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136-429: The aim of the guwen stylists was to follow the spirit of pre-Han prose rather than to imitate it directly. They used elements of colloquial language to make their writings more direct. The movement also had political and religious aspects, as Confucian scholars tried to combat the influence of Taoism and Buddhism on the emperors. Some also saw it as an effective tool to expose the reality of corruption and weakness in

272-409: A literary movement is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Chinese literature-related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Taoism Taoism or Daoism ( / ˈ t aʊ . ɪ z əm / , / ˈ d aʊ . ɪ z əm / ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China , emphasizing harmony with

408-536: A " liturgical framework for the development of local cults", in other words a scheme or structure for Chinese religion, proposed first by the scholar and Taoist initiate Kristofer Schipper in The Taoist Body (1986). Taoshi are comparable to the non-Taoist ritual masters ( 法師 ) of vernacular traditions (the so-called Faism ) within Chinese religion. The term dàojiàotú ( 道教徒 ; 'follower of Dao'), with

544-651: A "key element" in the "enlightened governance" of the purported former kings. Likely originating in the debates of the Neo- Mohists and school of names , although Liu Xiang (77–6BCE) lists Shen Buhai under Fajia , he still considered his doctrine to be that of Xing-Ming , or "form" and "name". Sima Qian claimed Shen Buhai and Han Fei as favoring it, but rooted in Huang-Lao Daoism. Described as holding outcomes accountable to claims , Sima Qian glosses Shen Buhai, Shang Yang and Han Fei under it; early connected with

680-499: A Western or Japanese background, who often use distinct interpretive models and techniques. This point of view characterizes the religious and philosophical characteristics of the Taoist tradition as being inseparable. Sinologists such as Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn state that "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations." The distinction

816-481: A bifurcated 'philosophy' versus 'religion' model. Daojia was a taxonomical category for Taoist texts, that was eventually applied to Taoist movements and priests in the early medieval period. Meanwhile, daojiao was originally used to specifically distinguish Taoist tradition from Buddhism. Thus, daojiao included daojia . Komjathy notes that the earliest Taoist texts also "reveal a religious community composed of master-disciple lineages", and therefore, that "Taoism

952-766: A category of Masters Texts in the Han dynasty imperial library, becoming a major category of in Han dynasty catalogues, namely the Han state's own Book of Han (111ce). It included six other lost texts. In Sima Tan's essay, Fajia refers to the idea that administrative protocols should disregard kinship and social status, treating everyone equally and elevating the sovereign above all others. Sima Tan's categories contain positive and negative appraisal. Fajia are praised for “honoring rulers and derogating subjects, and clearly distinguishing offices so that no one can overstep [his responsibilities]." Fajia are criticized as strict with little kindness, as

1088-523: A changing with times paradigm, or one of timeliness , "dominated" the age. Pines takes Shang Yang and Han Fei's more specific view of history as an evolutionary process as contrasting. It might have influenced an end of history view expressed by the Qin dynasty , but would be a radical departure from the earlier ideas. Sinologist Hansen also once took the Dao of Shen Dao and Han Fei as aiming at what they took to be

1224-463: A contentless and nonconceptual apophatic meditation as a way of achieving union with the Tao. According to Louis Komjathy, their worldview "emphasized the Dao as sacred, and the universe and each individual being as a manifestation of the Dao." These communities were also closely related to and intermixed with the fangshi (method master) communities. Other scholars, like Russell Kirkland, argue that before

1360-468: A court of administrators likely based on Shen Buhai and Han Fei. But, Sima Qian's chapter concludes: The Way of Laozi esteemed emptiness, reacting to changes through non-action. Profound and subtle, his words are difficult to comprehend. Zhuangzi was unfettered by the Way and virtue, setting loose his discussions; yet his essentials go back to spontaneity. Master Shen (Buhai) treated the lowly as lowly, applying

1496-555: A cruel official under the Emperor Wu of Han . Even by the Records own timeline, a purported Huang-Lao might have emerged in the academies some decades after Shen Buhai's death, likely preceding a consolidated Daodejing (Laozi) or Zhuangzi. Discussing an administrative Way of government, he is as lacking in later metaphysical conceptions of the Daoist Dao . But apart from Shang Yang,

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1632-538: A dividing line between them has never otherwise been entirely clear, and the other have been described them in syncretic, Daoistic terms. Termed "responsiveness through accommodation" by a commentary to the Shiji , Shen Buhai has ideas very similar to that of Non-action in the Guanzi , which was classed as Daoist long before it was classed as 'Legalist'. With Daosim poorly definable for the period, some western Sinologist modernly use

1768-415: A historical cause of changing conditions", namely population growth, acknowledging that an underpopulated society only need moral ties. The Guanzi text sees punishment as unnecessary in ancient times with an abundance of resources, making it a question of poverty rather than human nature. Human nature is a Confucian issue. Graham otherwise considers the customs current of the time as having no significance to

1904-800: A key Taoist work on inner cultivation, the Baopuzi ( Master Embracing Simplicity ). The Six Dynasties (316–589) era saw the rise of two new Taoist traditions, the Shangqing and Lingbao schools. Shangqing was based on a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi between 364 and 370. As Livia Kohn writes, these revelations included detailed descriptions of the heavens as well as "specific methods of shamanic travels or ecstatic excursions, visualizations, and alchemical concoctions." The Shangqing revelations also introduced many new Taoist scriptures. Similarly, between 397 and 402, Ge Chaofu compiled

2040-869: A key role in the development of the merit system , and could be seen as its founder. With formative influence for the Qin and Chinese law, Shang Yang reformed the peripheral Qin state into a strongly centralized, powerful kingdom, ultimately unifying China in 221 BCE. Largely responsible for their synthesis as a school, the Han Feizi also contains some of the earliest commentaries on the Daodejing . Sun Tzu 's Art of War recommends Han Fei's concepts of power, technique, inaction, and impartiality, punishment and reward. One of Sima Tan 's (165–110 BCE) six schools of thought discussing approaches to governance, Imperial Archivists Liu Xiang (77–6BCE) and Liu Xin (c.46bce–23ce) used Fajia as

2176-476: A more " realist " anti-Confucian than Daoist interpretation of the Han Feizi, or for impartial laws and technique as purportedly bolstering the authority of a wu wei semi-inactive ruler. An interpretation of the Daodejing (Laozi) as simply cynically political would be flawed. Still, together with qigong , it can be viewed as a manual for politics and military strategy. In contrast to it's modern representation,

2312-552: A negative view of fa laws, not much favoring "state activism in general". Sima Qian would seem to favor limitation of the bureaucracy, but argues from a standpoint that needs have changed with the times. One chapter of the Han Feizi criticizes "the doctrine of calmness and stillness", another "abstruse and subtle language". Despite appropriative usages, the Daoistic early Han Huainanzi does not endorse Shen Buhai, glossing him as penal alongside Shang Yang and Han Fei. Nonetheless, before

