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81-526: His family lived at Dunhuang , where he was born around 233 CE. At the age of eight, he became a novice and took the Indian monk named Zhu Gaozuo ( Chinese : 竺高座 ) as his teacher. As a young boy, Dhamaraksa was said to be extremely intelligent, and journeyed with his teacher to many countries in the Western Regions, where he learned Central Asian languages and scripts. He then traveled back to China with

162-456: A gross domestic product of ¥8.178 billion. The value of the city's primary sector totaled ¥0.994 billion, its secondary sector totaled ¥1.872 billion, and its tertiary sector totaled ¥5.312 billion. As of 2020, Dunhuang has a gross domestic product of ¥7.778 billion. The value of the city's primary sector totaled ¥1.082 billion, its secondary sector totaled ¥1.752 billion, and its tertiary sector totaled ¥4.943 billion. Dunhuang

243-586: A 24-hour average temperature of −8.3 °C (17.1 °F) in January, while summers are hot, with a July average of 24.6 °C (76.3 °F); the annual mean is 9.48 °C (49.1 °F). The diurnal temperature variation averages 16.1 °C (29.0 °F) annually. With monthly percent possible sunshine ranging from 69% in March to 82% in October, the city receives 3,258 hours of bright sunshine annually, making it one of

324-631: A commentary on the Annals . Kang's theory was that Liu Xin—who with his father Liu Xiang , the imperial librarian, was one of the first to have access to the rare documents in the Han dynasty's imperial archives—took the Discourses of the States and forged it into a chronicle-like work to fit the format of the Annals in an attempt to lend credibility to the policies of his master, the usurper Wang Mang . Kang's theory

405-411: A famously terse and succinct quality that was admired and imitated throughout Chinese history and usually focus either on speeches that illustrate ethical values, or on anecdotes in which the details of the story illuminate specific ethical points. Its narratives are characterized by parataxis , where clauses are juxtaposed with little verbal indication of their causal relationships with each other. On

486-500: A long, drawn-out controversy when he proposed, by emphasizing certain discrepancies between it and the Annals , that the Zuo Zhuan was not originally a commentary on the Annals . Liu's theory was taken much further by the prominent scholar and reformer Kang Youwei , who argued that Liu Xin did not really find the "ancient script" version of the Zuo Zhuan in the imperial archives, as historical records describe, but actually forged it as

567-582: A military leader who served in the State of Wei and who, according to the Han Feizi , was from a place called 左氏 ; zǔoshì . In 1792, the scholar Yao Nai wrote: "The [ Zuo Zhuan ] did not come from one person. There were repeated accretions and additions, with those of Wu Qi and his followers being especially numerous...." In the early 19th century, the Chinese scholar Liu Fenglu ( 劉逢祿 ; 1776–1829) initiated

648-516: A number of developments in governmental complexity and specialization that preceded China's imperial unification in 221 BC by the First Emperor of Qin . The latter years of this period also saw the appearance of Confucius , who later became the preeminent figure in Chinese cultural history. The Zuo Zhuan is one of the only surviving written sources for the history of the Spring and Autumn period, and

729-461: A quantity of Buddhist texts and translated them with the aid of numerous assistants and associates, both Chinese and foreign, from Parthians to Khotanese. One of his more prominent assistants was a Chinese upāsaka, Nie Chengyuan ( Chinese : 聶承遠 ), who served as a scribe and editor. Dharmaraksa first began his translation career in Chang'an (present day Xi'an ) in 266 CE, and later moved to Luoyang ,

810-469: A series of linguistic and philological analyses he carried out in the 1920s, that the Zuo Zhuan is a genuine ancient text "probably to be dated between 468 and 300   BC." While Liu's hypothesis that the Zuo Zhuan was not originally an Annals commentary has been generally accepted, Kang's theory of Liu Xin forging the Zuo Zhuan is now considered discredited. The oldest surviving Zuo Zhuan manuscripts are six fragments that were discovered among

891-615: A way that teaches and illustrates moral principles. The German sinologist Martin Kern observed: "Instead of offering authorial judgments or catechistic hermeneutics, the Zuo Zhuan lets its moral lessons unfold within the narrative itself, teaching at once history and historical judgment." Unlike the Histories of Herodotus or the History of the Peloponnesian War of Thucydides , with which it

