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137-528: Fajia ( Chinese : 法家 ; pinyin : fǎjiā ), or the School of fa (laws, methods), often translated as Legalism , is a school of mainly Warring States period classical Chinese philosophy . Often interpreted in the West along realist lines, its members works contributed variously to the formation of the bureaucratic Chinese empire , and early elements of Daoism. The later Han takes Guan Zhong as forefather of

274-647: A "key element" in the "enlightened governance" of the purported former kings. Likely originating in the debates of the Neo- Mohists and school of names , although Liu Xiang (77–6BCE) lists Shen Buhai under Fajia , he still considered his doctrine to be that of Xing-Ming , or "form" and "name". Sima Qian claimed Shen Buhai and Han Fei as favoring it, but rooted in Huang-Lao Daoism. Described as holding outcomes accountable to claims , Sima Qian glosses Shen Buhai, Shang Yang and Han Fei under it; early connected with

411-764: A category of Masters Texts in the Han dynasty imperial library, becoming a major category of in Han dynasty catalogues, namely the Han state's own Book of Han (111ce). It included six other lost texts. In Sima Tan's essay, Fajia refers to the idea that administrative protocols should disregard kinship and social status, treating everyone equally and elevating the sovereign above all others. Sima Tan's categories contain positive and negative appraisal. Fajia are praised for “honoring rulers and derogating subjects, and clearly distinguishing offices so that no one can overstep [his responsibilities]." Fajia are criticized as strict with little kindness, as

548-521: A changing with times paradigm, or one of timeliness , "dominated" the age. Pines takes Shang Yang and Han Fei's more specific view of history as an evolutionary process as contrasting. It might have influenced an end of history view expressed by the Qin dynasty , but would be a radical departure from the earlier ideas. Sinologist Hansen also once took the Dao of Shen Dao and Han Fei as aiming at what they took to be

685-443: A component—either a character or a sub-component called a radical —usually involves either a reduction in its total number of strokes , or an apparent streamlining of which strokes are chosen in what places—for example, the ⼓   ' WRAP ' radical used in the traditional character 沒 is simplified to ⼏   ' TABLE ' to form the simplified character 没 . By systematically simplifying radicals, large swaths of

822-486: A comprehensive argument in opposition, stating that certain music provides joy, which is indeed essential to human wellbeing. Music and joy are respectively translated as yue and le , and their connection in Xunzi's time may explain why both words share the same Chinese character: 樂 . Xunzi also points out the use of music for social harmony: 故樂在宗廟之中，君臣上下同聽之，則莫不和敬；閨門之內，父子兄弟同聽之，則莫不和親；鄉里族長之中，長少同聽之，則莫不和順。 Hence, when music

959-434: A conversion table. While exercising such derivation, the following rules should be observed: Sample Derivations : The Series One List of Variant Characters reduces the number of total standard characters. First, amongst each set of variant characters sharing identical pronunciation and meaning, one character (usually the simplest in form) is elevated to the standard character set, and the rest are made obsolete. Then amongst

1096-466: A court of administrators likely based on Shen Buhai and Han Fei. But, Sima Qian's chapter concludes: The Way of Laozi esteemed emptiness, reacting to changes through non-action. Profound and subtle, his words are difficult to comprehend. Zhuangzi was unfettered by the Way and virtue, setting loose his discussions; yet his essentials go back to spontaneity. Master Shen (Buhai) treated the lowly as lowly, applying

1233-554: A cruel official under the Emperor Wu of Han . Even by the Records own timeline, a purported Huang-Lao might have emerged in the academies some decades after Shen Buhai's death, likely preceding a consolidated Daodejing (Laozi) or Zhuangzi. Discussing an administrative Way of government, he is as lacking in later metaphysical conceptions of the Daoist Dao . But apart from Shang Yang,

1370-517: A darker, more pessimistic flavor than the optimistic Confucianism of Mencius , who tended to view humans as innately good . Like most Confucians, however, he believed that people could be refined through education and ritual. Now, since human nature is evil, it must await the instructions of a teacher and the model before it can be put aright, and it must obtain ritual principles and a sense of moral right before it can become orderly. Both Mencius and Xunzi believed in human nature and both believed it

1507-538: A dividing line between them has never otherwise been entirely clear, and the other have been described them in syncretic, Daoistic terms. Termed "responsiveness through accommodation" by a commentary to the Shiji , Shen Buhai has ideas very similar to that of Non-action in the Guanzi , which was classed as Daoist long before it was classed as 'Legalist'. With Daosim poorly definable for the period, some western Sinologist modernly use

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1644-407: A few revised forms, and was implemented for official use by China's State Council on 5 June 2013. In Chinese, simplified characters are referred to by their official name 简化字 ; jiǎnhuàzì , or colloquially as 简体字 ; jiǎntǐzì . The latter term refers broadly to all character variants featuring simplifications of character form or structure, a practice which has always been present as

1781-415: A historical cause of changing conditions", namely population growth, acknowledging that an underpopulated society only need moral ties. The Guanzi text sees punishment as unnecessary in ancient times with an abundance of resources, making it a question of poverty rather than human nature. Human nature is a Confucian issue. Graham otherwise considers the customs current of the time as having no significance to

1918-586: A main example of Zhuangzi influence in the Han, a Laozi-Zhuangi Daoism may otherwise be more accurate for the third century A.D, Although those listed under the fa-school arguably were focused on fa standards and methods, the Han Feizi is also focused on Daoistic concepts wu wei and Dao . While some may have been earlier than the Daodejing (Laozi), it would almost go without saying that the Han Feizi would be influenced by it. But those who included commentaries on it in

2055-445: A major influence by the Han dynasty , grand chancellor Shen Buhai likely played a key role in the development of the merit system , and could be seen as its founder. With formative influence for the Qin and Chinese law, Shang Yang reformed the peripheral Qin state into a strongly centralized, powerful kingdom, ultimately unifying China in 221 BCE. Largely responsible for their synthesis as

2192-422: A more " realist " anti-Confucian than Daoist interpretation of the Han Feizi, or for impartial laws and technique as purportedly bolstering the authority of a wu wei semi-inactive ruler. An interpretation of the Daodejing (Laozi) as simply cynically political would be flawed. Still, together with qigong , it can be viewed as a manual for politics and military strategy. In contrast to it's modern representation,

2329-547: A negative view of fa laws, not much favoring "state activism in general". Sima Qian would seem to favor limitation of the bureaucracy, but argues from a standpoint that needs have changed with the times. One chapter of the Han Feizi criticizes "the doctrine of calmness and stillness", another "abstruse and subtle language". Despite appropriative usages, the Daoistic early Han Huainanzi does not endorse Shen Buhai, glossing him as penal alongside Shang Yang and Han Fei. Nonetheless, before