2448-572: A new set of liturgies, which continue to influence Taoist practice to the present day." This period also saw the development of the Three Pure Ones , which merged the high deities from different Taoist traditions into a common trinity that has remained influential until today. The new Integrated Taoism, now with a united Taoist identity, gained official status in China during the Tang dynasty . This tradition

2584-725: A one-time policy that could not be constantly applied. Included by Ban Gu in the Hanshu, Liu Xin adds additional strengths and weaknesses to the categories. Fajia are said to "make reward dependable and punishment inescapable, as a support to control by ceremony." Fajia are criticized as dispensing with reform by teaching and benevolence, rejecting benevolence and concern for others, aiming to perfect government relying only on punishment and law, inflicting corporal punishment even on closest kin, and demeaning mercy and generosity. Although Xun Kuang criticized Shen Dao as "obsessed with fa", and Sima Qian considered Shang Yang successful in "turning

2720-435: A positive philosophy aims for the holistic unification of an individual's reality with everything that is not only real but also valuable, encompassing both the natural world and society. But the earliest references to 'the Tao' per se are largely devoid of liturgical or explicitly supernatural character, used in contexts either of abstract metaphysics or of the ordinary conditions required for human flourishing. This distinction

2856-429: A self-conscious current, it would have been more of a tendency than a unified doctrine, with early "Huang-Lao" Han dynasty administrators named by Sima Qian, like Cao Shen , taking a more "hands off" approach after the fall of the Qin dynasty. More political than a typical reading of the Daodejing (Laozi), rather than "using" the work for politics, 'Han Fei' may be reading from an older, more political version. With

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2992-477: A separate examination system based on Taoism. Another important Taoist figure of the Tang dynasty was Lu Dongbin , who is considered the founder of the jindan meditation tradition and an influential figure in the development of neidan (internal alchemy) practice. Likewise, several Song dynasty emperors, most notably Huizong , were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts, and publishing updated editions of

3128-568: A series of scriptures that later served as the foundation of the Lingbao school , which was most influential during the later Song dynasty (960–1279) and focused on scriptural recitation and the use of talismans for harmony and longevity. The Lingbao school practiced purification rituals called "purgations" in which talismans were empowered. Lingbao also adopted Mahayana Buddhist elements. According to Kohn, they "integrated aspects of Buddhist cosmology , worldview, scriptures, and practices, and created

3264-499: A similar nature to all other life. Roughly contemporaneously to the Tao Te Ching , some believed the Tao was a force that was the "basis of all existence" and more powerful than the gods, while being a god-like being that was an ancestor and a mother goddess . Early Taoists studied the natural world in attempts to find what they thought were supernatural laws that governed existence. Taoists created scientific principles that were

3400-525: A theoretical foundation for politics, warfare, and Taoist organizations. Taoist secret societies precipitated the Yellow Turban Rebellion during the late Han dynasty , attempting to create what has been characterized as a Taoist theocracy . Today, Taoism is one of five religious doctrines officially recognized by the Chinese government, also having official status in Hong Kong and Macau . It

3536-579: A vast new collection of Taoist texts in close imitation of Buddhist sutras ." Louis Komjathy also notes that they adopted the Mahayana Buddhist universalism in its promotion of "universal salvation" (pudu). During this period, Louguan , the first Taoist monastic institution (influenced by Buddhist monasticism ) was established in the Zhongnan mountains by a local Taoist master named Yin Tong. This tradition

3672-616: A well known philosopher in his time from the Jixia Academy , the Mohists and Shen Dao are placed by the Outer Zhuangzi as preceding Zhuang Zhou and Laozi . Although likely not entirely accurate chronologically, Shen Dao does arguably bare resemblance to the earlier, Inner Zhuangzi. Early taking him as the Beginning of Daoist Theory , or Mature Daoism, Hansen still discusses him as part of

3808-413: Is self-cultivation , a deeper appreciation of the Tao, and more harmonious existence. Taoist ethics vary, but generally emphasize such virtues as effortless action , naturalness , simplicity , and the three treasures of compassion, frugality, and humility. The core of Taoist thought crystallized during the early Warring States period ( c.  450  – c.  300 BCE ), during which

3944-453: Is a modern Chinese construction largely rooted in earlier Chinese literati, European colonialist, and Protestant missionary interpretations. Contemporaneous Neo-Confucianists, for example, often self-identify as Taoist without partaking in any rituals. In contrast, Komjathy characterizes Taoism as "a unified religious tradition characterized by complexity and diversity", arguing that historically, none of these terms were understood according to

4080-557: Is a school of mainly Warring States period classical Chinese philosophy . Often interpreted in the West along realist lines, its members works contributed variously to the formation of the bureaucratic Chinese empire , and early elements of Daoism. The later Han takes Guan Zhong as forefather of the Fajia. Its more Legalistic figures include ministers Li Kui and Shang Yang , and more Daoistic figures Shen Buhai and philosopher Shen Dao , with

4216-501: Is considered a major religion in Taiwan , and also has significant populations of adherents throughout the Sinosphere and Southeast Asia. In the West, Taoism has taken on various forms , both those hewing to historical practice, as well as highly synthesized practices variously characterized as new religious movements . "Taoism" and "Daoism" are alternate spellings of the same word. "Tao"

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4352-485: Is fraught with hermeneutic difficulties when attempting to categorize different schools, sects, and movements. Russell Kirkland writes that "most scholars who have seriously studied Taoism, both in Asia and in the West" have abandoned this "simplistic dichotomy". Louis Komjathy writes that this is an untenable misconception because "the association of daojia with "thought" ( sixiang ) and of daojiao with "religion" ( zongjiao )

4488-470: Is generally not understood as a variant of Chinese folk religion per se: while the two umbrella terms have considerable cultural overlap, core themes of both also diverge considerably from one another. Traditionally, the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering to the doctrines or the practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the field of folk religion. Taoist, in Western sinology ,

4624-578: Is in the Wade-Giles romanization system, which was predominant in English-speaking countries until the late 20th century, and remains in use for certain terms with strongly established spellings. "Dao" is the spelling in the Hanyu Pinyin system, officially adopted in China in the 1950s, which has largely replaced Wade–Giles. The Standard Chinese pronunciation of both romanizations of the character "Dao"

4760-567: Is spoken in Chapter 40 of the Han Feizi and incorporated into The Art of War . He only uses the term twice in his fragments. Before Sima Tan , doctrines were only identified by texts named after Masters (Zi), with Daojia narrowed down to basic examples of Laozi and Zhuangzi in the Han dynasty . Not forming large scale, organized schools in the sense of the Mohists and Confucians , their traditions formed loose networks of master and disciple in