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972-485: Is Qinghai Petroleum Authority Life Base  [ zh ] . Prior to 2015, Guojiabu  [ zh ] and Huangqu  [ zh ] were administered as townships. Prior to 2019, the city administered Guoying Dunhuang Farm  [ zh ] as a township-level division. In 2011, Yueyaquan  [ zh ] was formed from Yangjiaqiao Township ( Chinese : 杨家桥乡 ). 2019 city estimates put Dunhuang's population at about 191,800. According to

1053-404: Is also sold, consisting of a large, sweet confection made with nuts and dried fruit , sliced into the portion desired by the customer. Dunhuang has a cool arid climate ( Köppen BWk ), with an annual total precipitation of 67 mm (2.64 in), the majority of which occurs in summer; precipitation occurs only in trace amounts and quickly evaporates. Winters are long and freezing, with

1134-514: Is concretely known of the life or identity of the Zuo Qiuming of the Analects , nor of what connection he might have with the Zuo Zhuan . This traditional assumption that the title's "Master Zuo" refers to the Zuo Qiuming of the Analects is not based on any specific evidence, and was challenged by scholars as early as the 8th century. Some modern scholars have observed that even if the Zuo Qiuming of

1215-737: Is evidence of habitation in the area as early as 2,000 BC, possibly by people recorded as the Qiang in Chinese history. According to Zuo Zhuan and Book of the Later Han , the Dunhuang region was a part of the ancient Guazhou, which was known for its production of melons. Its name was also mentioned in relation to the homeland of the Yuezhi in the Records of the Grand Historian . Some have argued that this may refer to

1296-597: Is located northeast of town, near the airport. The railway from Dunhuang was extended south into Qinghai , connecting Dunhuang to Subei, Mahai and Yinmaxia (near Golmud ) on the Qingzang railway . The central section of this railway opened on 18 December 2019 completing the through route. Zuo Zhuan The Zuo Zhuan ( Chinese : 左傳 ; Wade–Giles : Tso chuan ; [tswò ʈʂwân] ), often translated as The Zuo Tradition or as The Commentary of Zuo , an ancient Chinese narrative history,

1377-519: Is roughly contemporary, the Zuo Zhuan ′s narration always remains in the third person and presents as a dispassionate recorder of facts. Several of the Zuo Zhuan ′s most famous sections are those dealing with critical historical battles, such as the Battle of Chengpu and the Battle of Bi . The Battle of Chengpu, the first of the Zuo Zhuan ′s great battles, took place in the summer of 632 BC at Chengpu (now Juancheng County , Shandong Province ) in

1458-701: Is served by China National Highway 215 and Dunhuang Mogao International Airport . A railway branch known as the Dunhuang railway or the Liudun Railway ( 柳敦铁路 ), constructed in 2004–2006, connects Dunhuang with the Liugou Station on the Lanzhou-Xinjiang railway (in Guazhou County ). There is regular passenger service on the line, with overnight trains from Dunhuang to Lanzhou and Xi'an . Dunhuang Station

1539-581: Is that of Duke Zhuang of Zheng , who ruled the State of Zheng from 743 to 701 BC. Duke Zhuang was born "in a manner that startled" his mother (probably breech birth ), which caused her to later seek to persuade her husband to name Duke Zhuang's younger brother as the heir apparent instead of him. The story ends with eventual reconciliation between mother and son, thus exemplifying the traditional Chinese virtues of both 礼 ; lǐ ; 'ritual propriety' and 孝 ; xiào ; 'filial piety', which made it consistently popular with Chinese readers over

1620-470: Is traditionally regarded as a commentary on the ancient Chinese chronicle the Spring and Autumn Annals . It comprises 30 chapters covering the period from 722 to 468   BC, and focuses mainly on political, diplomatic, and military affairs from that era. For many centuries, the Zuo Zhuan was the primary text through which educated Chinese learned their ancient history. The Zuo Zhuan does not simply explain

