Model humanity:
38-441: Model humanity: Main philosophical traditions: Ritual traditions: Devotional traditions: Salvation churches and sects : Confucian churches and sects: The Huainanzi is an ancient Chinese text consisting of a collection of essays resulting from a series of scholarly debates held at the court of Liu An , Prince of Huainan before 139 BCE. Compiled as a handbook for an enlightened sovereign and his court,
76-549: A Confucian identity, with the foundation of the Holy Confucian Church of China which aims to unite in a single body all Confucian religious groups. Many of the movements of salvation of the 20th and 21st century aspire to become the repository of the entirety of the Chinese tradition in the face of Western modernism and materialism, advocating an "Eastern solution to the problems of the modern world", or even interacting with
114-495: A concern for salvation (moral fulfillment) of the person and the society. They are distinguished by egalitarianism , a founding charismatic person often informed by a divine revelation , a specific theology written in holy texts , a millenarian eschatology and a voluntary path of salvation, an embodied experience of the numinous through healing and self-cultivation, and an expansive orientation through evangelism and philanthropy . Some scholars consider these religions
152-498: A single group they are said to have the same number of followers of the five state-sanctioned religions of China taken together. Scholars and government officials have been discussing to systematise and unify this large base of religious organisations; in 2004 the State Administration of Religious Affairs created a department for the management of folk religions. In the late 2015 a step was made at least for those of them with
190-416: A single phenomenon, and others consider them the fourth great Chinese religious category alongside the well-established Confucianism , Buddhism and Taoism . Generally these religions focus on the worship of the universal God ( Shangdi ), represented as either male, female, or genderless, and regard their holy patriarchs as embodiments of God. "Chinese salvationist religions" ( 救度宗教 jiùdù zōngjiào )
228-453: A time when Confucianism was not institutionalized, after the collapse of the Qing dynasty and the Chinese empire. Kang modeled his ideal "Confucian Church" after European national Christian churches—hierarchical and centralised institutions closely bound to the state, with local church branches, Sunday prayers and choirs, missions, journals, and even baptisms, devoted to the worship and the spread of
266-474: Is a Confucian religious and social institution of the congregational type. It was first proposed by Kang Youwei (1858–1927) near the end of the 19th century, as a state religion of Qing China following a European model. The "Confucian church" model was later replicated by overseas Chinese communities, who established independent Confucian churches active at the local level, especially in Indonesia and
304-507: Is a contemporary neologism coined as a sociological category and gives prominence to folk religious sects' central pursuit that is the salvation of the individual and the society, in other words the moral fulfillment of individuals in reconstructed communities of sense. Chinese scholars traditionally describe them as "folk religious sects" ( 民间宗教 mínjiān zōngjiào , 民间教门 mínjiān jiàomén or 民间教派 mínjiān jiàopài ) or "folk beliefs" ( 民间信仰 mínjiān xìnyǎng ). They are distinct from
342-426: Is a recently revived term to identify people among the entrepreneurial or economic elite who recognize their social responsibilities and therefore apply Confucian cultural practices to their business. Contemporary New Confucian scholars Jiang Qing and Kang Xiaoguang are among the most influential supporters behind the campaign to establish a national "Confucian Church". Jiang Qing is the current spiritual leader of
380-523: Is merged with Supreme Harmony is beclouded as if dead-drunk, and drifts about in its midst in sweet contentment, unaware how he came there; engulfed in pure delight as he sinks to the depths; benumbed as he reaches the end, he is as if he had not yet begun to emerge from his origin. This is called the Great Merging. (chapter 6, tr. Le Blanc 1985:138) Translations that focus on individual chapters include: Goldin, Paul R. (2005a). "Insidious Syncretism in
418-791: Is notable as a primary evidence of Zhuangzi influence in the Han. Although the Confucians classified the text as Syncretist ( Zajia ), it's ideas theoretically contributed to the founding of the Daoist church in 184 c.e. Although the first and twelfth chapters of the work are based on the Tao te Ching , the Huainanzi most strongly resonates with the Zhuangzi , with influences including the Lüshi chunqiu , Han Feizi , Mozi , Guanzi ,
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#1732844532951456-790: The Book of Han and Records of the Grand Historian record that when Liu An paid a state visit to his nephew the Emperor Wu of Han in 139 BC, he presented a copy of his "recently completed" book in twenty-one chapters. Recent research shows that Chapters 1, 2, and 21 of the Huainanzi were performed at the imperial court. The Huainanzi is an eclectic compilation of chapters or essays that range across topics of religion, history, astronomy, geography, philosophy, science, metaphysics, nature, and politics. It discusses many pre-Han schools of thought , especially