2466-599: A newly coined phono-semantic compound : Removing radicals Only retaining single radicals Replacing with ancient forms or variants : Adopting ancient vulgar variants : Readopting abandoned phonetic-loan characters : Copying and modifying another traditional character : Based on 132 characters and 14 components listed in Chart 2 of the Complete List , the 1,753 derived characters found in Chart 3 can be created by systematically simplifying components using Chart 2 as

2603-723: A one-time policy that could not be constantly applied. Included by Ban Gu in the Hanshu, Liu Xin adds additional strengths and weaknesses to the categories. Fajia are said to "make reward dependable and punishment inescapable, as a support to control by ceremony." Fajia are criticized as dispensing with reform by teaching and benevolence, rejecting benevolence and concern for others, aiming to perfect government relying only on punishment and law, inflicting corporal punishment even on closest kin, and demeaning mercy and generosity. Although Xun Kuang criticized Shen Dao as "obsessed with fa", and Sima Qian considered Shang Yang successful in "turning

2740-568: A part of the Chinese writing system. The official name tends to refer to the specific, systematic set published by the Chinese government, which includes not only simplifications of individual characters, but also a substantial reduction in the total number of characters through the merger of formerly distinct forms. According to Chinese palaeographer Qiu Xigui , the broadest trend in the evolution of Chinese characters over their history has been simplification, both in graphical shape ( 字形 ; zìxíng ),

2877-455: A school, the Han Feizi also contains some of the earliest commentaries on the Daodejing . Sun Tzu 's Art of War recommends Han Fei's concepts of power, technique, inaction, and impartiality, punishment and reward. One of Sima Tan 's (165–110 BCE) six schools of thought discussing approaches to governance, Imperial Archivists Liu Xiang (77–6BCE) and Liu Xin (c.46bce–23ce) used Fajia as

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3014-428: A self-conscious current, it would have been more of a tendency than a unified doctrine, with early "Huang-Lao" Han dynasty administrators named by Sima Qian, like Cao Shen , taking a more "hands off" approach after the fall of the Qin dynasty. More political than a typical reading of the Daodejing (Laozi), rather than "using" the work for politics, 'Han Fei' may be reading from an older, more political version. With

3151-555: A task that was reserved for the most respected scholar available. The eminence at which he was held suggests that Xunzi became the head of the Jixia Academy, but he is known to have taught there regardless. It was at this time that Xunzi composed much of his most important philosophical works, namely the chapters "Of Honor and Disgrace", "Of Kings and the Lords-Protector", "Discourse on Nature", "Discourse on Music", and "Man's Nature

3288-577: A task which proved difficult because of the strong hold that Shang Yang 's Legalist sentiments had there. In a conversation with the Qin official Fan Sui, Xunzi praised much of the state's achievements, officials and governmental organizations. Still, Xunzi found issues with the state, primarily its lack of Confucian scholars and the fear it inspires, which Xunzi claimed would result in the surrounding states uniting up against. Xunzi then met with King Zhaoxiang , arguing that Qin's lack of Confucian scholars and educational encouragement would be detrimental to

3425-614: A well known philosopher in his time from the Jixia Academy , the Mohists and Shen Dao are placed by the Outer Zhuangzi as preceding Zhuang Zhou and Laozi . Although likely not entirely accurate chronologically, Shen Dao does arguably bare resemblance to the earlier, Inner Zhuangzi. Early taking him as the Beginning of Daoist Theory , or Mature Daoism, Hansen still discusses him as part of

3562-536: Is Evil". In his time, Xunzi was called "the most revered of teachers" ( zui wei laoshi ; 最 爲 老 師 ). His most famous pupils were Han Fei and Li Si , each who would have important political and academic careers. Xunzi's association with Li Si, the future Chancellor (or Prime Minister) of the Qin dynasty would later tarnish his reputation. Other students of his included Fuqiu Bo  [ zh ] , Zhang Cang and Mao Heng  [ zh ] , all of whom authored important editions and commentaries on

3699-440: Is actually more complex than eliminated ones. An example is the character 搾 which is eliminated in favor of the variant form 榨 . The 扌   'HAND' with three strokes on the left of the eliminated 搾 is now seen as more complex, appearing as the ⽊   'TREE' radical 木 , with four strokes, in the chosen variant 榨 . Not all characters standardised in the simplified set consist of fewer strokes. For instance,

3836-490: Is called "Human Nature is Evil," but that's not the whole story. Xunzi thought that people could improve themselves by learning good habits and manners, which he called "artifice." (偽) He believed that people needed to transform their nature to become good. This could be done by learning from a teacher and following rituals and morals. Even though some people doubt if the chapter is real, it's an important part of Xunzi's philosophy. People still talk about it today and think about

3973-454: Is derived. Merging homophonous characters: Adapting cursive shapes ( 草書楷化 ): Replacing a component with a simple arbitrary symbol (such as 又 and 乂 ): Omitting entire components : Omitting components, then applying further alterations : Structural changes that preserve the basic shape Replacing the phonetic component of phono-semantic compounds : Replacing an uncommon phonetic component : Replacing entirely with

4110-493: Is largely nonexistent. Yet when compared to the scarcity of knowledge for many other ancient Chinese philosophers, there is meaningful and significant extant information on the life of Xunzi. The sinologist John H. Knoblock asserts that the sources available "permit not only a reconstruction of the outlines of career but also an understanding of his intellectual development". Xunzi's writings have survived in exceptionally good condition, and while they provide biographical details,

4247-809: Is now discouraged. A State Language Commission official cited "oversimplification" as the reason for restoring some characters. The language authority declared an open comment period until 31 August 2009, for feedback from the public. In 2013, the List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters was published as a revision of the 1988 lists; it included a total of 8105 characters. It included 45 newly recognized standard characters that were previously considered variant forms, as well as official approval of 226 characters that had been simplified by analogy and had seen wide use but were not explicitly given in previous lists or documents. Singapore underwent three successive rounds of character simplification , eventually arriving at

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4384-467: Is performed within the ancestral temple, lord and subject, high and low, listen to the music together and are united in feelings of reverence. When music is played in the private quarters of the home, father and son, elder and younger brother, listen to it together and are united in feelings of close kinship. When it is played in village meetings or clan halls, old and young listen to the music together and are joined in obedience. Many commentators have noted

4521-563: Is referred to as the " big seal script ". The traditional narrative, as also attested in the Shuowen Jiezi dictionary ( c.  100 AD ), is that the Qin small seal script that would later be imposed across China was originally derived from the Zhou big seal script with few modifications. However, the body of epigraphic evidence comparing the character forms used by scribes gives no indication of any real consolidation in character forms prior to

4658-564: Is spoken in Chapter 40 of the Han Feizi and incorporated into The Art of War . He only uses the term twice in his fragments. Before Sima Tan , doctrines were only identified by texts named after Masters (Zi), with Daojia narrowed down to basic examples of Laozi and Zhuangzi in the Han dynasty . Not forming large scale, organized schools in the sense of the Mohists and Confucians , their traditions formed loose networks of master and disciple in