4896-441: Is still built into the Han Feizi's Xing-ming administrative method. Its current is opposed with later, or otherwise more spiritual forms of Daoism as a practical state philosophy, not accepting a 'permanent way of statecraft', and applying the practice of wu wei or non-action more to the ruler than anyone else. Although there is no evidence that any follower of Zhuangzi called himself Huang-Lao , it contains three stories about

5032-464: Is still understood in everyday contexts among Chinese people, echoed by early modern scholars of Chinese history and philosophy such as Feng Youlan and Wing-tsit Chan . Use of the term daojia dates to the Western Han c.  100 BCE , referring to the purported authors of the emerging Taoist canon, such as Lao Dan and Zhuang Zhou . Neither the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi themselves, or

5168-483: Is syncretic and deeply rooted in Chinese culture for millennia, it is often unclear which denominations should be considered "Taoist". The status of daoshi , or 'Taoist master', is traditionally attributed only to clergy in Taoist organizations, who distinguish between their traditions and others in Chinese folk religion . Though generally lacking motivation for strong hierarchies, Taoist philosophy has often served as

5304-481: Is the same; that is, /daʊ/ , much like the English "dow". One authority calls the pronunciation with a <t> as in "tie" to be a "mispronunciation" originally caused by the "clumsy Wade-Giles system," which misled most readers. The word Taoism is used to translate two related but distinct Chinese terms. The distinction between Taoism in philosophy and Taoist religion is an ancient, deeply-rooted one. Taoism as

5440-444: Is to confer office in accordance with a candidate's capabilities; to hold achievement accountable to claim; and to examine the ability of the assembled ministers. This is controlled by the ruler." With Shen Buhai more conservatively surveying the ministers, their direct connection as a unified administrative function cannot be seen before Han Fei. Naming individuals to their roles as ministers (e.g. "Steward of Cloaks"), in contrast to

5576-486: Is to misunderstand the facts of the universe. In contrast to Xun Kuang as the classically purported teacher of Han Fei and Li Si, Han Fei does not believe that a tendency to disorder demonstrates that people are evil or unruly. In what A.C. Graham took to be a "highly literary fiction", as Pines recalls, the Book of Lord Shang's chapter 1, “Revising the laws,” opens with a debate held by Duke Xiao of Qin , seeking to "consider

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5712-479: Is traditionally included under it. The term "Huang-Lao" might be retrospective, and the Han Feizi's Daodejing commentaries chapters may be late additions. But the latter would seem to accurately describe the syncretism that became dominant by the Qin dynasty . As a view still espoused by Sinologist Hansen of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Daoism, a "Legalism" and Huang-Lao "Yellow Emperor Daoism" dominant by

5848-473: Is traditionally used to translate daoshi /taoshih ( 道士 ; 'master of the Tao';), thus strictly defining the priests of Taoism, ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture on a professional basis", are experts of Taoist liturgy, and therefore can employ this knowledge and ritual skill for the benefit of a community. This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism as

5984-446: The I Ching and Spring and Autumn Annals . Although Taoism and Confucianism developed significant differences, they are not seen as mutually incompatible or exclusive. The relationship between Taoism and Buddhism upon the latter's introduction to China is characterized as one of mutual influence, with long-running discourses shared between Taoists and Buddhists; the distinct Mahayana tradition of Zen that emerged during

6120-578: The Daozang . The Song era saw new scriptures and new movements of ritualists and Taoist rites, the most popular of which were the Thunder Rites (leifa). The Thunder rites were protection and exorcism rites that evoked the celestial department of thunder, and they became central to the new Heavenly Heart (Tianxin) tradition as well as for the Youthful Incipience (Tongchu) school. In the 12th century ,

6256-511: The Zhuangzi , and the Tao Te Ching . The Tao Te Ching , attributed to Laozi , is dated by scholars to sometime between the 4th and 6th century BCE. A common tradition holds that Laozi founded Taoism. Laozi's historicity is disputed, with many scholars seeing him as a legendary founding figure. While Taoism is often regarded in the West as arising from Laozi, many Chinese Taoists claim that

6392-801: The Daoist school based on what is "clearly" the idea of the Xing-Ming court. Shen Buhai, Han Fei, and Sima Qian's preferably ' inactive ' ruler contracts an assembly of ministers, with Xing-Ming correlating job proposals (Ming "names", or verbal claims ) with the Xing "forms" or " shapes " that they take. With early examples in Shen Buhai (Shenzi), several of the Mawangdui's texts bare resemblance to Han Fei's Chapter 5 discussion of Xing-Ming and its "brilliant (or intelligent) ruler", as do other eclectic Huang-Lao typified works, like

6528-513: The Guanzi , Huainanzi , and Sima Qian's Shiji . A.C. Graham took the Outer Zhuangzi as incorporating Xing-Ming, emphasizing benevolence over rewards and punishments, although by its own statements the work favours self cultivation. With their doctrines scarcely visible in the early Han outside the Mawangdui silk texts , according to the Shiji , the practice of Xing-Ming emerged again under

6664-466: The Huainanzi a main example of Zhuangzi influence in the Han, a Laozi-Zhuangi Daoism may otherwise be more accurate for the third century A.D, Although those listed under the fa-school arguably were focused on fa standards and methods, the Han Feizi is also focused on Daoistic concepts wu wei and Dao . While some may have been earlier than the Daodejing (Laozi), it would almost go without saying that

6800-425: The Qin state to power. But central China was likely not familiar with him or the Qin state's Book of Lord Shang 's until just before imperial unification, and similar ideas on power only develop late in the work. The late Xun Kuang is familiar with Shen Buhai , Shen Dao , and the Qin, but still seems unaware of Shang Yang. With evidence of direct influence lacking, Shen Buhai can speculatively be compared with

6936-577: The Quanzhen (Complete Perfection) School was founded in Shandong by the sage Wang Chongyang (1113–1170) to compete with religious Taoist traditions that worshipped " ghosts and gods " and largely displaced them. The school focused on inner transformation, mystical experience , monasticism , and asceticism . Quanzhen flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries and during the Yuan dynasty . The Quanzhen school

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7072-736: The School of Naturalists (from which Taoism draws its main cosmological ideas, yin and yang and the five phases ), and the Chinese classics , especially the I Ching and the Lüshi Chunqiu . Meanwhile, Isabelle Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism: the teachings found in the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi , techniques for achieving ecstasy, practices for achieving longevity and becoming an immortal ( xian ), and practices for exorcism . Robinet states that some elements of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in China. In particular, many Taoist practices drew from

