, saw that the city appeared to be deserted and feared that there might be an ambush, so he did not enter. Li Yuan then ordered his son Li Shimin and subordinate Pei Ji to make their troops beat war drums loudly in the empty camps they had set up earlier, so as to create an illusion that reinforcements had arrived in Jinyang. Shibi Khan
2156-487: The Three Kingdoms The Records of the Three Kingdoms is a Chinese official history written by Chen Shou in the late 3rd century CE, covering the end of the Han dynasty ( c. 184 – 220 CE) and the subsequent Three Kingdoms period (220–280 CE). It is regarded as to be the authoritative source text for these periods. Compiled following the reunification of China under
2233-417: The Three Kingdoms consist of 65 fascicles divided into three books—one per eponymous kingdom—totaling around 360,000 Chinese characters in length. The Book of Wei , Book of Shu , and Book of Wu receive 30 fascicles, 15 fascicles, and 20 fascicles respectively. Each fascicle is organised in the form of one or more biographies. The author Chen Shou was born in present-day Nanchong , Sichuan , then in
2310-400: The Three Kingdoms . Further excerpts of the Records can be found in various sourcebooks dealing with East Asian history. Below is a table containing the known English translations of the Records of the Three Kingdoms that have been published in academia: Zhang Yi (Bogong) Zhang Yi (died 3 March 264), courtesy name Bogong , was a Chinese military general and politician of
2387-468: The Wei army led by Deng Ai showed up unexpectedly outside Chengdu after taking a detour across dangerous terrain. As a result of Liu Shan's surrender, the Shu state's existence came to an end and it became part of Wei. After learning of Liu Shan's surrender, Zhang Yi and the other Shu generals at Jiange formally surrendered to Zhong Hui at Fu County (涪縣; present-day Mianyang , Sichuan ). Zhang Yi returned to Chengdu on 29 February 264 with Zhong Hui and
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2464-453: The base and ordering women to stand guard on the walls. Yi Zhongtian , a history professor from Xiamen University , commented on this incident in his book Pin San Guo (品三国) in response to criticism from Fudan University historian Zhou Zhenhe and an online commentator known as "Hongchayangweili" (红茶杨威利). Earlier on, Yi referred to this incident when he said in a lecture on the television programme Lecture Room that "Cao Cao's rights to
2541-478: The campaigns. In 259, the Shu emperor Liu Shan promoted Zhang Yi to the position of Left General of Chariots and Cavalry (左車騎將軍) and appointed him as the nominal Inspector of Ji Province . In 263, the Wei regent Sima Zhao ordered his generals Zhong Hui , Deng Ai and others to lead a large-scale invasion of Shu from three fronts. In response to the Wei invasion, the Shu generals Jiang Wei, Zhang Yi, Liao Hua , Dong Jue and others led their troops to resist
2618-557: The conclusion that there was certainly an ambush upon seeing Zhuge's relaxed composure. Christopher Cotton, an economist from the Queen's University , and Chang Liu, a graduate student, used game theory to model the bluffing strategies used in the Chinese military legends of Li Guang and his 100 horsemen (144 BC), and Zhuge Liang and the Empty City (228 AD). In the case of these military legends,
2695-674: The death of Sun Hao in 284. One abstract regarding the chronology is translated as follows: In the 24th year (of Jian'an), the Former Lord became the King of Hanzhong, and he appointed (Guan) Yu as the General of the Vanguard. In the same year, (Guan) Yu led his men to attack Cao Ren at Fan. Lord Cao sent Yu Jin to aid (Cao) Ren. In autumn, great rains caused the Han River to flood. (Yu) Jin and all seven armies he oversaw were inundated. During
2772-476: The earliest extant native record being the Kojiki of 712. The text forms the foundation on which the 14th-century novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms by Luo Guanzhong is based. In addition, Chen Shou's literary style and vivid portrayal of characters have been a source of influence for the novel. The Records include biographies of historical figures such as Cao Cao and Guan Yu who feature prominently in
2849-453: The face of imminent danger, with the main Shu army deployed elsewhere and only a small group of soldiers in Xicheng with him, Zhuge Liang came up with a ploy to hold off the approaching enemy. Zhuge Liang ordered all the gates to be opened and instructed soldiers disguised as civilians to sweep the roads while he sat on the viewing platform above the gates with two page boys by his side. He put on