4795-439: Is still built into the Han Feizi's Xing-ming administrative method. Its current is opposed with later, or otherwise more spiritual forms of Daoism as a practical state philosophy, not accepting a 'permanent way of statecraft', and applying the practice of wu wei or non-action more to the ruler than anyone else. Although there is no evidence that any follower of Zhuangzi called himself Huang-Lao , it contains three stories about

4932-444: Is to confer office in accordance with a candidate's capabilities; to hold achievement accountable to claim; and to examine the ability of the assembled ministers. This is controlled by the ruler." With Shen Buhai more conservatively surveying the ministers, their direct connection as a unified administrative function cannot be seen before Han Fei. Naming individuals to their roles as ministers (e.g. "Steward of Cloaks"), in contrast to

5069-485: Is to misunderstand the facts of the universe. In contrast to Xun Kuang as the classically purported teacher of Han Fei and Li Si, Han Fei does not believe that a tendency to disorder demonstrates that people are evil or unruly. In what A.C. Graham took to be a "highly literary fiction", as Pines recalls, the Book of Lord Shang's chapter 1, “Revising the laws,” opens with a debate held by Duke Xiao of Qin , seeking to "consider

5206-478: Is traditionally included under it. The term "Huang-Lao" might be retrospective, and the Han Feizi's Daodejing commentaries chapters may be late additions. But the latter would seem to accurately describe the syncretism that became dominant by the Qin dynasty . As a view still espoused by Sinologist Hansen of the Stanford Encyclopedia of Daoism, a "Legalism" and Huang-Lao "Yellow Emperor Daoism" dominant by

5343-540: Is used instead of 叠 in regions using traditional characters. The Chinese government stated that it wished to keep Chinese orthography stable. The Chart of Generally Utilized Characters of Modern Chinese was published in 1988 and included 7000 simplified and unsimplified characters. Of these, half were also included in the revised List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese , which specified 2500 common characters and 1000 less common characters. In 2009,

5480-656: The Chinese language , with the other being traditional characters . Their mass standardization during the 20th century was part of an initiative by the People's Republic of China (PRC) to promote literacy, and their use in ordinary circumstances on the mainland has been encouraged by the Chinese government since the 1950s. They are the official forms used in mainland China and Singapore , while traditional characters are officially used in Hong Kong , Macau , and Taiwan . Simplification of

5617-801: The Daoist school based on what is "clearly" the idea of the Xing-Ming court. Shen Buhai, Han Fei, and Sima Qian's preferably ' inactive ' ruler contracts an assembly of ministers, with Xing-Ming correlating job proposals (Ming "names", or verbal claims ) with the Xing "forms" or " shapes " that they take. With early examples in Shen Buhai (Shenzi), several of the Mawangdui's texts bare resemblance to Han Fei's Chapter 5 discussion of Xing-Ming and its "brilliant (or intelligent) ruler", as do other eclectic Huang-Lao typified works, like

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5754-510: The Guanzi , Huainanzi , and Sima Qian's Shiji . A.C. Graham took the Outer Zhuangzi as incorporating Xing-Ming, emphasizing benevolence over rewards and punishments, although by its own statements the work favours self cultivation. With their doctrines scarcely visible in the early Han outside the Mawangdui silk texts , according to the Shiji , the practice of Xing-Ming emerged again under

5891-423: The Qin state to power. But central China was likely not familiar with him or the Qin state's Book of Lord Shang 's until just before imperial unification, and similar ideas on power only develop late in the work. The late Xun Kuang is familiar with Shen Buhai , Shen Dao , and the Qin, but still seems unaware of Shang Yang. With evidence of direct influence lacking, Shen Buhai can speculatively be compared with

6028-500: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Daoism's theoretical model, under "Pre-Laozi Daoist Theory". For the Han Feizi too, Zhuangzi influences only exists as traces, but one noteable example from chapter 40 incorporates a parable of a shield and spear salesman, which can also be found in a lost chapter from the Zhuangzi, quoted in the Tang dynasty . Although the Zhuangzi probably had a different argument,

6165-594: The Stratagems of the Warring States , although not the primary focus of his administrative treatise, Shen Buhai was also a military reformer, at least for defense, and is said to have maintained the security of his state. Although Xun Kuang is probably accurate in considering Shen Dao to be focused on fa administrative standards, as introduced by Feng Youlan he would most remembered in early scholarship for his secondary subject of shi or "situational authority", of which he

6302-568: The Tang dynasty onwards. By the rise of Neo-Confucianism in the 10th century, Mencius gradually upended Xunzi, particularly by the choice to include the Mencius in the Four Books . Since the 20th century, a reevaluation of Xunzi's doctrine has taken place in East Asia, leading to recognition of his profound impact and relevance to both his times and present day. Detailed information concerning Xunzi

6439-566: The Warring States period . A.C. Graham takes the Zhuangzi as preferring a private life, while the Daodejing (Laozi) contains an art of rule. Xun Kuang does not perceive them as belonging to one school in his time, and lists their texts separately. Shen Dao and Laozi are adopted into the same history of thought in the Outer Zhuangzi. Jia Yi uses them together in poetry, but with the Huainanzi

6576-428: The Warring States period . The later Han historians simply classify the text as Zajia ("Syncretist") rather than Daojia or Fajia . With an example from the chapter "Ren shu": To follow is the method of the ruler; to act is the way of the minister. If (the ruler) acts, he will be troubled, if he follows, he will find peace. To follow the winter when it produces cold and the summer when it produces heat, why should

6713-553: The Xunzi is chapter 23, "Human Nature is Evil". Human nature , known as xing ( 性 ), was a topic which Confucius commented on somewhat ambiguously, leaving much room for later philosophers to expand upon. Xunzi does not appear to know about Shang Yang , but can be compared with him. While Shang Yang believed that people were selfish, Xunzi believed that humanity's inborn tendencies were evil and that ethical norms had been invented to rectify people. His variety of Confucianism therefore has

6850-475: The Yellow Emperor , one identifying him as a Master. But early "Daoists" were likely not aware of their whole field. With the Mawangdui silk texts lacking Zhuangzi influences, the main evidence of Zhuangzi influence in the Han dynasty is the Huainanzi . Professor Tao Jiang more simply refers to Han Fei's Laozi influences as Laoist, only theorizing "Zhuangist"-type influences. He theorizes these as wariness by

6987-505: The biographies of Shen Buhai and Han Fei alongside Laozi and Zhuangzi , along with founding Han figures, Sima Qian earlier claimed Han Fei , Shen Buhai and Shen Dao as students of his same Huang-Lao philosophy, or " Yellow Emperor and Laozi Daoism ", which is traditionally included under Daojia. Shang Yang is simply given his own chapter, while Shen Dao is listed under the Jixia Academy . Sima Tan appears to have described Daojia with "Huang-Lao" content in mind, incorporating