7208-457: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Daoism's theoretical model, under "Pre-Laozi Daoist Theory". For the Han Feizi too, Zhuangzi influences only exists as traces, but one noteable example from chapter 40 incorporates a parable of a shield and spear salesman, which can also be found in a lost chapter from the Zhuangzi, quoted in the Tang dynasty . Although the Zhuangzi probably had a different argument,

7344-596: The Stratagems of the Warring States , although not the primary focus of his administrative treatise, Shen Buhai was also a military reformer, at least for defense, and is said to have maintained the security of his state. Although Xun Kuang is probably accurate in considering Shen Dao to be focused on fa administrative standards, as introduced by Feng Youlan he would most remembered in early scholarship for his secondary subject of shi or "situational authority", of which he

7480-445: The Tang dynasty (607–917) incorporates many ideas from Taoism. Many Taoist denominations recognize deities , often ones shared with other traditions, which are venerated as superhuman figures exemplifying Taoist virtues. They can be roughly divided into two categories of "gods" and xian (or "immortals"). Xian were immortal beings with vast supernatural powers, also describing a principled, moral person. Since Taoist thought

7616-575: The Tao 道 ( pinyin : dào ; Wade–Giles : tao ). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', 'path', or 'technique', generally understood in the Taoist sense as an enigmatic process of transformation ultimately underlying reality . Taoist thought has informed the development of various practices within the Taoist tradition and beyond, including forms of meditation , astrology , qigong , feng shui , and internal alchemy . A common goal of Taoist practice

7752-802: The Tao Te Ching was to be a topic in the imperial examinations. During the reign of the 7th century Emperor Taizong , the Five Dragons Temple (the first temple at the Wudang Mountains ) was constructed. Wudang would eventually become a major center for Taoism and a home for Taoist martial arts ( Wudang quan ). Emperor Xuanzong (r. 712–755) was also a devoted Taoist who wrote various Taoist works, and according to Livia Kohn , "had frequent meetings with senior masters, ritual specialists, Taoist poets, and official patriarchs, such as Sima Chengzhen." He reorganized imperial rituals based on Taoist forms, sponsored Taoist shrines and monasteries, and introduced

7888-726: The Tao Te Ching were written: the Heshang Gong commentary and the Xiang'er commentary. The first organized form of Taoism was the Way of the Celestial Masters , which developed from the Five Pecks of Rice movement at the end of the 2nd century CE. The latter had been founded by Zhang Daoling , who was said to have had a vision of Laozi in 142 CE and claimed that the world was coming to an end. Zhang sought to teach people to repent and prepare for

8024-505: The Warring States period . A.C. Graham takes the Zhuangzi as preferring a private life, while the Daodejing (Laozi) contains an art of rule. Xun Kuang does not perceive them as belonging to one school in his time, and lists their texts separately. Shen Dao and Laozi are adopted into the same history of thought in the Outer Zhuangzi. Jia Yi uses them together in poetry, but with

8160-429: The Warring States period . The later Han historians simply classify the text as Zajia ("Syncretist") rather than Daojia or Fajia . With an example from the chapter "Ren shu": To follow is the method of the ruler; to act is the way of the minister. If (the ruler) acts, he will be troubled, if he follows, he will find peace. To follow the winter when it produces cold and the summer when it produces heat, why should

8296-600: The Yellow Emperor formulated many of their precepts, including the quest for "long life". Traditionally, the Yellow Emperor's founding of Taoism was said to have been because he "dreamed of an ideal kingdom whose tranquil inhabitants lived in harmonious accord with the natural law and possessed virtues remarkably like those espoused by early Taoism. On waking from his dream, Huangdi sought to" bring about "these virtues in his own kingdom, to ensure order and prosperity among

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8432-423: The Yellow Emperor , one identifying him as a Master. But early "Daoists" were likely not aware of their whole field. With the Mawangdui silk texts lacking Zhuangzi influences, the main evidence of Zhuangzi influence in the Han dynasty is the Huainanzi . Professor Tao Jiang more simply refers to Han Fei's Laozi influences as Laoist, only theorizing "Zhuangist"-type influences. He theorizes these as wariness by

8568-509: The biographies of Shen Buhai and Han Fei alongside Laozi and Zhuangzi , along with founding Han figures, Sima Qian earlier claimed Han Fei , Shen Buhai and Shen Dao as students of his same Huang-Lao philosophy, or " Yellow Emperor and Laozi Daoism ", which is traditionally included under Daojia. Shang Yang is simply given his own chapter, while Shen Dao is listed under the Jixia Academy . Sima Tan appears to have described Daojia with "Huang-Lao" content in mind, incorporating

8704-587: The " three vehicles " of Buddhism. The three caverns were: Perfection (Dongzhen), associated with the Three Sovereigns ; Mystery (Dongxuan), associated with Lingbao; and Spirit (Dongshen), associated with the Supreme Clarity tradition. Lu Xiujing also used this schema to arrange the Taoist scriptures and Taoist deities. Lu Xiujing worked to compile the first edition of the Daozang (the Taoist Canon), which

8840-469: The '"actual" course of history'. Stressing timeliness, Sima Tan says: "It (the dao or way) shifts with the times and changes in response to things", a view earlier found in Han Fei and Xun Kuang . Hong Kong professor Xiaogan Liu takes the Zhuangzi and Laozi ( Tao te Ching ) as more focused on "according with nature" than timeliness; followers of " Huang-Lao " can be theorized as defining the former according to

8976-516: The Book of Lord Shang would seem more that of seeking a rich, total state, with a dominating focus on agriculture and a powerful army, all geared for conquest. Acknowledging their bureaucratic contributions, Pine's work in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy prefaces a Shang Yang-Han Fei more along these lines. Shang Yang's institutional reforms can be considered unprecedented, and his economic and political reforms were "unqestionably" more important than his own personal military achievements. But he

9112-510: The Dao, if the idea wasn't already established. Dao is the beginning of the myriad things, the standard of right and wrong. That being so, the intelligent ruler, by holding to the beginning, knows the source of everything, and, by keeping to the standard, knows the origin of good and evil. Therefore, by virtue of resting empty and reposed, he waits for the course of nature to enforce itself so that all names will be defined of themselves and all affairs will be settled of themselves. Empty, he knows

9248-666: The Golden Flower . The Longmen school synthesized the Quanzhen and neidan teachings with the Chan Buddhist and Neo-Confucian elements that the Jingming tradition had developed, making it widely appealing to the literati class. Legalism (Chinese philosophy) Fajia ( Chinese : 法家 ; pinyin : fǎjiā ), or the School of fa (laws, methods), often translated as Legalism ,