2926-419: The fifth century, Pei Songzhi added the anecdote as an annotation to Zhuge Liang's biography in the third-century historical text Sanguozhi . The anecdote is as follows: Zhuge Liang garrisoned at Yangping (陽平; around present-day Hanzhong , Shaanxi ) and ordered Wei Yan to lead the troops east. He left behind only 10,000 men to defend Yangping. Sima Yi led 200,000 troops to attack Zhuge Liang and he took
3003-584: The fifth century, the Liu Song dynasty historian Pei Songzhi (372–451) extensively annotated Chen Shou's Records of the Three Kingdoms using a variety of other sources, augmenting the text to twice the length of the original. This work, completed in 429, became one of the official histories of the Three Kingdoms period, under the title Sanguozhi zhu (三国志注 zhu meaning "notes"). Bibliographical records indicate that up until Pei's own Liu Song dynasty, Chen Shou's three books had circulated individually rather than as
3080-409: The first Northern Expedition, Zhuge Liang's efforts to conquer the Wei city Chang'an were undermined by the Shu defeat at the Battle of Jieting . With the loss of Jieting (present-day Qin'an County , Gansu ), Zhuge Liang's current location, Xicheng (西城; believed to be located 120 li southwest of present-day Tianshui , Gansu), became exposed and was in danger of being attacked by the Wei army. In
3157-437: The gates to be opened, all flags and banners to be hidden, and the war drums silenced. Cao Cao's forces thought that there was an ambush inside Zhao Yun's camp so they withdrew. Just then, Zhao Yun launched a counterattack and his men beat the war drums loudly and fired arrows at the enemy. Cao Cao's soldiers were shocked and thrown into disarray. Some of them trampled on each other while fleeing in panic, and many of them fell into
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3234-402: The invaders. Zhang Yi and Dong Jue received orders to guard Yang'an Pass (陽安關; a.k.a. Yangping Pass 陽平關; in present-day Ningqiang County , Shaanxi ) and provide backup on the external perimeter. Zhang Yi later joined Jiang Wei and Liao Hua at the heavily fortified mountain pass Jiange to resist the Wei army led by Zhong Hui. In the winter of 263, the Shu emperor Liu Shan surrendered when
3311-402: The invention of the Empty Fort Strategy had been stolen from him". Zhou claimed that the Empty Fort Strategy had never been used in history before so there were no "rights" to its invention; the online commentator argued that the incident does not count as a use of the Empty Fort Strategy. Yi defended his claim and said that the incident in 195 is valid because of the circumstances under which it
3388-489: The main record. For example, the biography of Liu Yan begins with discussing his ancestor Liu Yu 's enfeoffment at Jingling (present-day Tianmen , Hubei ) in around 85 CE. The first event to receive detailed description throughout the work is the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184. Many biographies make passing mention of the event, but more concrete information such as correspondence and troop movements during
3465-469: The most influential historical and cultural texts in Chinese history. In addition, the records provide one of the earliest accounts of Korea and Japan. Chen's Records set the standard for how Korea and Japan would write their official histories as well. Chen's Records is the chronologically final text of the "Four Histories" ( 四史 ), which together influenced and served as a model for Korean and Japanese official histories. The Records are important to
3542-437: The others. Over the next few days, with Jiang Wei's support, Zhong Hui plotted a rebellion against the Wei regent Sima Zhao. On 3 March, a mutiny broke out when some of Zhong Hui's officers who were unwilling to participate in the rebellion turned against their superior and killed him and Jiang Wei. Zhang Yi also lost his life during the chaos. Zhang Yi's son, Zhang Wei (張微), was known for being ambitious and studious since he
3619-467: The peace in Shu's southern commanderies. In 234, he led the Shu vanguard during the Battle of Wuzhang Plains against Shu's rival state Wei . From 238 to 259, Zhang Yi steadily rose through the ranks to become one of Shu's top generals. During this time, although he strongly opposed the Shu general Jiang Wei 's aggressive stance towards Wei, he still accompanied Jiang Wei on his military campaigns against Wei . In 263, he surrendered to Wei forces along with