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7124-423: The "Dot" stroke : The traditional components ⺥ and 爫 become ⺈ : The traditional component 奐 becomes 奂 : Xun Kuang Born in the state of Zhao , Xunzi studied at the prestigious Jixia Academy , where he learned about every major philosophical tradition of his time. After his graduation, Xunzi traveled to Chu where he mastered poetry, and then returned to Qi as a highly regarded teacher at

7261-411: The "external appearances of individual graphs", and in graphical form ( 字体 ; 字體 ; zìtǐ ), "overall changes in the distinguishing features of graphic[al] shape and calligraphic style, [...] in most cases refer[ring] to rather obvious and rather substantial changes". The initiatives following the founding of the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) to universalize the use of their small seal script across

7398-468: The '"actual" course of history'. Stressing timeliness, Sima Tan says: "It (the dao or way) shifts with the times and changes in response to things", a view earlier found in Han Fei and Xun Kuang . Hong Kong professor Xiaogan Liu takes the Zhuangzi and Laozi ( Tao te Ching ) as more focused on "according with nature" than timeliness; followers of " Huang-Lao " can be theorized as defining the former according to

7535-476: The 1986 General List of Simplified Chinese Characters , hereafter the General List . All characters simplified this way are enumerated in Chart 1 and Chart 2 in the 1986 Complete List . Characters in both charts are structurally simplified based on similar set of principles. They are separated into two charts to clearly mark those in Chart 2 as 'usable as simplified character components', based on which Chart 3

7672-508: The 1986 mainland China revisions. Unlike in mainland China, Singapore parents have the option of registering their children's names in traditional characters. Malaysia also promulgated a set of simplified characters in 1981, though completely identical to the mainland Chinese set. They are used in Chinese-language schools. All characters simplified this way are enumerated in Charts 1 and 2 of

7809-516: The Book of Lord Shang would seem more that of seeking a rich, total state, with a dominating focus on agriculture and a powerful army, all geared for conquest. Acknowledging their bureaucratic contributions, Pine's work in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy prefaces a Shang Yang-Han Fei more along these lines. Shang Yang's institutional reforms can be considered unprecedented, and his economic and political reforms were "unqestionably" more important than his own personal military achievements. But he

7946-470: The Chinese government published a major revision to the list which included a total of 8300 characters. No new simplifications were introduced. In addition, slight modifications to the orthography of 44 characters to fit traditional calligraphic rules were initially proposed, but were not implemented due to negative public response. Also, the practice of unrestricted simplification of rare and archaic characters by analogy using simplified radicals or components

8083-465: The Confucian classics. The timeline for his academy teaching is unclear, though he seemed to have considered other posts after being slandered . He left Qi in around 265 BCE, around the time when King Jian succeeded Xiang. Xunzi notes that despite Qin's achievements, it is "filled with trepidation. Despite its complete and simultaneous possession of all these numerous attributes, if one weights Qin by

8220-509: The Dao, if the idea wasn't already established. Dao is the beginning of the myriad things, the standard of right and wrong. That being so, the intelligent ruler, by holding to the beginning, knows the source of everything, and, by keeping to the standard, knows the origin of good and evil. Therefore, by virtue of resting empty and reposed, he waits for the course of nature to enforce itself so that all names will be defined of themselves and all affairs will be settled of themselves. Empty, he knows

8357-517: The Daoistic Emperor Wen of Han and his trusted ministers, but "cautious, unobtrusive and firm", more akin to Shen Buhai than Han Fei. Attributed back to Shen Buhai, it becomes the term for secretaries who had charge of records in penal decisions by the Han dynasty , holding outcomes accountable to claims . Simplified Chinese characters Simplified Chinese characters are one of two standardized character sets widely used to write

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8494-545: The Fajia. Its more Legalistic figures include ministers Li Kui and Shang Yang , and more Daoistic figures Shen Buhai and philosopher Shen Dao , with the late Han Feizi drawing on both. Later centuries took Xun Kuang as a teacher of Han Fei and Li Si . Succeeding emperors and reformers often followed the templates set by Han Fei, Shen Buhai and Shang Yang, but the Qin to Tang were more characterized by their traditions. Though Chinese administration had no single origin, with

8631-541: The Guanzi holds that fa models control affairs, models find their origins in the exercise of power, and the exercise of power finds its origins in Dao . The early work of Feng Youlan took the statesmen as fully understanding that needs change with the times and material circumstances; admitting that people may have been more virtuous anciently, Han Fei believes that new problems require new solutions. Earlier thought to be rare, in fact,

8768-428: The Han Feizi has Daoistic conceptions of objective viewpoints ("mystical states"), if his sources had them, he lacks a conclusive belief in universal moralities or natural laws, sharing with Shang Yang and Shen Dao a view of man as self-interested. Advocating against manipulation of the mechanisms of government, despite an advocacy of passive mindfulness, noninterference, and quiescence, the ability to prescribe and command

8905-407: The Han Feizi likely contains more Zhuangzi than can be known. There was a man of Chu who sold shields and spears. He would hold them aloft saying, “My shields are so tough nothing can pierce them.” He would also hold up his spears and say, “My spears are so sharp, there is nothing they can't pierce.” Someone asked him, “What happens if I stab one of your shields with one of your spears ?" and he

9042-470: The Han dynasty, but can still be seen in a fifth century work quoting Liu Xiang as a figure who advocated administrative technique, supervision, and accountability to abolish the punishment of ministers. Though often used together, the three were still individually influential in the Han dynasty . With the Book of Lord Shang emphasizing fa standards as law, and a predominantly penal legal reception by Han Fei and

9179-518: The Han dynasty, the early work of Sinologist Herrlee G. Creel accepted Shang Yang as Legalist, arguing Shen Buhai to be more administrative. But Shang Yang's program was broader than law; Han Fei elementalizes him under it. Penal law aside, Benjamin I. Schwartz argued Shang Yang's primary program to be agriculture and war. Per Michael Loewe early ministerial recruitment occurred amidst Warring States period mobilization . Developing towards such offices as diplomats, early mobilization and recruitment

9316-653: The Laozi of the early Mawangdui Silk Texts, and two of the three earlier Guodian Chu Slips , place political commentaries, or "ruling the state", first. The Han Feizi's political contemporaries likely read them in the same order. Arguably lacking in metaphysics, associated content instead possesses mythologies. Nonetheless, in contrast to all prior Ways, the Daodejing emphasizes quietude and lack as wu wei . A central concept of Daoism , together especially with their early Laozi, Shen Buhai, Han Fei, and so-called Huang-Lao Daoism emphasize