494-740: The Mengmutang ( 孟母堂 ) of Shanghai , the Way of the Gods according to the Confucian Tradition , Phoenix Churches, and the Confucian Fellowship ( 儒教道坛 ; Rújiào Dàotán ) in northern Fujian have spread rapidly over the years since their foundation. Ancestral shrines of the Kong family have also reopened, as well as Confucian-teaching churches. The Hong Kong Confucian Academy has expanded its activities to
532-579: The Book of Rites . Some scholars even find influences from Manichaeism , Mohism and shamanic traditions . In the Ming and Qing dynasties many folk religious movements were outlawed by the imperial authorities as "evil religions" ( 邪教 xiéjiào ). With the collapse of the Qing state in 1911 the sects enjoyed an unprecedented period of freedom and thrived, and many of them were officially recognised as religious groups by
570-501: The Chinese folk religion consisting in the worship of gods and ancestors, although in English language there is a terminological confusion between the two. The 20th-century expression for these salvationist religious movements has been "redemptive societies" ( 救世团体 jiùshì tuántǐ ), coined by scholar Prasenjit Duara . A collective name that has been in use possibly since the latter part of
608-602: The Classic of Poetry , and Xunzi . Quantitatively, it's most major influences are the Zhuangzi and Lüshi Chunqiu, and about half as much the Tao te Ching and Han Feizi, including traces of Shen Buhai. But the work disparages the Han Feizi's combination of Shang Yang and Shen Buhai , glossing the three together in a penal portrayal. Zhuangzi influences only exist as traces in the Han Feizi, and
646-452: The Huang–Lao form of religious Daoism, and contains more than 800 quotations from Chinese classics. The textual diversity is apparent from the chapter titles, listed under the table of contents (tr. Le Blanc, 1985, 15–16). Some 'passages are philosophically significant, with one example combining Five Phase and Daoist themes. When the lute-tuner strikes the kung note [on one instrument],
684-503: The Mawangdui silk texts Huangdi sijing , entombed in the early Han dynasty , still lacked in them. In these terms, the Huainanzi is notable as the main evidence of Zhuangzi influence in the Han dynasty. Scattered anecdotes are either drawn from or comparable to Mencius , though sometimes differing. Scholars are reasonably certain regarding the date of composition for the Huainanzi . Both
722-629: The United States established independent, local Confucian churches such as the Confucius Church of Sacramento or the Confucius Church of Salinas. In contemporary China, the Confucian revival of the 21st century has developed a variety of interrelated ways: the proliferation of Confucian academies, the resurgence of Confucian rites, and the birth of new forms of Confucian activity on the local level, such as Confucian communities. Some scholars consider
760-405: The United States . There has been a revival of Confucianism in contemporary China since around 2000, which has triggered the proliferation of Confucian academies ( 书院 ; shūyuàn ); the opening and reopening of temples of Confucius ; the new phenomenon of grassroots Confucian communities or congregations ( 社区儒学 ; shèqū rúxué ); and renewed talks about a national "Confucian church". With
798-480: The early republican government . The founding of the People's Republic in 1949 saw them suppressed once again, although since the 1990s and 2000s the climate was relaxed and some of them have received some form of official recognition. In Taiwan all the still existing restrictions were rescinded in the 1980s. Folk religious movements began to rapidly revive in mainland China in the 1980s, and now if conceptualised as
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#1732844532951836-586: The kung note [on the other instrument] responds: when he plucks the chiao note [on one instrument], the chiao note [on the other instrument] vibrates. This results from having corresponding musical notes in mutual harmony. Now, [let us assume that] someone changes the tuning of one string in such a way that it does not match any of the five notes, and by striking it sets all twenty-five strings resonating. In this case there has as yet been no differentiation as regards sound; it just happens that that [sound] which governs all musical notes has been evoked. Thus, he who
874-469: The Political Philosophy of Huainanzi". University of Hawai'i Press : 90–111. Chinese salvationist religions Main philosophical traditions: Ritual traditions: Devotional traditions: Salvation churches and sects : Confucian churches and sects: Chinese salvationist religions or Chinese folk religious sects are a Chinese religious tradition characterised by
912-533: The Qing dynasty is huìdàomén ( 会道门 "churches, ways and gates"), as their names interchangeably use the terms huì ( 会 "church, society, association, congregation"; when referring to their corporate form), dào ( 道 "way") or mén ( 门 "gate[way], door"). Their congregations and points of worship are usually called táng ( 堂 "church, hall") or tán ( 坛 "altar"). Western scholars often mistakenly identify them as " Protestant " churches. The Vietnamese religions of Minh Đạo and Caodaism emerged from
950-589: The label "secret sects" ( 秘密教门 mìmì jiàomén ) to distinguish the peasant "secret societies" with a positive dimension of the Yuan, Ming and Qing periods, from the negatively viewed "secret societies" of the early republic that became instruments of anti-revolutionary forces (the Guomindang or Japan ). Many of these religions are traced to the White Lotus tradition ("Chinese Maternism", as mentioned by Philip Clart ) that