3696-436: The peace in Shu's southern lands (covering parts of present-day southern Sichuan , Guizhou and Yunnan ). Zhang proved to be unpopular compared to his predecessor as he lacked the flexibility to adapt the Shu code of law to local conditions in his jurisdictions, he became very unpopular among the masses. In 233, when a local tribal chief Liu Zhou (劉胄) started a rebellion, Zhang Yi rallied his troops and prepared to attack
3773-485: The plan, and Wei Yan felt that Zhuge Liang was a coward and complained that his talent was not put to good use." As mentioned in Wei Yan's biography, Zhuge Liang never agreed to allow Wei Yan to command a separate detachment of thousands of troops. If Guo Chong's anecdote was true, how was it possible that Zhuge Liang would allow Wei Yan to lead a larger army ahead while he followed behind with a smaller army? Guo Chong's anecdote
3850-647: The position of Senior General Who Guards the South (鎮南大將軍) and ordered him to participate in the campaign. Jiang Wei attacked Wang Jing , the Wei governor of Yong Province , at Didao (狄道; present-day Lintao County , Gansu ) and inflicted a crushing defeat on the enemy. Tens of thousands of Wei soldiers fled after their defeat and drowned in the nearby Tao River . At that point in time, Zhang Yi advised Jiang Wei: "It's time to stop. We shouldn't advance any further, or we'll risk losing everything we have gained so far." When Jiang Wei turned furious, Zhang Yi told him that advancing further would be equivalent to "adding legs to
3927-417: The rebels. However, before Zhang Yi managed to quell the revolt, the Shu central government summoned him to the capital Chengdu . When his subordinates urged him to follow orders and go to Chengdu immediately, Zhang Yi refused and said: "No. I have been recalled to Chengdu because I failed in my duty to prevent the barbarians from rebelling. However, as my successor has yet to arrive and because we are near
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#17328442078504004-555: The reign of Emperor Shun of the Eastern Han dynasty. In 214, after the warlord Liu Bei seized control of Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing ) from Liu Zhang and became the new provincial Governor, he employed Zhang Yi to serve as a scribe (書佐) in his office. Towards the end of the Jian'an era (196–220) of the Eastern Han dynasty , Zhang Yi was nominated as
4081-726: The research of early Korean ( 삼국지 Samguk ji ) and Japanese history (三国志 Sangokushi). It provides, among other things, the first detailed account of Korean and Japanese societies such as Goguryeo , Yemaek and Wa . The passages in Fascicle 30 about the Wa, where the Yamatai-koku and its ruler Queen Himiko are recorded, are referred to as the Wajinden in Japanese studies . The Japanese did not have their own records until more than three centuries later, with
4158-484: The researchers found that bluffing arose naturally as the optimal strategy in each situation. The findings were published under the title 100 Horsemen and the empty city: A game theoretic examination of deception in Chinese military legend in the Journal of Peace Research in 2011. The basis for this story in Romance of the Three Kingdoms is an anecdote shared by one Guo Chong (郭沖) in the early Jin dynasty (266–420) . In
4235-418: The state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Born in the late Eastern Han dynasty , Zhang Yi was a 10th-generation descendant of Zhang Liang . He started his career as a scribe under the warlord Liu Bei , who founded Shu later, and gradually rose to the positions of a county prefect and commandery administrator. In the early 230s, he served as an area commander tasked with maintaining
4312-510: The state of Shu Han . After the Conquest of Shu by Wei in 263, he became an official historian under the government of the Jin dynasty , and created a history of the Three Kingdoms period. After the Conquest of Wu by Jin in 280, his work received the acclaim of senior minister Zhang Hua . Prior to the Jin dynasty, both the states of Cao Wei and Wu has already composed their own official histories:
4389-427: The supplies. When Huang Zhong did not return after a long time, Zhao Yun led tens of horsemen in search of Huang. Zhao Yun's search party encountered Cao Cao's forces and engaged them in battle but were outnumbered and was forced to retreat back to camp with Cao Cao's men in pursuit. Zhao Yun's subordinate Zhang Yi wanted to close the gates of the camp to prevent the enemy from entering. However, Zhao Yun gave orders for