9453-434: The Mawangdui found from a member of the political class, Hansen argued these version should not be simply assumed as 'originals', interpreting Huang-Lao as an early, politically partisan variety of what would later, if not entirely accurately be termed Daoism. If the authors of the Han Feizi were not all sincere in their Laoist beliefs, the work would still have served as a suitable critique of Confucianism and Mohism, i.e. for

9590-608: The Monarch of manipulation, retreating into wu wei isolation rather than Confucian-style moral education and cultivation. Hermits in the Zhuangzi retreat into isolation to avoid the chaos of the age. However, Benjamin I. Schwartz describes Shen Dao in terms of equanimity and a spirit of wu wei held in common with Zhuang Zhou and his own fellow academicians, with early Daoistic ideas found among later eclectics like Han Fei and Xun Kuang . A representative figure of Han Fei's Chapter 40 on Shi 'situational authority' or Power, and likely

9727-516: The Qin dynasty. But a souring association of them with the Qin only developed over the course of the Han dynasty. Jia Yi criticized Shang Yang In the reign of Emperor Wen , but along with propriety and righteousness, himself advocates fa laws (models), ranks and the execution of usurpers. Sima Qian associated their several figures with the Qin dynasty , arguing for Daoism in the reign of Emperor Wu . Dong Zhongshu glosses over them, himself advocating law, punishment and meritocratic appointment. By

9864-468: The Qin people into law-abiding subjects" (Pines), the term Fajia or "fa family" itself likely only meant "law abiding families" in Mencius 's time. No one had used it as an ideological term for himself or his opponent. Its might have meant something like "methods expert in economic affairs" in the context of the Guanzi before Tan's variant. Early a remote backwater to the west, Shang Yang 's reforms propelled

10001-480: The Qin to early Han, would theoretically be borne out by the Huang-lao typified Mawangdui silk texts . Although It remains a question how much of it might have been extant in Shen Buhai's time, the Mawangdui and Guanzi regard fa administrative standards as generated by the Dao , theoretically placing it and some of the 'Fajia' within a "loosely Daoist" context; The Mawagndui texts can be argued to have been written in

10138-435: The academy, Xunzi would have learned about all the major philosophical schools of his time, and been in the presence of scholars such as Zou Yan , Tian Pian, and Chunyu Kun . Xunzi would have learned the art of shuo ( 說 ), a formal argument of persuasion that philosophical authorities of the time used to advise rulers. After his academy study, Xunzi unsuccessfully attempted to persuade Lord Mengchang against continuing

10275-581: The academy. His students Han Fei and Li Si each had important political and academic careers, though some of their Legalist sentiments were at odds with his philosophy. Other students such as Fuqiu Bo  [ zh ] , Zhang Cang and Mao Heng  [ zh ] authored important editions and commentaries on the Confucian classics. Later in his life, Xunzi served in the court of Lord Chunshen and died sometime after Lord Chunshen's death. The constant warfare of his time informed his work profoundly, as did his interactions with leaders and witnessing

10412-537: The art, and his now-lost book of poems was well-regarded for many centuries. Chu was under especially frequent attacks from the Qin state , events which Xunzi would later recount in a conversation with Li Si. The solidity of Chu decreased so rapidly that Xunzi left around 275 BCE, returning to the more stable Qi state. He was warmly welcomed back in Qi, and held in very high-regard as an intellectual. The Shiji records that King Xiang of Qi had Xunzi sacrifice wine three times,

10549-520: The authenticity of this information is sometimes questionable. In addition to these, the main source for Xunzi's life is Sima Qian 's Shiji ( 史記 ; Records of the Grand Historian ), which includes a biography of Xunzi ( SJ , 74.12–14) and mentions of him in the biographies of both Li Si ( SJ , 78.15) and Lord of Chunshen ( SJ , 87.1–2, 14). The Western Han dynasty historian Liu Xiang revised and expanded Sima Qian's initial biography for

10686-583: The changes in the affairs of the age, inquire into the basis for correcting standards, and seek the Way to employ the people." Gongsun attempts to persuade the Duke to change with the times, with the Shangjunshu citing him as saying: "Orderly generations did not [follow] a single way; to benefit the state, one need not imitate antiquity." Graham compares Han Fei in particular with the Malthusians , as "unique in seeking

10823-428: The character set are altered. Some simplifications were based on popular cursive forms that embody graphic or phonetic simplifications of the traditional forms. In addition, variant characters with identical pronunciation and meaning were reduced to a single standardized character, usually the simplest among all variants in form. Finally, many characters were left untouched by simplification and are thus identical between

10960-407: The chosen variants, those that appear in the "Complete List of Simplified Characters" are also simplified in character structure accordingly. Some examples follow: Sample reduction of equivalent variants : Ancient variants with simple structure are preferred : Simpler vulgar forms are also chosen : The chosen variant was already simplified in Chart 1 : In some instances, the chosen variant

11097-465: The country's writing system as a serious impediment to its modernization. In 1916, a multi-part English-language article entitled "The Problem of the Chinese Language" co-authored by the Chinese linguist Yuen Ren Chao (1892–1982) and poet Hu Shih (1891–1962) has been identified as a turning point in the history of the Chinese script—as it was one of the first clear calls for China to move away from

11234-517: The differences between Xunzi and Mencius's ideas about human nature and how to become a better person. Xunzi only stated that the "heart" can observe reason, that is, it can distinguish between right and wrong, good and evil, but it is not the source of value. So where does the standard come from? According to Xunzi's theory of evil human nature, morality will ultimately become a tool of external value used to maintain social stability and appeal to authoritarianism. Mencius' theory of good human nature, on

11371-483: The downfall of various states. Xunzi's writings respond to dozens of other thinkers, whom he often directly names and criticizes. His well-known notion that "Human nature is evil" has led many commentators to place him opposite of Mencius, who believed human nature was intrinsically good. Though like Mencius, Xunzi believed that education and ritual were the key to self-cultivation and thus the method to circumvent one's naturally foul nature. His definition of both concepts

11508-614: The earlier Confucians, Han Fei at the end of the period holds ministers accountable for their proposals, actions and performance. The late Warring States theories of Xun Kuang or the Mohists were still far more generalized. With visible usages of Xing-Ming, the Han Feizi's chapter 5 Zhudao (道主) or "Way of the Ruler" incorporates Laozi and Shen Buhai in parallel style. Although Sima Qian does not claim it amongst his short list of chapters, he may have taken Han Fei as Huang-Lao based on its conception of

11645-472: The early 20th century. In 1909, the educator and linguist Lufei Kui formally proposed the use of simplified characters in education for the first time. Over the following years—marked by the 1911 Xinhai Revolution that toppled the Qing dynasty , followed by growing social and political discontent that further erupted into the 1919 May Fourth Movement —many anti-imperialist intellectuals throughout China began to see