9384-543: The Guanzi holds that fa models control affairs, models find their origins in the exercise of power, and the exercise of power finds its origins in Dao . The early work of Feng Youlan took the statesmen as fully understanding that needs change with the times and material circumstances; admitting that people may have been more virtuous anciently, Han Fei believes that new problems require new solutions. Earlier thought to be rare, in fact,

9520-430: The Han Feizi has Daoistic conceptions of objective viewpoints ("mystical states"), if his sources had them, he lacks a conclusive belief in universal moralities or natural laws, sharing with Shang Yang and Shen Dao a view of man as self-interested. Advocating against manipulation of the mechanisms of government, despite an advocacy of passive mindfulness, noninterference, and quiescence, the ability to prescribe and command

9656-408: The Han Feizi likely contains more Zhuangzi than can be known. There was a man of Chu who sold shields and spears. He would hold them aloft saying, “My shields are so tough nothing can pierce them.” He would also hold up his spears and say, “My spears are so sharp, there is nothing they can't pierce.” Someone asked him, “What happens if I stab one of your shields with one of your spears ?" and he

9792-562: The Han Feizi would be influenced by it. But those who included commentaries on it in the work probably did not see two distinct schools. They probably saw works of rule; traditionally included under Daojia , Sima Qian and Ban Gu describe Huang-Lao in these terms, and Sima Qian earlier claimed them for it apart from Shang Yang. When the Confucians divided their texts out, it was probably not considered contradictory for them to be connected under multiple relatively fluid categories. Placing

9928-471: The Han dynasty, but can still be seen in a fifth century work quoting Liu Xiang as a figure who advocated administrative technique, supervision, and accountability to abolish the punishment of ministers. Though often used together, the three were still individually influential in the Han dynasty . With the Book of Lord Shang emphasizing fa standards as law, and a predominantly penal legal reception by Han Fei and

10064-519: The Han dynasty, the early work of Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel accepted Shang Yang as Legalist, arguing Shen Buhai to be more administrative. But Shang Yang's program was broader than law; Han Fei elementalizes him under it. Penal law aside, Benjamin I. Schwartz argued Shang Yang's primary program to be agriculture and war. Per Michael Loewe early ministerial recruitment occurred amidst Warring States period mobilization . Developing towards such offices as diplomats, early mobilization and recruitment

10200-498: The Han dynasty, there were no real "Taoists" or "Taoism". Instead, there were various sets of behaviors, practices, and interpretative frameworks (like the ideas of the Yijing , yin-yang thought , as well as Mohist , " Legalist ", and " Confucian " ideas), which were eventually synthesized into the first organized forms of "Taoism". Some of the main early Taoist sources include: the Neiye ,

10336-520: The Han. As such, they grew and became an influential religion during the Three Kingdoms period, focusing on ritual confession and petition, as well as developing a well-organized religious structure. The Celestial Masters school was officially recognized by the warlord Cao Cao in 215 CE, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return. Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE. Another important early Taoist movement

10472-653: The Laozi of the early Mawangdui Silk Texts, and two of the three earlier Guodian Chu Slips , place political commentaries, or "ruling the state", first. The Han Feizi's political contemporaries likely read them in the same order. Arguably lacking in metaphysics, associated content instead possesses mythologies. Nonetheless, in contrast to all prior Ways, the Daodejing emphasizes quietude and lack as wu wei . A central concept of Daoism , together especially with their early Laozi, Shen Buhai, Han Fei, and so-called Huang-Lao Daoism emphasize

10608-435: The Mawangdui found from a member of the political class, Hansen argued these version should not be simply assumed as 'originals', interpreting Huang-Lao as an early, politically partisan variety of what would later, if not entirely accurately be termed Daoism. If the authors of the Han Feizi were not all sincere in their Laoist beliefs, the work would still have served as a suitable critique of Confucianism and Mohism, i.e. for

10744-574: The Ming, the legends of the Eight Immortals (the most important of which is Lü Dongbin ) rose to prominence, being part of local plays and folk culture. Ming emperors like the Hongwu Emperor continued to invite Taoists to court and hold Taoist rituals that were believed to enhance the power of the throne. The most important of these were connected with the Taoist deity Xuanwu ("Perfect Warrior"), which

10880-610: The Monarch of manipulation, retreating into wu wei isolation rather than Confucian-style moral education and cultivation. Hermits in the Zhuangzi retreat into isolation to avoid the chaos of the age. However, Benjamin I. Schwartz describes Shen Dao in terms of equanimity and a spirit of wu wei held in common with Zhuang Zhou and his own fellow academicians, with early Daoistic ideas found among later eclectics like Han Fei and Xun Kuang . A representative figure of Han Fei's Chapter 40 on Shi 'situational authority' or Power, and likely

11016-521: The Qin dynasty. But a souring association of them with the Qin only developed over the course of the Han dynasty. Jia Yi criticized Shang Yang In the reign of Emperor Wen , but along with propriety and righteousness, himself advocates fa laws (models), ranks and the execution of usurpers. Sima Qian associated their several figures with the Qin dynasty , arguing for Daoism in the reign of Emperor Wu . Dong Zhongshu glosses over them, himself advocating law, punishment and meritocratic appointment. By

11152-469: The Qin people into law-abiding subjects" (Pines), the term Fajia or "fa family" itself likely only meant "law abiding families" in Mencius 's time. No one had used it as an ideological term for himself or his opponent. Its might have meant something like "methods expert in economic affairs" in the context of the Guanzi before Tan's variant. Early a remote backwater to the west, Shang Yang 's reforms propelled

11288-483: The Qin to early Han, would theoretically be borne out by the Huang-lao typified Mawangdui silk texts . Although It remains a question how much of it might have been extant in Shen Buhai's time, the Mawangdui and Guanzi regard fa administrative standards as generated by the Dao , theoretically placing it and some of the 'Fajia' within a "loosely Daoist" context; The Mawagndui texts can be argued to have been written in

11424-555: The Warring States era phenomena of the wu ( Chinese shamans ) and the fangshi ("method masters", which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity"). Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "...magic, medicine, divination,... methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism. The fangshi were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists and relied greatly on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities. Female shamans played an important role in

11560-502: The central government. The first great promoters of the movement were Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan who were not only great writers but also great theorists, providing the foundation of the movement. Both were enthusiastic to promote the movement and were keen to teach young people so the movement could develop. After the deaths of Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan, the movement fell into something of a decline, their students writing with such ancient characters as to hinder understanding or neglecting

11696-583: The changes in the affairs of the age, inquire into the basis for correcting standards, and seek the Way to employ the people." Gongsun attempts to persuade the Duke to change with the times, with the Shangjunshu citing him as saying: "Orderly generations did not [follow] a single way; to benefit the state, one need not imitate antiquity." Graham compares Han Fei in particular with the Malthusians , as "unique in seeking