1701-401: The 2010 Chinese census , Dunhuang has a population of 186,027, down slightly from the 187,578 recorded in the 2000 Chinese census . In 1996, the city had an estimated population of 125,000 people. Dunhuang has an urbanization rate of 69.45% as of 2019. In 2019, the city had a birth rate of 9.87‰, and a death rate of 5.69‰, giving it a rate of natural increase of 3.15‰. 97.8% of

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1782-406: The Analects is the "Zuo" referenced in the Zuo Zhuan ′s title, this attribution is questionable because the Zuo Zhuan describes events from the late Spring and Autumn period ( c.  771  – 476 BC) that Zuo could not have known. Alternatively, a number of scholars, beginning in the 18th century, have suggested that the Zuo Zhuan was actually the product of Wu Qi ,

1863-579: The Annals after Confucius's death. Zuo therefore gathered together Confucius's scribal records and used them to compile the Zuo Annals in order to "preserve the true teachings." The "Zuo Qiuming" whom Sima Qian references was traditionally assumed to be the Zuo Qiuming who briefly appears in the Analects of Confucius when Confucius praises him for his moral judgment. Other than this brief mention, nothing

1944-594: The Dunhuang manuscripts in the early 20th century by the French Sinologist Paul Pelliot and are now held at the Bibliothèque Nationale de France . Four of the fragments date to the Six Dynasties period (3rd to 6th centuries), while the other two date to the early Tang dynasty (7th century). The oldest known complete Zuo Zhuan manuscript is the "ancient manuscript scroll" preserved at

2025-663: The Kanazawa Bunko Museum in Yokohama, Japan . The Zuo Zhuan recounts the major political, military, and social events of the Spring and Autumn period from the perspective of the State of Lu . The book is famous "for its dramatic power and realistic details". It contains a variety of tense and dramatic episodes: battles and fights, royal assassinations and murder of concubines, deception and intrigue, excesses, citizens' oppression and insurgences, and appearances of ghosts and cosmic portents. Each Zuo Zhuan chapter begins with

2106-510: The Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu) entry for the year, which is usually terse and brief, followed by the Zuo Zhuan content for that year, which often contains long and detailed narratives. The entries follow the strict chronological format of the Annals , so interrelated episodes and the actions of individual characters are sometimes separated by events that occurred in the intervening years. The following entry, though unusually short, exemplifies

2187-542: The State of Wey . On one side were the troops of the powerful State of Chu , from what was then far southern China, led by the Chu prime minister Cheng Dechen . They were opposed by the armies of the State of Jin , led by Chong'er, Duke of Jin , one of the most prominent and well known figures in the Zuo Zhuan . Chu suffered a disastrous defeat in the battle itself, and it resulted in Chong'er being named hegemon ( 霸 ; bà ) of

2268-564: The Western Jin (280–316 AD). Dunhuang Night Market is a night market held on the main thoroughfare, Dong Dajie, in the city centre of Dunhuang, popular with tourists during the summer months. Many souvenir items are sold, including such typical items as jade , jewelry, scrolls, hangings, small sculptures, leather shows puppets, coins, Tibetan horns and Buddha statues. A sizable number of members of China's ethnic minorities engage in business at these markets. A Central Asian dessert or sweet

2349-504: The Zuo Zhuan as paragons of Classical Chinese prose, more than any other source. These passages are still part of the Classical Chinese curriculum in mainland China and Taiwan today. The 400-year period the Zuo Zhuan covers is now known as the Spring and Autumn period , after the Spring and Autumn Annals , but the Zuo Zhuan is the most important source for the period. This era was highly significant in Chinese history, and saw

2430-574: The Zuo Zhuan demonstrate the traditional Chinese concept of 命 ; mìng ; 'fate', 'destiny'—referring either to an individual's mission in life or their allotted lifespan—and attempt to illustrate how benevolent rulers ought to accept 'fate' selflessly, as in the story of Duke Wen moving the capital of the state of Zhu in 614 BC.       邾文公卜遷于繹，史曰，利於民而不利於君。邾子曰，苟利於民，孤之利也，天生民而樹之君，以利之也，民既利矣，孤必與焉；       Duke Wen of Zhu divined by turtle shell to determine if he should move his capital to