988-679: The mainland, constructing statues of Confucius, Confucian hospitals, restoring temples and sponsoring other activities. In 2009, Zhou Beichen founded the Holy Hall of Confucius ( 孔圣堂 ; Kǒngshèngtáng ) in Shenzhen , inspired by Kang Youwei's idea of the Confucian Church. It is also affiliated with the Federation of Confucian Culture in Qufu , a nationwide movement of congregations and civil organisations that
1026-497: The modern discourse of an Asian -centered universal civilisation. The Chinese folk religious movements of salvation are mostly concentrated in northern and northeastern China, although with a significant influence reaching the Yangtze River Delta since the 16th century. The northern provinces have been a fertile ground for the movements of salvation for a number of reasons: firstly, popular religious movements were active in
1064-410: The participation of many Confucian leaders, a national Church of Confucius ( 孔圣会 ; Kǒngshènghuì ) was established on November 1, 2015; its current spiritual leader is Jiang Qing . The idea of a "Confucian Church" as the state religion of China was proposed in detail by Kang Youwei as part of an early New Confucian effort to revive the social relevance of Confucianism. The idea was proposed at
1102-518: The population of China, which is around 30 million people, claim to be members of folk religious sects. The actual number of followers may be higher, about the same as the number of members of the five state-sanctioned religions of China if counted together. In Taiwan, recognised folk religious movements of salvation gather approximately 10% of the population as of the mid-2000s. Confucian church The Confucian church ( Chinese : 孔教会 ; pinyin : Kǒng jiàohuì or Rú jiàohuì )
1140-530: The reconstruction of Chinese lineage associations and their ancestral shrines , as well as cults and temples worshiping natural and national gods from other Chinese traditional religions, as part of the revival of Confucianism. Other groups associated with the revival include folk religions or salvationist religions that have a Confucian focus. Confucian churches, for example the Yidan xuetang ( 一耽学堂 ) in Beijing ,
1178-537: The region already in the Han dynasty , and they deeply penetrated local society; secondly, northern provinces are characterised by social mobility around the capital and weak traditional social structure, thus folk religious movements of salvation fulfill the demand of individual searching for new forms of community and social network. According to the Chinese General Social Survey of 2012, approximately 2.2% of
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1216-494: The same tradition of Chinese folk religious movements. A category overlapping with that of the salvationist movements is that of the "secret societies" ( 秘密社会 mìmì shèhuì , or 秘密结社 mìmì jiéshè ), religious communities of initiatory and secretive character, including rural militias and fraternal organisations which became very popular in the early republican period, and often labeled as " heretical doctrines" ( 宗教异端 zōngjiào yìduān ). Recent scholarship has begun to use
1254-582: The teachings of Confucius . The large community of Confucian literati—who were left without an organization or an outlet for their rituals, values, and identity after the dissolution of state Confucianism, supported such projects. Similar models were also adopted by various newly created Confucian folk religious sects , such as the Xixinshe, the Daode Xueshe, and the Wanguo Daodehui. The Confucian Church
1292-405: The work attempts to define the conditions for a perfect socio-political order, derived mainly from a perfect ruler. Including Chinese folk theories of yin and yang and Wu Xing , the Huainanzi draws on Taoist , Legalist , Confucian , and Mohist concepts, but subverts the latter three in favor of a less active ruler, as prominent in the early Han dynasty before the Emperor Wu . The work
1330-455: Was already active in the Song dynasty ; others claim a Taoist legacy and are based on the recovery of ancient scriptures attributed to important immortals such as Lü Dongbin and Zhang Sanfeng , and have contributed to the popularisation of neidan ; other ones are distinctively Confucian and advocate the realisation of a "great commonwealth" ( datong 大同 ) on a world scale, as dreamt of in
1368-477: Was founded in 1912 by a disciple of Kang, Chen Huanzhang, and within a few years it established 132 branches in China. From 1913 to 1916, an important debate took place about whether Confucianism should become the state religion ( guo jiao ) and thus be inscribed in the constitution of China. This did not occur and anti-religious campaigns in the 1920s led to a full dissolution of the Confucian church. While Kang's idea
1406-721: Was not realized in China, it was carried forward in Hong Kong and among overseas Chinese people. The Hong Kong branch of Kang's movement became known as the " Confucian Academy " ( 孔教学院 ), while the Indonesian branch became the Supreme Council for the Confucian Religion in Indonesia . Members believe in Tian , with Confucius as the prophet ( Indonesian : nabi ). Chinese people in
1444-545: Was unified in 2015 as the Church of Confucius ( 孔圣会 ; Kǒngshènghuì ). Chinese folk religion's temples and kinship ancestral shrines sometimes choose Confucian liturgy during special occasions (that is called 儒 rú , or sometimes 正统 zhèngtǒng ; ' orthoprax ritual style'), led by Confucian ritual masters ( 礼生 ; lǐshēng ) who worship the gods enshrined, instead of Taoist or other popular rituals. "Confucian businessmen" ( rushang ; 'learned businessman')
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