11832-527: The coming cataclysm, after which they would become the seeds of a new era of great peace. It was a mass movement in which men and women could act as libationers and tend to the commoners. A related movement arose in Shandong called the " Way of Great Peace ", seeking to create a new world by replacing the Han dynasty. This movement led to the Yellow Turban Rebellion , and after years of bloody war, they were crushed. The Celestial Masters movement survived this period and did not take part in attempting to replace

11968-616: The earlier Confucians, Han Fei at the end of the period holds ministers accountable for their proposals, actions and performance. The late Warring States theories of Xun Kuang or the Mohists were still far more generalized. With visible usages of Xing-Ming, the Han Feizi's chapter 5 Zhudao (道主) or "Way of the Ruler" incorporates Laozi and Shen Buhai in parallel style. Although Sima Qian does not claim it amongst his short list of chapters, he may have taken Han Fei as Huang-Lao based on its conception of

12104-475: The early Han, evidentially, its basic idea intersect with Qin by the time late pre-imperial Lushi Chunqiu , from around 240 b.c., containing a "Daoist-Legalist" fusion comparable to Shen Buhai, Shen Dao, Han Fei, Guanzi and the Mawangdui Huangdi sijing . Typically termed "Daoist" for the early Han , the work demonstrates that a philosophy promoting the wu wei reduced activity of the ruler goes back to

12240-632: The early Han, when their political positions might have been more appealing, but Michael Loewe still placed its Jingfa text before Qin unification, and most scholars still took the others as having been at least Pre-han. The Yellow Emperor is a major figure in one of its texts. Amongst other strains of thought, the more metaphysical, but still politically oriented Boshu text more broadly includes contents bearing resemblance to Shen Buhai, Shen Dao and Han Fei, developing arguments more comparable to natural law than an old interpretation of legal positivism for Shang Yang and Han Fei. If Huang-Lao did describe

12376-436: The early Taoist tradition, which was particularly strong in the southern state of Chu . Early Taoist movements developed their own tradition in contrast to shamanism while also absorbing shamanic elements. During the early period, some Taoists lived as hermits or recluses who did not participate in political life, while others sought to establish a harmonious society based on Taoist principles. Zhuang Zhou (c. 370–290 BCE)

12512-635: The early secondary sources written about them, put forward any particular supernatural ontology. Nonetheless, that religious Taoism emerged from a synthesis of folk religion with philosophical Taoist precepts is clear. The earlier, naturalistic was employed by pre-Han and Han thinkers, and continued to be used well into the Song, including among those who explicitly rejected cults, both private and state-sanctioned, that were often either labeled or self-identified as Taoist. However, this distinction has been challenged or rejected by some scholars of religion, often those from

12648-598: The epigrammatic Tao Te Ching and the anecdotal Zhuangzi —widely regarded as the fundamental texts of Taoist philosophy—were largely composed. They form the core of a body of Taoist writings accrued over the following centuries, which was assembled by monks into the Daozang canon starting in the 5th century CE. Early Taoism drew upon diverse influences, including the Shang and Zhou state religions, Naturalism , Mohism , Confucianism , various Legalist theories, as well as

12784-417: The essence of fullness: reposed, he becomes the corrector of motion. Who utters a word creates himself a name; who has an affair creates himself a form. Compare forms and names and see if they are identical. Then the ruler will find nothing to worry about as everything is reduced to its reality. W. K. Liao. ch.5 The Mawangdui Jingfa regards Dao as generating fa standards, and Sima Tan partly described

12920-517: The fact that worthiness and the power of position are incompatible should be abundantly clear. (Sahleen trans., in Ivanhoe & Van Norden eds. 2001, 314) Though espousing Laozi, Hansen theorized Han Fei's conception of the Dao to be based on that of Shen Dao 's situational authority, with the Guanzi as similarly relevant. Shendao develops "the concept of the natural dao", or "actual course of events." "Abandoning knowledge" or conventional guidance, whatever

13056-520: The feudal system, unifying the empire, law, language, thought and belief, presenting a memorial to the throne in which he condemns all those who "refused to study the present and believed only in the ancients on whose authority they dared to criticize". With a quotation from Xun Kuang: You glorify Nature and meditate on her: Why not domesticate and regulate her? You follow Nature and sing her praise: Why not control her course and use it? ... Therefore, I say: To neglect man's effort and speculate about Nature,

13192-429: The first of their kind in China, and the belief system has been known to merge scientific, philosophical, and religious conceits from close to its beginning. By the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE), the various sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent tradition of ritualists in the state of Shu (modern Sichuan ). One of the earliest forms of Taoism was the Han era ( 2nd century BCE ) Huang–Lao movement, which

13328-522: The importance of writing good essays. Furthermore, the government only allowed the use of pianwen for official use, so those who want to be officials had to learn that style. Ouyang Xiu once again promoted the use of classical prose in the Song dynasty . As many people were dissatisfied with the florid piantiwen style, the Classical Prose Movement reached another peak. This article about

13464-480: The indolence and subservience of the Second Emperor . Although earlier Sinologists might treat them as belonging to the same "Legalism" category, Sima Qian, for his part, does not treat Han Fei the same as Li Si; framing the two as opponents, Han Fei is treated as a 'tragic figure'. Han texts Shiji , Gongyang Zhuan , Yan tie lun , and Huainanzi instead depict Confucius as a Legalist, probably partly alluding to

13600-409: The inhabitants". Afterwards, Taoism developed and grew into two sects; One is Zhengyi Taoism, which mainly focuses on spells, and the other is Quanzhen Taoism, which mainly focuses on practicing inner alchemy. Overall, traditional Taoist thought, content, and sects are varied, reflecting the ideal of "absorbing everything inside and mixing everything outside". Early Taoism drew on the ideas found in

13736-426: The late Han Feizi drawing on both. Later centuries took Xun Kuang as a teacher of Han Fei and Li Si . Succeeding emperors and reformers often followed the templates set by Han Fei, Shen Buhai and Shang Yang, but the Qin to Tang were more characterized by their traditions. Though Chinese administration had no single origin, with a major influence by the Han dynasty , grand chancellor Shen Buhai likely played

13872-502: The later Han the figures were not yet divided into two different schools. With a royal practice of wu wei reduced activity prominent in the early Han, a key to Sima Qian's narrative would seem to be an identification of Han Fei with what he termed "Huang-Lao". Sima Qian blames Li Si as purportedly combining Shen Buhai and Han Fei's doctrine, identified as Technique, with Shang Yang's doctrine of law, depicting Li Si as inflicting heavy taxes and abusing Shen Buha's doctrine to encourage