2511-408: The Zuo Zhuan had to that point been organized into any coherent form. No pre-Han dynasty texts directly refer to the Zuo Zhuan as a source, although a few mention its parent text Spring and Autumn Annals . The Zuo Zhuan seems to have had no distinct title of its own during this period, but seems to have simply been called " Annals ( Chunqiu )" along with a larger group of similar texts. In

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2592-440: The Zuo Zhuan ′s creation and early history. Bamboo and silk manuscripts excavated from late Warring States period ( c.  300 BC ) tombs, combined with analyses of its language, diction, chronological references, and philosophical viewpoints, suggest that the Zuo Zhuan 's composition was largely complete by 300 BC. However, no pre- Han dynasty (202 BC – AD   220) source indicates that

2673-609: The 31st year, in summer, in the 6th month, the Prince of Qi came here to present spoils from the Rong: this was not in accordance with ritual propriety. In all cases when the princes achieve some merit against the Yi of the four directions, they present these spoils to the king, and the king thereby issues a warning to the Yi. This was not done in the central domains. The princes do not present captives to one another. (Chinese) Zuo Zhuan narratives have

2754-454: The 3rd century AD, the Chinese scholar Du Yu intercalated the Zuo Zhuan with the Annals so that each Annals entry was followed by the corresponding narrative from the Zuo Zhuan . This became the received format of the Zuo Zhuan that exists today. Some modern scholars believe that the Zuo Zhuan was originally an independent work composed during the latter half of the 4th century BC—though probably incorporating some older material —that

2835-402: The 5th century BC described as a blind disciple of Confucius —but there is little actual evidence to support this. Most scholars now generally believe that the Zuo Zhuan was originally an independent work, composed during the 4th century BC, that was later rearranged as a commentary to the Annals . Despite its longstanding status as the paragon of Classical Chinese prose, little is known of

2916-475: The Chu army suffered a resounding defeat. Only Dechen, who had kept his troops back and had not attempted to pursue the enemy, as a result managed to escape defeat. The narrative of the Battle of Chengpu is typical of Zuo Zhuan battle narratives. The description of the battle itself is relatively brief, with most of the narrative being focused on battle preparations, omens and prognostications regarding its outcome,

2997-467: The Chu side, Dechen, with the 600 men of the Ruo'ao family, was acting as commander of the central army. "Today, mark my word, Jin will be wiped out!" he said. Dou Yishen was acting as commander of the left wing of the Chu army, and Dou Bo as commander of the right wing.       胥臣蒙馬以虎皮，先犯陳蔡，陳蔡奔，楚右師潰；       Xu Chen, having cloaked his horses in tiger skins, led

3078-736: The Qiang tribes. By the third century BC, the area became dominated by the Xiongnu , but came under Chinese rule during the Han dynasty after Emperor Wu defeated the Xiongnu in 121 BC . Dunhuang was one of the four frontier garrison towns (along with Jiuquan , Zhangye and Wuwei ) established by the Emperor Wu after the defeat of the Xiongnu, and the Chinese built fortifications at Dunhuang and sent settlers there. The name Dunhuang, meaning "Blazing Beacon", refers to

3159-875: The Tibetans in 848. After the fall of Tang, Zhang's family formed the Kingdom of Golden Mountain in 910, but in 911 it came under the influence of the Uighurs . The Zhangs were succeeded by the Cao family, who formed alliances with the Uighurs and the Kingdom of Khotan . During the Song dynasty , Dunhuang fell outside the Chinese borders. In 1036 the Tanguts who founded the Western Xia dynasty captured Dunhuang. From

3240-492: The attack by striking directly at the troops of Chen and Cai. The men of Chen and Cai fled, and the right wing of the Chu army was thus routed.       狐毛設二旆而退之，欒枝使輿曳柴而偽遁，楚師馳之，原軫，郤溱，以中軍公族橫擊之，狐毛，狐偃，以上軍夾攻子西，楚左師潰;       Hu Mao [the commander of the Jin upper army] hoisted two pennons and began to retreat, while Luan Zhi [the commander of the Jin lower army] had his men drag brushwood over