11782-475: The early Han, evidentially, its basic idea intersect with Qin by the time late pre-imperial Lushi Chunqiu , from around 240 b.c., containing a "Daoist-Legalist" fusion comparable to Shen Buhai, Shen Dao, Han Fei, Guanzi and the Mawangdui Huangdi sijing . Typically termed "Daoist" for the early Han , the work demonstrates that a philosophy promoting the wu wei reduced activity of the ruler goes back to

11919-631: The early Han, when their political positions might have been more appealing, but Michael Loewe still placed its Jingfa text before Qin unification, and most scholars still took the others as having been at least Pre-han. The Yellow Emperor is a major figure in one of its texts. Amongst other strains of thought, the more metaphysical, but still politically oriented Boshu text more broadly includes contents bearing resemblance to Shen Buhai, Shen Dao and Han Fei, developing arguments more comparable to natural law than an old interpretation of legal positivism for Shang Yang and Han Fei. If Huang-Lao did describe

12056-416: The essence of fullness: reposed, he becomes the corrector of motion. Who utters a word creates himself a name; who has an affair creates himself a form. Compare forms and names and see if they are identical. Then the ruler will find nothing to worry about as everything is reduced to its reality. W. K. Liao. ch.5 The Mawangdui Jingfa regards Dao as generating fa standards, and Sima Tan partly described

12193-429: The extreme policies of Qi, though the historicity of this event is not certain. After the exchange, which is later recounted in his writings, Xunzi likely left Qi between 286 and 284 BCE. Xunzi traveled to the state of Chu by 283 BCE, where he probably became acquainted with the nascent forms of the fu poetry style, particularly because of the poet's Qu Yuan residency there. Xunzi achieved considerable skill in

12330-517: The fact that worthiness and the power of position are incompatible should be abundantly clear. (Sahleen trans., in Ivanhoe & Van Norden eds. 2001, 314) Though espousing Laozi, Hansen theorized Han Fei's conception of the Dao to be based on that of Shen Dao 's situational authority, with the Guanzi as similarly relevant. Shendao develops "the concept of the natural dao", or "actual course of events." "Abandoning knowledge" or conventional guidance, whatever

12467-519: The feudal system, unifying the empire, law, language, thought and belief, presenting a memorial to the throne in which he condemns all those who "refused to study the present and believed only in the ancients on whose authority they dared to criticize". With a quotation from Xun Kuang: You glorify Nature and meditate on her: Why not domesticate and regulate her? You follow Nature and sing her praise: Why not control her course and use it? ... Therefore, I say: To neglect man's effort and speculate about Nature,

12604-616: The first official list of simplified forms was published, consisting of 324 characters collated by Peking University professor Qian Xuantong . However, fierce opposition within the KMT resulted in the list being rescinded in 1936. Work throughout the 1950s resulted in the 1956 promulgation of the Chinese Character Simplification Scheme , a draft of 515 simplified characters and 54 simplified components, whose simplifications would be present in most compound characters. Over

12741-463: The first round—but was massively unpopular and never saw consistent use. The second round of simplifications was ultimately retracted officially in 1986, well after they had largely ceased to be used due to their unpopularity and the confusion they caused. In August 2009, China began collecting public comments for a revised list of simplified characters; the resulting List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters lists 8,105 characters, including

12878-465: The following decade, the Script Reform Committee deliberated on characters in the 1956 scheme, collecting public input regarding the recognizability of variants, and often approving forms in small batches. Parallel to simplification, there were also initiatives aimed at eliminating the use of characters entirely and replacing them with pinyin as an official Chinese alphabet, but this possibility

13015-503: The founding of the Qin. The Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) that inherited the Qin administration coincided with the perfection of clerical script through the process of libian . Eastward spread of Western learning Though most closely associated with the People's Republic, the idea of a mass simplification of character forms first gained traction in China during

13152-466: The increased usage of 朙 was followed by proliferation of a third variant: 眀 , with 目 'eye' on the left—likely derived as a contraction of 朙 . Ultimately, 明 became the character's standard form. The Book of Han (111 AD) describes an earlier attempt made by King Xuan of Zhou ( d.  782 BC ) to unify character forms across the states of ancient China , with his chief chronicler having "[written] fifteen chapters describing" what

13289-479: The indolence and subservience of the Second Emperor . Although earlier Sinologists might treat them as belonging to the same "Legalism" category, Sima Qian, for his part, does not treat Han Fei the same as Li Si; framing the two as opponents, Han Fei is treated as a 'tragic figure'. Han texts Shiji , Gongyang Zhuan , Yan tie lun , and Huainanzi instead depict Confucius as a Legalist, probably partly alluding to

13426-563: The late 4th century BCE. Yet this time also saw considerable innovations in Chinese philosophy , referred to as the Hundred Schools of Thought . The primary schools were Confucianism , Daoism , Legalism , Mohism , the School of Names , and the Yin–Yang School . Xunzi was a philosopher in the tradition of Confucianism, begun by Confucius who lived over two centuries before him. Xunzi

13563-499: The later Han the figures were not yet divided into two different schools. With a royal practice of wu wei reduced activity prominent in the early Han, a key to Sima Qian's narrative would seem to be an identification of Han Fei with what he termed "Huang-Lao". Sima Qian blames Li Si as purportedly combining Shen Buhai and Han Fei's doctrine, identified as Technique, with Shang Yang's doctrine of law, depicting Li Si as inflicting heavy taxes and abusing Shen Buha's doctrine to encourage

13700-647: The later Han, scholars less knowledgeable than Liu Xiang were not always aware that Shen Buhai and Shang Yang were different, losing the ability to interpret him. Potentially influential for the founding of the Imperial Examination , according to Han Fei and the Huainanzi , Shen Buhai had disorganized law in the newly formed Hann state . No Han or earlier text individually connects him with penal law, but only with control of bureaucracy, and by contrast appears to have opposed penal punishment. His administrative ideas would be relevant for penal records and practice by

13837-517: The latter. Taking Shang Yang as inheriting from Li Kui and Wu Qi , despite anti-Confucianism in the Shangjunshu , professor Ch'ien Mu still considered that that "People say merely that Legalist origins are in Dao and De (power/virtue) [i.e., Daoist principles], apparently not aware that their origins in fact are in Confucianism. Their observance of law and sense of public justice are wholly in

13974-459: The left, with the 月 'Moon' component on the right. Li Si ( d.  208 BC ), the Chancellor of Qin, attempted to universalize the Qin small seal script across China following the wars that had politically unified the country for the first time. Li prescribed the 朙 form of the word for 'bright', but some scribes ignored this and continued to write the character as 明 . However,

14111-402: The most prominent Chinese authors of the 20th century, stated that "if Chinese characters are not destroyed, then China will die" ( 漢字不滅，中國必亡 ). During the 1930s and 1940s, discussions regarding simplification took place within the ruling Kuomintang (KMT) party. Many members of the Chinese intelligentsia maintained that simplification would increase literacy rates throughout the country. In 1935,