4466-512: The time, Li Yuan had just arrested Wang Wei (王威) and Gao Junya (高君雅), two officials sent by Emperor Yang to spy on him. He was also still busy plotting his rebellion. Moreover, he was also not prepared for a battle against the Göktürks because of two reasons. Firstly, Göktürk cavalrymen were so powerful that Li Yuan was not confident that his troops could defeat them. Secondly, even if Li Yuan defeated them in battle, he would nonetheless suffer significant losses that would undermine his rebellion against
4543-615: The time. The Battle of Jieting took place in 228 but Sima Yi's biography in the Book of Jin claimed that in 227, Sima Yi was stationed at Wancheng in the north of Jing Province . He led an army to suppress a rebellion by Meng Da at Xincheng (新城; in present-day northwestern Hubei ), and returned to Wancheng after his victory. Later, he went to the imperial capital Luoyang to meet the Wei emperor Cao Rui , who consulted him on some affairs before ordering him to return to Wancheng. Sima Yi only engaged Zhuge Liang in battle after 230. Yi Zhongtian ,
4620-413: The uprising can be found in fragmentary form in at least four fascicles: the biographies of Cheng Yu , Yu Jin , Liu Bei , and Sun Jian . The three books in the Records of the Three Kingdoms end at different dates, with the main section of the Book of Wei ending with the abdication of Cao Huan in 265, the Book of Shu ending with the death of Liu Shan in 271, and the Book of Wu ending with
4697-407: The use of the Empty Fort Strategy is a fictional incident in the novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms , which romanticises historical events in the late Han dynasty and the Three Kingdoms period. This event took place during the first of a series of campaigns – known as Zhuge Liang's Northern Expeditions – led by Shu Han 's chancellor Zhuge Liang to attack Shu's rival state, Cao Wei . In
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#17328442078504774-402: The war drums. He then ordered all the gates to be opened and told his men to sweep and dust the ground. Sima Yi knew that impression that Zhuge Liang was a cautious and prudent man, and he was baffled by the sight before him and suspected that there was an ambush. He then withdrew his troops. The following day, Zhuge Liang clapped his hands, laughed, and told an aide that Sima Yi thought that there
4851-466: The war zone, I should make preparations for stockpiling and transporting supplies so as to ensure that my successor will have adequate resources to quell the revolt. How can I neglect my role in public affairs just because I have been relieved of my command?" Zhang Yi then directed his troops to transport supplies to a staging area for the troops and kept them on high alert until his successor, Ma Zhong , arrived. Due to Zhang Yi's earlier efforts, Ma Zhong
4928-592: The work have been selected and translated into English, the entire corpus has yet to receive an unabridged English translation. The Book of Han and Records of the Three Kingdoms join the original Han-era universal history Records of the Grand Historian to constitute the first three entries in the Twenty-Four Histories canon, with each work cementing the new genre's literary and historiographical qualities as established by Sima Qian . The Records of
5005-587: Was able to successfully defeat Liu Zhou and suppress the revolt. Zhang Yi's actions earned him praise from Zhuge Liang , the Imperial Chancellor of Shu. In 234, Zhang Yi served as the Chief Controller of the Vanguard (前軍都督) when Zhuge Liang led Shu forces to attack Shu's rival state Wei for the fifth time since 228. Zhuge Liang also appointed him as the nominal Administrator of Fufeng Commandery (扶風郡; around present-day Xingping , Shaanxi ), which
5082-627: Was an ambush and had withdrawn. Later, his scouts returned and reported that Sima Yi had indeed retreated. Sima Yi was very upset when he later found out about the ruse. After adding the anecdote to Zhuge Liang's biography, Pei Songzhi wrote a short commentary as follows: When Zhuge Liang garrisoned at Yangping, Sima Yi was serving as the Area Commander of Jing Province and he was stationed at Wancheng (宛城; present-day Wancheng District , Nanyang , Henan ). He only came into confrontation with Zhuge Liang in Guanzhong after Cao Zhen 's death (in 231). It
5159-450: Was an ambush, so he told his men, "Cao Cao is very cunning. We must not fall into his ambush." He then led his troops to 10 li (Chinese miles) south of Cao Cao's base and set up his camp there. The next day, Lü Bu came to attack Cao Cao, and by then, Cao Cao had really set up an ambush near the dyke with the soldiers that had returned from gathering the grain. Lü Bu's forces fell into the ambush and were defeated. The "ambush" mentioned in