3321-511: The beacons lit to warn of attacks by marauding nomadic tribes. Dunhuang Commandery was probably established shortly after 104 BC. Located in the western end of the Hexi Corridor near the historic junction of the Northern and Southern Silk Roads , Dunhuang was a town of military importance. "The Great Wall was extended to Dunhuang, and a line of fortified beacon towers stretched westwards into

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3402-615: The capital of the newly formed Jin Dynasty . He was active in Dunhuang for some time as well, and alternated between the three locations. It was in Chang'an that he made the first known translation of the Lotus Sutra and the Ten Stages Sutra , two texts that later became definitive for Chinese Buddhism , in 286 and 302, respectively. He died at the age of seventy-eight after a period of illness;

3483-515: The caves in Mogao are particularly noted for their Buddhist art, as well as the hoard of manuscripts, the Dunhuang manuscripts , found hidden in a sealed-up cave. Many of these caves were covered with murals and contain many Buddhist statues. Discoveries continue to be found in the caves, including excerpts from a Christian Bible dating to the Yuan dynasty . Numerous smaller Buddhist cave sites are located in

3564-435: The centuries. Many Zuo Zhuan anecdotes end with brief moral comments or verdicts that are attributed to either Confucius or an unnamed 君子 ; jūnzi ; ' noble man ', ' gentleman ', ' atheling ', 'superior man'. The chapter on the Battle of Chengpu contains the following ending comment: 君子謂是盟也信，謂晉於是役也，能以德攻。 The gentleman remarks: This alliance accorded with good faith. In this campaign,

3645-430: The city and/or its surrounding region has also been known by the names Shazhou (prefecture of sand) or Guazhou (prefecture of melons). In the modern era, the two alternative names have been assigned respectively to Shazhou zhen (Shazhou town) which serves as Dunhuang's seat of government, and to the neighboring Guazhou County . A number of derivations of the name Dunhuang have been suggested by scholars: There

3726-460: The city of Yi. The historian who conducted the divination replied, "The move will benefit the people but not their ruler." The ruler of Zhu said, "If it benefits the people, it benefits me. Heaven gave birth to the people and set up a ruler in order to benefit them. If the people enjoy the benefit, I am bound to share in it."       左右曰，命可長也，君何弗為。邾子曰，命在養民，死之短長，時也，民苟利矣，遷也，吉莫如之；       Those around

3807-431: The city's population is ethnically Han Chinese , with the remaining 2.2% being 27 ethnic minorities , including ethnic Hui , Mongol , Tibetan , Uyghur , Miao , Manchu , Monguor , Kazakh , Dongxiang , and Yugur populations. As of 2019, the annual per capita disposable income of urban residents was ¥36,215, and the annual per capita disposable income of rural residents was ¥18,852. As of 2019, Dunhuang has

3888-406: The desert. By the second century AD Dunhuang had a population of more than 76,000 and was a key supply base for caravans that passed through the city: those setting out for the arduous trek across the desert loaded up with water and food supplies, and others arriving from the west gratefully looked upon the mirage-like sight of Dunhuang's walls, which signified safety and comfort. Dunhuang prospered on

3969-400: The development of Chang'an into a major center of Buddhism at the time. Some of his main translations are: Dunhuang Dunhuang ( listen ) is a county-level city in northwestern Gansu Province , Western China . According to the 2010 Chinese census , the city has a population of 186,027, though 2019 estimates put the city's population at about 191,800. Sachu (Dunhuang)

4050-405: The division of the spoils, and the shifts and defections of the various allied states involved in the conflict. This "official [and] restrained" style, which became typical of Chinese historical writing, is largely due to the ancient Chinese belief that ritual propriety and strategic preparation were more important in determining the outcome of battles than individual valor or bravery. Several of

4131-453: The end he moved the capital to Yi. In the fifth month Duke Wen of Zhu died.       君子曰，知命。       The noble person remarks: He understood the meaning of destiny. The Zuo Zhuan has been recognized as a masterpiece of early Chinese prose and "grand historical narrative" for many centuries. It has had an immense influence on Chinese literature and historiography for nearly 2000 years, and