14248-806: The older neighboring Li Kui , or the even older Confucian Zichan as all seeking more meritocratic government. As chancellors of neighboring states, Shang Yang’s and Shen Buhai’s doctrines would have intersected by the Qin dynasty, and the late Han Feizi is Shang Yang's first reference outside the Book of Lord Shang . The Han Feizi , associated with Han Fei , would suggest that the laws and methods of Shang Yang and Guan Zhong , with their associated works, may have circulated at that late time. Presenting their ideas together, Chapter 43 likely led to an association of Shang Yang and Shen Buhai. Taking Shang Yang as representative, Han Fei considered fa (standards) necessary, as including law, decrees, reward and punishment, as well as fa administrative standards as controlled by

14385-496: The other hand, states that humans are inherently good and we have an internal value foundation (the Four Beginnings). Music is discussed throughout the Xunzi , particularly in chapter 20, the "Discourse on Music" ( Yuelun ; 樂論 ). Much of the Xunzi's sentiments on music are directed towards Mozi , who largely disparaged music. Mozi held that music provides no basic needs and is a waste of resources and money. Xunzi presents

14522-547: The people's disposition." Pines takes Shang Yang's primary doctrine to be that of connecting people's inborn nature or dispositions (xing 性) with names (ming 名). The work recommends enacting laws that allow people to "pursue the desire for a name", namely fame and high social status, or just wealth if acceptable. Ensuring that these "names" are connected with actual benefits, it was hoped that if people are able to pursue these, they will be less likely to commit crimes, and more likely to engage in hard work or fight in wars. A figure in

14659-514: The political usages and advantages of wu wei reduced activity as a method of control for survival, social stability, long life, and rule, refraining from action in-order to take advantage of favorable developments in affairs. The Han Feizi's late Daodejing commentaries are comparable with the Daoism of the Guanzi Neiye , but otherwise utilizes the Laozi more as a theme for methods of rule. Although

14796-458: The preface of the first edition of Xunzi's writings. Some minor references to Xunzi also exist in Ying Shao 's paraphrase of Liu Xiang's preface, as well as brief mentions in the Han Feizi , Zhan Guo Ce and Yantie Lun . The Warring States period ( c.  475–221 BCE ), an era of immense disunity and warfare, had been raging for over a hundred years by the time of Xunzi's birth in

14933-487: The principle of “names and substance.” Master Han (Fei) drew on ink line, penetrated the nature of matters, and was clear about right and wrong, but was extremely cruel and had little compassion. All these originated in the Way and its virtue (power, de), but Laozi was the most profound of them. Shiji 63: 2156 Dividing Shang Yang from the others categorically, Sima Qian probably intends that they not be combined. The Daodejing (Laozi), Zhuangzi and Sima Qian generally hold

15070-430: The public and quickly fell out of official use. It was ultimately formally rescinded in 1986. The second-round simplifications were unpopular in large part because most of the forms were completely new, in contrast to the familiar variants comprising the majority of the first round. With the rescission of the second round, work toward further character simplification largely came to an end. In 1986, authorities retracted

15207-465: The recently conquered parts of the empire is generally seen as being the first real attempt at script reform in Chinese history. Before the 20th century, variation in character shape on the part of scribes, which would continue with the later invention of woodblock printing , was ubiquitous. For example, prior to the Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) the character meaning 'bright' was written as either 明 or 朙 —with either 日 'Sun' or 囧 'window' on

15344-410: The ruler do anything? Therefore to say: "The way of the ruler is to have no knowledge and no action, but still he is more worthy than those who know and act," that is to get the point. An early bureaucratic pioneer, Shen Buhai was not so much more advanced as he was more focused on bureaucracy. Han Fei's discussion of Method-Technique (fa-Shu) provides a basic explanation for Xing-Ming, saying: "Method

15481-564: The ruler, representative of his own state's Shen Buhai. The latter he terms (shu) administrative Method or Technique, defined as examining the abilities of ministers, appointing candidates in accordance with their capabilities, and holding to ministerial achievements ("forms") accountable to their proposals ("names"). Following the Han Feizi , Shang Yang, Shen Buhai and Han Fei were often identified under it's administrative practice of Xing-Ming ("form and name"), explainable under Shu technique. Their combined figures might have had an influenced on

15618-476: The same set of simplified characters as mainland China. The first round was promulgated by the Ministry of Education in 1969, consisting of 498 simplified characters derived from 502 traditional characters. A second round of 2287 simplified characters was promulgated in 1974. The second set contained 49 differences from the mainland China system; these were removed in the final round in 1976. In 1993, Singapore adopted

15755-573: The school of names and Shen Buhai as Method , the term sometimes refers to a combination of Shang Yang and Han Fei by the Han . Despite it's contributions, the meaning of the term would ultimately be confused and lost in conflation with punishment (Xing 刑) by the time of the Western Qin , sometimes as early as the third century's Eastern Han . Sima Qian asserts the First Emperor as proclaiming its practice. With Shen Buhai (and Han Fei still) extent in

15892-461: The second round completely, though they had been largely fallen out of use within a year of their initial introduction. That year, the authorities also promulgated a final version of the General List of Simplified Chinese Characters . It was identical to the 1964 list save for 6 changes—including the restoration of 3 characters that had been simplified in the first round: 叠 , 覆 , 像 ; the form 疊

16029-460: The similarities between the reasons for Xunzi's promotion of music and those of ancient Greek philosophers . Ultimately, he refused to admit theories of state and administration apart from ritual and self-cultivation, arguing for the gentleman, rather than the measurements promoted by the Legalists, as the wellspring of objective criterion. His ideal gentleman ( junzi ) king and government, aided by

16166-409: The situation brings is the Dao (way), guiding human affairs, conventions, prescriptions and knowledge. Han Fei and Shen Dao's Dao might guide might good or evil kings, but emphasizing institutionalism (fa), the Han Feizi does not endorse the evil king, whose governance may be more complicated. If some authors of the Han Feizi were familiar with the proto- Guanzi , as its references would at least suggest,

16303-443: The spirit of Confucius' rectification of names and return to propriety, but transformed in accordance with the conditions of the age." In the ancient society, punishment by law would typically only apply to the people, while the nobles are only punished by ritual. But needs change with the times. Hu Shih took Xun Kuang , Han Fei and Li Si as "champions of the idea of progress through conscious human effort", with Li Si abolishing

16440-543: The standard of the solid achievements of True Kingship, then the vast degree to which it fails to reach the ideal is manifest. Why is that? It is that it is dangerously lacking in Ru [Confucian] scholars" Xunzi , chp. 16: "On Strengthening the State", 16.6 Xunzi's writings suggest that after leaving Qi he visited Qin, possibly from 265 BCE to 260 BCE. He aimed to convert the state's leaders to follow his philosophy of leadership,