14008-651: The later Han, scholars less knowledgeable than Liu Xiang were not always aware that Shen Buhai and Shang Yang were different, losing the ability to interpret him. Potentially influential for the founding of the Imperial Examination , according to Han Fei and the Huainanzi , Shen Buhai had disorganized law in the newly formed Hann state . No Han or earlier text individually connects him with penal law, but only with control of bureaucracy, and by contrast appears to have opposed penal punishment. His administrative ideas would be relevant for penal records and practice by

14144-518: The latter. Taking Shang Yang as inheriting from Li Kui and Wu Qi , despite anti-Confucianism in the Shangjunshu , professor Ch'ien Mu still considered that that "People say merely that Legalist origins are in Dao and De (power/virtue) [i.e., Daoist principles], apparently not aware that their origins in fact are in Confucianism. Their observance of law and sense of public justice are wholly in

14280-476: The meaning of "Taoist" as "lay member or believer of Taoism", is a modern invention that goes back to the introduction of the Western category of "organized religion" in China in the 20th century, but it has no significance for most of Chinese society in which Taoism continues to be an "order" of the larger body of Chinese religion. Scholars like Harold Roth argue that early Taoism was a series of "inner-cultivation lineages" of master-disciple communities, emphasizing

14416-535: The mind's original purity and clarity (which could become obscured by desires and emotions). Key figures of this school include Xu Xun, Liu Yu, Huang Yuanji, Xu Yi, and Liu Yuanran. Some of these figures taught at the imperial capital and were awarded titles. Their emphasis on practical ethics and self-cultivation in everyday life (rather than ritual or monasticism) made it very popular among the literati class. The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) mainly promoted Buddhism as well as Neo-Confucianism . Thus, during this period,

14552-491: The most important figure of the Tang was the court Taoist and writer Du Guangting (850–933). Du wrote numerous works about Taoist rituals, history, myth, and biography. He also reorganized and edited the Taotsang after a period of war and loss. During the Tang, several emperors became patrons of Taoism, inviting priests to court to conduct rituals and enhance the prestige of the sovereign. The Gaozong Emperor even decreed that

14688-809: The older neighboring Li Kui , or the even older Confucian Zichan as all seeking more meritocratic government. As chancellors of neighboring states, Shang Yang’s and Shen Buhai’s doctrines would have intersected by the Qin dynasty, and the late Han Feizi is Shang Yang's first reference outside the Book of Lord Shang . The Han Feizi , associated with Han Fei , would suggest that the laws and methods of Shang Yang and Guan Zhong , with their associated works, may have circulated at that late time. Presenting their ideas together, Chapter 43 likely led to an association of Shang Yang and Shen Buhai. Taking Shang Yang as representative, Han Fei considered fa (standards) necessary, as including law, decrees, reward and punishment, as well as fa administrative standards as controlled by

14824-548: The people's disposition." Pines takes Shang Yang's primary doctrine to be that of connecting people's inborn nature or dispositions (xing 性) with names (ming 名). The work recommends enacting laws that allow people to "pursue the desire for a name", namely fame and high social status, or just wealth if acceptable. Ensuring that these "names" are connected with actual benefits, it was hoped that if people are able to pursue these, they will be less likely to commit crimes, and more likely to engage in hard work or fight in wars. A figure in

14960-516: The political usages and advantages of wu wei reduced activity as a method of control for survival, social stability, long life, and rule, refraining from action in-order to take advantage of favorable developments in affairs. The Han Feizi's late Daodejing commentaries are comparable with the Daoism of the Guanzi Neiye , but otherwise utilizes the Laozi more as a theme for methods of rule. Although

15096-489: The principle of “names and substance.” Master Han (Fei) drew on ink line, penetrated the nature of matters, and was clear about right and wrong, but was extremely cruel and had little compassion. All these originated in the Way and its virtue (power, de), but Laozi was the most profound of them. Shiji 63: 2156 Dividing Shang Yang from the others categorically, Sima Qian probably intends that they not be combined. The Daodejing (Laozi), Zhuangzi and Sima Qian generally hold

15232-401: The properties of plants and geology , diviners , early environmentalists , tribal chieftains, court scribes and commoner members of governments, members of the nobility in Chinese states, and the descendants of refugee communities. Significant movements in early Taoism disregarded the existence of gods, and many who believed in gods thought they were subject to the natural law of the Tao, in

15368-557: The religion of the Shang dynasty and the Zhou dynasty , such as their use of divination , ancestor worship , and the idea of Heaven ( Tian ) and its relationship to humanity. According to modern scholars of Taoism, such as Kirkland and Livia Kohn , Taoist philosophy also developed by drawing on numerous schools of thought from the Warring States period (4th to 3rd centuries BCE), including Mohism , Confucianism , Legalist theorists (like Shen Buhai and Han Fei , which speak of wu wei ),

15504-449: The rise of the Xuanxue (Mysterious Learning or Deep Wisdom) tradition, which focused on philosophical inquiry and integrated Confucian teachings with Taoist thought. The movement included scholars like Wang Bi (226–249), He Yan (d. 249), Xiang Xiu (223?–300), Guo Xiang (d. 312), and Pei Wei (267–300). Another later influential figure was the 4th century alchemist Ge Hong , who wrote

15640-410: The ruler do anything? Therefore to say: "The way of the ruler is to have no knowledge and no action, but still he is more worthy than those who know and act," that is to get the point. An early bureaucratic pioneer, Shen Buhai was not so much more advanced as he was more focused on bureaucracy. Han Fei's discussion of Method-Technique (fa-Shu) provides a basic explanation for Xing-Ming, saying: "Method

15776-567: The ruler, representative of his own state's Shen Buhai. The latter he terms (shu) administrative Method or Technique, defined as examining the abilities of ministers, appointing candidates in accordance with their capabilities, and holding to ministerial achievements ("forms") accountable to their proposals ("names"). Following the Han Feizi , Shang Yang, Shen Buhai and Han Fei were often identified under it's administrative practice of Xing-Ming ("form and name"), explainable under Shu technique. Their combined figures might have had an influenced on

15912-576: The school of names and Shen Buhai as Method , the term sometimes refers to a combination of Shang Yang and Han Fei by the Han . Despite it's contributions, the meaning of the term would ultimately be confused and lost in conflation with punishment (Xing 刑) by the time of the Western Qin , sometimes as early as the third century's Eastern Han . Sima Qian asserts the First Emperor as proclaiming its practice. With Shen Buhai (and Han Fei still) extent in

16048-410: The situation brings is the Dao (way), guiding human affairs, conventions, prescriptions and knowledge. Han Fei and Shen Dao's Dao might guide might good or evil kings, but emphasizing institutionalism (fa), the Han Feizi does not endorse the evil king, whose governance may be more complicated. If some authors of the Han Feizi were familiar with the proto- Guanzi , as its references would at least suggest,