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4212-492: The exact location of his death is still disputed. Altogether, Dharmaraksa translated around 154 sūtras. Many of his works were greatly successful, widely circulating around northern China in the third century and becoming the subject of exegetical studies and scrutiny by Chinese monastics in the fourth century. His efforts in both translation and lecturing on sūtras are said to have converted many in China to Buddhism, and contributed to

4293-595: The fall of the Han dynasty it came under the rule of various nomadic tribes, such as the Xiongnu during Northern Liang and the Turkic Tuoba during Northern Wei . The Tibetans occupied Dunhuang when the Tang Empire became weakened considerably after the An Lushan Rebellion ; and even though it was later returned to Tang rule, it was under quasi-autonomous rule by the local general Zhang Yichao , who expelled

4374-464: The first century AD, and a sizable Buddhist community eventually developed in Dunhuang. The caves carved out by the monks, originally used for meditation, developed into a place of worship and pilgrimage called the Mogao Caves or " Caves of a Thousand Buddhas. " A number of Christian, Jewish, and Manichaean artifacts have also been found in the caves (see for example Jingjiao Documents ), testimony to

4455-660: The general format of all Zuo Zhuan entries. Annals 三十有一年，春，築臺于郎。夏，四月，薛伯卒。築臺于薛。六月，齊侯來獻戎捷。秋，築臺于秦。冬，不雨。 In the 31st year, in spring, a terrace was built in Lang. In summer, in the 4th month, the Liege of Xue died. A terrace was built at Xue. In the 6th month, the Prince of Qi came to present spoils from the Rong. In autumn, a terrace was built in Qin. In winter, it did not rain. (Zuo) 三十一年，夏，六月，齊侯來獻戎捷，非禮也。凡諸侯有四夷之功，則獻于王，王以警于夷，中國則否。諸侯不相遺俘。 In

4536-464: The ground to simulate the dust of a general rout. The Chu forces raced after in pursuit, whereupon Yuan Chen and Xi Chen, leading the duke's own select troops of the central army, fell upon them from either side. Hu Mao and Hu Yan, leading the upper army, turned about and likewise attacked Dou Yishen from either side, thereby routing the left wing of the Chu army.       楚師敗績，子玉收其卒而止，故不敗。       Thus

4617-613: The heavy flow of traffic. The first Buddhist caves in the Dunhuang area were hewn in 353." During the Sui (581–618) and Tang (618–907) dynasties, it was the main stop of communication between ancient China and the rest of the world and a major hub of commerce of the Silk Road. Dunhuang was the intersection city of all three main silk routes (north, central, south) during this time. From the West also came early Buddhist monks, who had arrived in China by

4698-407: The main road leading from India via Lhasa to Mongolia and southern Siberia , and also controls the entrance to the narrow Hexi Corridor , which leads straight to the heart of the north Chinese plains and the ancient capitals of Chang'an (today known as Xi'an) and Luoyang . Administratively, the county-level city of Dunhuang is part of the prefecture-level city of Jiuquan . Historically,

4779-422: The most notable passages in the Zuo Zhuan describe succession crises , which seem to have been fairly common in China during the Spring and Autumn period. These crises often involved the "tangled affections" of the various rulers, and are described in a dramatic and vivid manner that gives insight into the lives of China's aristocratic elite during the mid-1st millennium BC. The best known of these stories

4860-437: The observance of li is never shown as guaranteeing victory, and the Zuo Zhuan includes many examples of the good and innocent suffering senseless violence. Much of the Zuo Zhuan ′s status as a literary masterpiece stems from its "relentlessly realistic portrayal of a turbulent era marked by violence, political strife, intrigues, and moral laxity". The narratives of the Zuo Zhuan are highly didactic and are presented in

4941-491: The other hand, the speeches and recorded discourses of the Zuo Zhuan are frequently lively, ornate, and verbally complex. The Zuo Zhuan 's overarching theme is that haughty, evil, and stupid people generally bring disaster upon themselves, while those who are good, wise, and humble are usually justly rewarded. The Confucian principle of "ritual propriety ( 禮 ; lǐ ) is seen as governing all actions, including war, and to bring bad consequences if transgressed. However,