16577-560: The state's future. The king was unconvinced by Xunzi's persuasion, and did not offer him a post in his court. In around 260 BCE, Xunzi returned to his native Zhao, where he debated military affairs with Lord Linwu ( 臨武君 ) in the court of King Xiaocheng of Zhao . He remained in Zhao until c.  255 BCE. In 240 BCE Lord Chunshen , the prime minister of Chu, invited him to take a position as Magistrate of Lanling ( 蘭陵令 ), which he initially refused and then accepted. However, Lord Chunshen

16714-435: The statesmen, even if they may be willing to conform the government to them. As a counterpoint, the Han Feizi and Shen Dao do still employ argumentative reference to 'sage kings'; the Han Feizi claims the distinction between the ruler's interests and private interests as said to date back to Cangjie, while government by Fa (standards) is said to date back to time immemorial, considering the demarcation between public and private

16851-402: The term Naturalism for the two; but Han Fei's is very brief. Promoting "the ruler’s quiescence", Han Fei's Chapter 5 concerns a Way of the Ruler more than a Daoist way of life, and their figures are generally distinguished as politically focused. Although broader, this can describe "Huang-Lao" in general. Essentially 'interchangeable' with Daojia in the Shiji ; despite distinctions, Huang-Lao

16988-488: The traditional and simplified Chinese orthographies. The Chinese government has never officially announced the completion of the simplification process after the bulk of characters were introduced by the 1960s. In the wake of the Cultural Revolution , a second round of simplified characters was promulgated in 1977—largely composed of entirely new variants intended to artificially lower the stroke count, in contrast to

17125-817: The traditional character 強 , with 11 strokes is standardised as 强 , with 12 strokes, which is a variant character. Such characters do not constitute simplified characters. The new standardized character forms shown in the Characters for Publishing and revised through the Common Modern Characters list tend to adopt vulgar variant character forms. Since the new forms take vulgar variants, many characters now appear slightly simpler compared to old forms, and as such are often mistaken as structurally simplified characters. Some examples follow: The traditional component 釆 becomes 米 : The traditional component 囚 becomes 日 : The traditional "Break" stroke becomes

17262-516: The use of characters entirely. Instead, Chao proposed that the language be written with an alphabet, which he saw as more logical and efficient. The alphabetization and simplification campaigns would exist alongside one another among the Republican intelligentsia for the next several decades. Recent commentators have echoed some contemporary claims that Chinese characters were blamed for the economic problems in China during that time. Lu Xun , one of

17399-472: The work probably did not see two distinct schools. They probably saw works of rule; traditionally included under Daojia , Sima Qian and Ban Gu describe Huang-Lao in these terms, and Sima Qian earlier claimed them for it apart from Shang Yang. When the Confucians divided their texts out, it was probably not considered contradictory for them to be connected under multiple relatively fluid categories. Placing

17536-592: Was Xun. He is best known by his honorary title Xunzi ( 荀 子 ) translated to 'Master Xun', with zi being a common epithet for important philosophers. His birthplace was Zhao , a state in the modern-day Shanxi Province of north-central China. It is possible Xunzi was descended from the Xun family, an elite clan that had diminished following the Partition of Jin , though this is only speculation. The Eastern Han dynasty historian Ying Shao records that in his youth Xunzi

17673-517: Was a "flowering talent" in matters of scholarship and academics. Essentially nothing else is known of Xunzi's background or upbringing, and thus any attempts to connect his philosophy with either topic are futile. Sometime between age 13 and 15 (297 and 295 BCE), Xunzi traveled to the north eastern state of Qi . There he attended the Jixia Academy , which was the most important philosophical center in Ancient China, established by King Xuan . At

17810-461: Was abandoned, confirmed by a speech given by Zhou Enlai in 1958. In 1965, the PRC published the List of Commonly Used Characters for Printing  [ zh ] (hereafter Characters for Printing ), which included standard printed forms for 6196 characters, including all of the forms from the 1956 scheme. A second round of simplified characters was promulgated in 1977, but was poorly received by

17947-505: Was as much a military reformer in his own time, even if not as renowned a general, and the Han also recognized him as a military strategist. A work under his name, possibly the same sans a few chapters, is also categorized under the Han Imperial Library's Military Books, subjection Strategists. With Shang Yang said to have reformed Qin law, the Book of Lord Shang does not believe that fa laws will be successful without "investigating

18084-500: Was assassinated In 238 BCE by a court rival and Xunzi subsequently lost his position. He retired, remained in Lanling, a region in what is today's southern Shandong province, for the rest of his life and was buried there. The year of his death is unknown, though if he lived to see the ministership of his student Li Si, as recounted, he would have lived into his nineties, dying shortly after 219 BCE. The best known and most cited section of

18221-404: Was born as Xun Kuang ( 荀 況 ), probably around 310 BCE but certainly before 279 BCE. In his time, he was probably known as Xun Qing ( 荀 卿 ), meaning 'Minister Xun', or 'Chamberlain Xun', after his later position. Some texts give his surname as Sun (孫) instead of Xun , though this may have been to avoid naming taboo during the reign of Emperor Xuan of Han (73–48 BCE), whose given name

18358-414: Was generally more focused simply on census and taxes, with the Book of Lord Shang 's programs a more extreme primary example of the trend; with Han Fei quite later, essentially, the only remaining early work of it's kind. Fa law can be considered a first principle of the Shangjunshu , but is aimed at general state power, and several chapter express anti-populist views. The actual perspective expressed by

18495-527: Was loose, and he encouraged lifelong education and applied ritual to every aspect of life. Other important topics include the promotion of music and the careful application of names . Though he still cited the ancient sages, he differed from other Confucian philosophers by his insistence on emulating recent rulers rather than those of long ago. Repeated oversimplifications and misunderstandings on Xunzi's teachings, particularly his view on human nature, led to gradual dismissal and condemnation of his thought from

18632-623: Was possible to become better, but some people refused it. Mencius saw Xing as more related to an ideal state and Xunzi saw it more as a starting state. Even though Mencius had already died when the book was written, the chapter is written like a conversation between the two philosophers. Xunzi's ideas about becoming a good person were more complex than Mencius's. He believed that people needed to change their nature, not just give up on it. Some people thought Xunzi's ideas were strange, but new discoveries suggest that it might have actually been Mencius who had unusual ideas about human nature. The chapter

18769-449: Was unable to answer. Worthiness is something that cannot be forbidden by the power of position, but when the power of position is used as a Way of governing, there is nothing that it cannot forbid. So if one says that achieving good order requires both worthiness, which cannot be forbidden, and the power of position, which has nothing it cannot forbid, this is just like saying one has both all-penetrating spears and impenetrable shields. Hence,

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