16184-444: The spirit of Confucius' rectification of names and return to propriety, but transformed in accordance with the conditions of the age." In the ancient society, punishment by law would typically only apply to the people, while the nobles are only punished by ritual. But needs change with the times. Hu Shih took Xun Kuang , Han Fei and Li Si as "champions of the idea of progress through conscious human effort", with Li Si abolishing

16320-437: The statesmen, even if they may be willing to conform the government to them. As a counterpoint, the Han Feizi and Shen Dao do still employ argumentative reference to 'sage kings'; the Han Feizi claims the distinction between the ruler's interests and private interests as said to date back to Cangjie, while government by Fa (standards) is said to date back to time immemorial, considering the demarcation between public and private

16456-709: The status and influence of Taoism declined. During the 18th century, the Qing imperial library excluded virtually all Taoist books. The Qing era also saw the birth of the Longmen ("Dragon Gate" 龍門 ) school of Wang Kunyang (1552–1641), a branch of Quanzhen from southern China that became established at the White Cloud Temple . Longmen authors like Liu Yiming (1734–1821) and Min Yide (1758–1836) worked to promote and preserve Taoist inner alchemy practices through books like The Secret of

16592-406: The term Naturalism for the two; but Han Fei's is very brief. Promoting "the ruler’s quiescence", Han Fei's Chapter 5 concerns a Way of the Ruler more than a Daoist way of life, and their figures are generally distinguished as politically focused. Although broader, this can describe "Huang-Lao" in general. Essentially 'interchangeable' with Daojia in the Shiji ; despite distinctions, Huang-Lao

16728-558: The western parts of the Yuan dynasty's land), and Tibetan Buddhism . Under the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and East Asian Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo-Confucian school, which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes. Taoist ideas also influenced Neo-Confucian thinkers like Wang Yangming and Zhan Ruoshui . During

16864-443: Was Taiqing (Great Clarity), which was a tradition of external alchemy (weidan) that sought immortality through the concoction of elixirs, often using toxic elements like cinnabar , lead , mercury , and realgar , as well as ritual and purificatory practices. After this point, Taoism did not have nearly as significant an effect on the passing of law as the syncretic Confucian - Legalist tradition. The Three Kingdoms period saw

17000-764: Was Zhang Boduan, author of the Wuzhen pian , a classic of internal alchemy, and the founder of the southern branch of Quanzhen. During the Song era, the Zhengyi Dao tradition properly developed in Southern China among Taoists of the Chang clan. This liturgically focused tradition would continue to be supported by later emperors and survives to this day. In the Yuan dynasty, Taoism in Northern China took inspiration from Tibetan cultural practices, Chinese folk religion (often from

17136-499: Was a religious tradition from the beginning." Philosopher Chung-ying Cheng likewise views Taoism as a religion embedded into Chinese history and tradition, while also assuming many different "forms of philosophy and practical wisdom". Chung-ying Cheng also noted that the Taoist view of 'heaven' mainly from "observation and meditation, [though] the teaching of [the Tao] can also include the way of heaven independently of human nature". Taoism

17272-451: Was an influential school of thought at this time. The Huainanzi and the Taipingjing are important sources from this period. An unorganized form of Taoism was popular in the Han dynasty that syncretized many preexisting forms in multiple ways for different groups existed during a rough span of time throughout the 2nd century BCE. Also during the Han, the earliest extant commentaries on

17408-506: Was as much a military reformer in his own time, even if not as renowned a general, and the Han also recognized him as a military strategist. A work under his name, possibly the same sans a few chapters, is also categorized under the Han Imperial Library's Military Books, subjection Strategists. With Shang Yang said to have reformed Qin law, the Book of Lord Shang does not believe that fa laws will be successful without "investigating

17544-523: Was called the Northern Celestial masters , and their main scripture was the Xisheng jing ( Scripture of Western Ascension ). During the sixth century, Taoists attempted to unify the various traditions into one integrated Taoism that could compete with Buddhism and Confucianism. To do this they adopted the schema known as the "three caverns", first developed by the scholar Lu Xiujing (406–477) based on

17680-416: Was generally more focused simply on census and taxes, with the Book of Lord Shang 's programs a more extreme primary example of the trend; with Han Fei quite later, essentially, the only remaining early work of it's kind. Fa law can be considered a first principle of the Shangjunshu , but is aimed at general state power, and several chapter express anti-populist views. The actual perspective expressed by

17816-416: Was published at the behest of the Chinese emperor . Thus, according to Russell Kirkland, "in several important senses, it was really Lu Hsiu-ching who founded Taoism, for it was he who first gained community acceptance for a common canon of texts, which established the boundaries, and contents, of 'the teachings of the Tao' (Tao-chiao). Lu also reconfigured the ritual activities of the tradition, and formulated

17952-496: Was syncretic, combining elements from Buddhism and Confucianism with Taoist tradition. According to Wang Chongyang, the " three teachings " (Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism), "when investigated, prove to be but one school". Quanzhen became the largest and most important Taoist school in China when master Qiu Chuji met with Genghis Khan who ended up making him the leader of all Chinese religions as well as exempting Quanzhen institutions from taxation. Another important Quanzhen figure

18088-500: Was termed daojiao (the teaching of the Tao). The Tang was the height of Taoist influence, during which Taoism, led by the Patriarch of Supreme Clarity, was the dominant religion in China. According to Russell Kirkland, this new Taoist synthesis had its main foundation in the Lingbao school's teachings, which was appealing to all classes of society and drew on Mahayana Buddhism. Perhaps

18224-415: Was the main dynastic protector deity of the Ming. The Ming era saw the rise of the Jingming ("Pure Illumination") school to prominence, which merged Taoism with Buddhist and Confucian teachings and focused on "purity, clarity, loyalty and filial piety ". The school derided internal and external alchemy, fasting ( bigu ), and breathwork. Instead, the school focused on using mental cultivation to return to

18360-425: Was the most influential of the Taoist hermits. Some scholars holds that since he lived in the south, he may have been influenced by Chinese shamanism . Zhuang Zhou and his followers insisted they were the heirs of ancient traditions and the ways of life of by-then legendary kingdoms. Pre-Taoist philosophers and mystics whose activities may have influenced Taoism included shamans, naturalists skilled in understanding

18496-449: Was unable to answer. Worthiness is something that cannot be forbidden by the power of position, but when the power of position is used as a Way of governing, there is nothing that it cannot forbid. So if one says that achieving good order requires both worthiness, which cannot be forbidden, and the power of position, which has nothing it cannot forbid, this is just like saying one has both all-penetrating spears and impenetrable shields. Hence,

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