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5022-566: The outside world became dominated by southern sea-routes, and the Silk Road was officially abandoned during the Ming dynasty . It was occupied again by the Tibetans c. 1516, and also came under the influence of the Chagatai Khanate in the early sixteenth century. Dunhuang was retaken by China two centuries later c. 1715 during the Qing dynasty , and the present-day city of Dunhuang was established east of

5103-404: The present day, the Zuo Zhuan has been viewed as a model of correct, elegant, and sophisticated Classical Chinese prose. The Zuo Zhuan ′s great influence on the Chinese language is evident from the fact that it is the source of more chengyu than any other work, including the Analects of Confucius . The well-known Qing dynasty student anthology Guwen Guanzhi included 34 passages from

5184-616: The reconquest of 848 to about 1036 (i.e. era of the Guiyi Circuit ), Dunhuang was a multicultural entrepot that contained one of the largest ethnic Sogdian communities in China following the An Lushan Rebellion. The Sogdians were Sinified to some extent and were bilingual in Chinese and Sogdian , and wrote their documents in Chinese characters , but horizontally from left to right instead of right to left in vertical lines, as Chinese

5265-858: The region, including the Western Thousand Buddha Caves , the Eastern Thousands Buddha Caves, and the Five Temple site. The Yulin Caves are located further east in Guazhou County . in Hecang Fortress ( Chinese : 河仓城 ; pinyin : Hécāngchéng ), located about 11 km (6.8 mi) northeast of the Western-Han-era Yumen Pass , were built during the Western Han (202 BC – 9 AD) and significantly rebuilt during

5346-445: The result of long-standing overgrazing of the surrounding land, has reached the edges of the city. In 2011 satellite images showing huge structures in the desert near Dunhuang surfaced online and caused a brief media stir. A number of Buddhist cave sites are located in the Dunhuang area, the most important of these is the Mogao Caves which is located 25 km (16 mi) southeast of Dunhuang. There are 735 caves in Mogao, and

5427-467: The ruined old city in 1725. In 1988, Dunhuang was elevated from county to county-level city status. On March 31, 1995, Turpan and Dunhuang became sister cities. Today, the site is an important tourist attraction and the subject of an ongoing archaeological project. A large number of manuscripts and artifacts retrieved at Dunhuang have been digitized and made publicly available via the International Dunhuang Project . The spreading Kumtag Desert ,

5508-550: The ruler of Jin [Chong'er] was able to attack through the power of virtue. These postfaces, which were added later by Confucian scholars, are directed toward those currently in power, reminding them of "the historical precedents and inevitable consequences of their own actions." They speak with the voices of previous ministers, advisers, "old men", and other anonymous figures to remind rulers of historical and moral lessons, and suggest that rulers who heed their advice will succeed, while those who do not will fail. Several sections of

5589-424: The ruler said, "If by taking warning from the divination you can prolong your destiny, why not do so?" The ruler replied, "My destiny lies in nourishing the people. Whether death comes to me early or late is merely a matter of time. If the people will benefit thereby, then nothing could be more auspicious than to move the capital."       遂遷于繹。五月，邾文公卒。       In

5670-747: The sunniest nationwide. The Gansu Dunhuang Solar Park was built in the southwest suburbs of the city to harvest the abundant solar energy. As of 2020, Dunhuang administers nine towns and one other township-level division . These township-level divisions then administer 56 village-level divisions . The city's nine towns are Qili  [ zh ] (七里镇), Shazhou  [ zh ] (沙州镇), Suzhou  [ zh ] (肃州镇), Mogao  [ zh ] (莫高镇), Zhuanqukou  [ zh ] (转渠口镇), Yangguan  [ zh ] (阳关镇), Yueyaquan  [ zh ] (月牙泉镇), Guojiabu  [ zh ] (郭家堡镇), and Huangqu  [ zh ] (黄渠镇). The city's sole other township-level division