5236-592: Was apparently discontinued. Parts of that project are published by Robert Joe Cutter and William Gordon Crowell under the title Empresses and Consorts: Selections from Chen Shou's Records of the Three States With Pei Songzhi's Commentary ( University of Hawaii Press , 1999), which includes the translations for fascicles 5, 34, and 50. Other translations include Kenneth J. Dewoskin's Doctors Diviners and Magicians of Ancient China: Biographies of Fang-Shih ( Columbia University Press , 1983), which includes
5313-507: Was endorsed by the Prince of Fufeng ( Sima Jun , a son of Sima Yi). However, the story puts Sima Yi in a negative light, and it does not make sense for a son to approve a story which demeans his father. We can tell that this anecdote is fake after reading the sentence "the Prince of Fufeng endorsed Guo Chong's anecdote". Evidence from historical sources indicate that Sima Yi was indeed not in Jieting at
5390-409: Was established. The Records refer to the rulers of Wei as 'Emperors' and those of Shu and Wu as 'Lords' or by their personal names. Due to the biographical rather than primarily annalistic arrangement of the work, assigning dates to the historical content is both imprecise and non-trivial. Certain fascicles contain background information about their subjects' forebears which date back centuries before
5467-523: Was so frightened that he retreated after two days. Many traditions say that in 1572, during the Sengoku Period in Japan, Tokugawa Ieyasu used the tactic during his retreat in the Battle of Mikatagahara . He commanded that the fortress gates remain open, and that braziers be lit to guide his retreating army back to safety. One officer beat a large war drum, seeking to add encouragement to the returning men of
5544-415: Was to set up a defence. The ploy worked because it made Lü Bu hesitate when he wanted to attack. Cao Cao had bought sufficient time to set up a real ambush, and he defeated Lü Bu when he came to attack again on the following day. The Zhao Yun Biezhuan (趙雲別傳; Unofficial Biography of Zhao Yun ) mentioned an incident about Zhao Yun , a general under the warlord Liu Bei , using the Empty Fort Strategy during
5621-426: Was under Wei control. Following Zhuge Liang's death later that year during the Battle of Wuzhang Plains , Zhang Yi was appointed as Vanguard Army Commander (前領軍). He also received a peerage as a Secondary Marquis (關內侯) for his contributions during the battle, as well as for his earlier efforts in helping Ma Zhong suppress Liu Zhou's rebellion. In 238, Zhang Yi was reassigned to the Shu capital Chengdu to serve as
5698-416: Was unlikely that the Wei government ordered Sima Yi to lead an army from Wancheng to attack Shu via Xicheng (西城; present-day Ankang , Shaanxi) because there were heavy rains at the time (which obstructed passage). There were no battles fought at Yangping before and after that period of time. Going by Guo Chong's anecdote, if Sima Yi did lead 200,000 troops to attack Zhuge Liang, knew that Zhuge Liang's position
5775-637: Was unsure of what to do, but eventually formulated a plan to deceive him. He ordered everyone in the fortress to stay under cover while he hid behind the walls, creating an illusion of an empty fortress. As Wen Ping expected, Sun Quan became suspicious and he said to his subordinates, "The northerners regard this man (Wen Ping) as a loyal subject, which is why they entrusted him with defending this commandery. Now, as I approach, he does not make any move. It must be either that he has something up his sleeve or that his reinforcements have arrived." Sun Quan then withdrew his forces. The historian Pei Songzhi commented that
5852-450: Was used, which were very similar to the incidents involving Zhao Yun and Wen Ping (see the sections below). Cao Cao was trying to confuse Lü Bu by making use of the geographical features (the "deep forest") and by ordering women to stand guard on the walls, so as to make Lü Bu suspect that he had set up an ambush in the "deep forest" and lure Lü Bu to attack his "weakly defended" base by deploying women as soldiers to show how "desperate" he
5929-412: Was weakly defended, and suspected that there was an ambush, he could have ordered his troops to surround Zhuge Liang's position instead of retreating. Wei Yan's biography mentioned: "Each time Wei Yan followed Zhuge Liang to battle, he would request to command a separate detachment of about 10,000 men and take a different route and rendezvous with Zhuge Liang's main force at Tong Pass . Zhuge Liang rejected
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