5751-399: The terse, succinct entries of the Annals contained cryptic references to Confucius' "profound moral judgments on the events of the past as well as those of his own day and on the relation of human events to those in the natural order", and that the Zuo Zhuan was written to clarify or even "decode" these hidden judgments. From the Han dynasty (206 BC – AD 220) down to

5832-666: The unrelated toponym Dunhong – the archaeologist Lin Meicun has also suggested that Dunhuan may be a Chinese name for the Tukhara , a people widely believed to be a Central Asian offshoot of the Yuezhi. During the Warring States period, the inhabitants of Dunhuang included the Dayuezhi people, Wusun people, and Saizhong people (Chinese name for Scythians). As Dayuezhi became stronger, it absorbed

5913-409: The various states.       己巳，晉師陳于莘北，胥臣以下軍之佐，當陳蔡；       On the day ji-si the Jin army encamped at [Chengpu]. The Jin commander Xu Chen, who was acting as assistant to the leader of the lower army, prepared to oppose the troops of Chen and Cai.       子玉以若敖之六卒，將中軍，曰，今日必無晉矣，子西將左，子上將右；       On

5994-637: The wide variety of people who made their way along the Silk Road. During the time of the Sixteen Kingdoms , Li Gao established the Western Liang here in 400 AD. In 405 the capital of the Western Liang was moved from Dunhuang to Jiuquan . In 421 the Western Liang was conquered by the Northern Liang . As a frontier town, Dunhuang was fought over and occupied at various times by non-Han people. After

6075-556: The wording of the Spring and Autumn Annals , but rather expounds upon its historical background with rich and lively accounts of the history and culture of the Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BC). The Zuo Zhuan is the source of more Chinese sayings and idioms than any other classical work, and its concise, flowing style served as a paragon of elegant Classical Chinese . Its tendency toward third-person narration and portraying characters through direct speech and action became hallmarks of Chinese narrative in general, and its style

6156-403: Was a major stop on the ancient Silk Road and is best known for the nearby Mogao Caves . Dunhuang is situated in an oasis containing Crescent Lake and Mingsha Shan ( 鳴沙山 , meaning "Singing-Sand Mountain"), named after the sound of the wind whipping off the dunes, the singing sand phenomenon. Dunhuang commands a strategic position at the crossroads of the ancient Southern Silk Route and

6237-429: Was imitated by historians, storytellers, and ancient-style prose masters for over 2000 years of subsequent Chinese history. The Zuo Zhuan has a reputation as "a masterpiece of grand historical narrative", but its early textual history is largely unknown, and the nature of its original composition and authorship have been widely debated. The titular "Zuo" was traditionally identified as Zuo Qiuming —an obscure figure of

6318-444: Was later rearranged as a commentary to the Annals . Sima Qian 's 1st century BC Records of the Grand Historian , the first of China's 24 dynastic histories, refers to the Zuo Zhuan as " Zuǒshì chūnqiū " ( 左氏春秋 ; "Master Zuo's Spring and Autumn Annals") and attributes it to a man named "Zuo Qiuming" (or possibly "Zuoqiu   Ming"). According to Sima Qian, Confucius 's disciples began disagreeing over their interpretations of

6399-564: Was normally written at the time. Dunhuang was conquered in 1227 by the Mongols , and became part of the Mongol Empire in the wake of Kublai Khan 's conquest of China under the Yuan dynasty . During the Ming dynasty, China became a major sea power, conducting several voyages of exploration with sea routes for trade and cultural exchanges. Dunhuang went into a steep decline after the Chinese trade with

6480-485: Was supported by several subsequent Chinese scholars in the late 19th century, but was contradicted by many 20th-century studies that examined it from many different perspectives. In the early 1930s, the French Sinologist Henri Maspero performed a detailed textual study of the issue, concluding the Han dynasty forgery theory to be untenable. The Swedish Sinologist Bernhard Karlgren concluded, based on

6561-417: Was the primary text by which historical Chinese readers gained an understanding of China's ancient history. It enjoyed high status and esteem throughout Chinese history because of its great literary quality, and was often read and memorized because of its role as the preeminent commentary on the Annals , which nearly all Chinese scholars traditionally ascribed to Confucius. Many Chinese scholars believed that

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