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153-456: The land was the site of the former Estadio Nacional, which was built in 1924 to serve not only as a sports stadium but as a political venue as well. Presidents Plutarco Elías Calles , Emilio Portes Gil and Lázaro Cárdenas all took their oaths of office here. The stadium was mostly abandoned by the end of the 1940s, as most of its functions moved to the Ciudad Deportiva. Pensiones Civiles,

306-609: A UNESCO World Heritage Site . This city was destroyed by several earthquakes in 1773–1774. The King of Spain authorized moving the capital to its current location in the Ermita Valley, which is named after a Catholic church dedicated to the Virgen del Carmen . This new capital was founded on 2 January 1776. On 15 September 1821, Gabino Gainza Fernandez de Medrano and the Captaincy General of Guatemala , an administrative region of

459-402: A bomb exploded near his carriage. It has been suggested that the extreme despotic characteristics of Estrada did not emerge until after an attempt on his life in 1907. Guatemala City was badly damaged in the 1917 Guatemala earthquake . Estrada Cabrera continued in power until forced to resign after new revolts in 1920. By that time his power had declined drastically and he was reliant upon

612-442: A change in the law regulating the military, mandating that officers must have professional training to rise in rank. The administration also aimed to decrease corruption by severely penalizing it. Further control was a mandatory retirement age for officers. The most powerful generals were not reined in by such provisions, but Amaro managed to get some cooperation with their enforcement of regulations on subordinates. The Colegio Militar

765-665: A communist; he considered revolution a way of governing rather than an ideological position. Public opinion in the United States turned particularly anti-Mexican when the first embassy of the Soviet Union in any country was opened in Mexico. On that occasion, the Soviet ambassador remarked that "no other two countries show more similarities than the Soviet Union and Mexico." After this, some in

918-575: A criollo caudillo like Morazán, who was able to crush the peasant rebellion. Morazán used the proceeds to support Los Altos and then replaced Valenzuela with Mariano Rivera Paz , a member of the Aycinena clan, although he did not return to that clan any property confiscated in 1829. In revenge, Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol voted to dissolve the Central American Federation in San Salvador

1071-584: A dangerous jungle infested with jaguars to meet his former friend. Zavala not only did not capture him, he agreed to serve under his orders, thus sending a strong message to both liberal and conservatives in Guatemala City that they would have to negotiate with Carrera or battle on two fronts – Quetzaltenango and Jalapa. Carrera went back to the Quetzaltenango area, while Zavala remained in Suchitepéquez as

1224-732: A detachment in Jutiapa and got a small amount of booty which he gave to the volunteers who accompanied him. He then prepared to attack Petapa near Guatemala City, where he was victorious, although with heavy casualties. In September of that year, Carrera attempted an assault on the capital of Guatemala, but the liberal general Carlos Salazar Castro defeated him in the fields of Villa Nueva and Carrera had to retreat. After unsuccessfully trying to take Quetzaltenango , Carrera found himself both surrounded and wounded. He had to capitulate to Mexican General Agustín Guzmán , who had been in Quetzaltenango since Vicente Filísola 's arrival in 1823. Morazán had

1377-694: A few months later, after the intervention of the United States ambassador Dwight Morrow , the Mexican government and the Cristeros signed a peace treaty. During the Maximato, Calles served as Minister of Industry and Commerce. After a large demonstration in 1930, the Mexican Communist Party was banned, Mexico stopped its support for the rebels of César Sandino in Nicaragua, strikes were no longer tolerated, and

1530-500: A friend: "Now he is the king of the Indians, indeed!" Guzmán then left for Jalapa, where he struck a deal with the rebels, while Luis Batres Juarros convinced President Paredes to deal with Carrera. Back in Guatemala City within a few months, Carrera was commander-in-chief, backed by military and political support of the Indian communities from the densely populated western highlands. During

1683-492: A government agency, acquired the land, which is bordered by Avenida Antonio M. Anza to the north, Huatabampo Street to the south, Avenida Cuauhtémoc to the east, and Jalapa Street to the west, in an area known as Colonia Roma. This area also included the La Piedad city park, providing for already open space. In the mid 20th century, the Mexican government was building "centros urbanos" or planned urban communities in various parts of

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1836-450: A huge column of Quetzaltenango and Totonicapán indigenous people came down from the mountains to vote for him. Reyna was elected president. José María Reina Barrios was president between 1892 and 1898. During Barrios's first term in office, the power of the landowners over the rural peasantry increased. He oversaw the rebuilding of parts of Guatemala City on a grander scale, with wide, Parisian-style avenues. He oversaw Guatemala hosting

1989-482: A little later, forcing Morazán to return to El Salvador to fight for his federal mandate. Along the way, Morazán increased repression in eastern Guatemala, as punishment for helping Carrera. Knowing that Morazán had gone to El Salvador, Carrera tried to take Salamá with the small force that remained, but was defeated, and lost his brother Laureano in combat. With just a few men left, he managed to escape, badly wounded, to Sanarate . After recovering somewhat, he attacked

2142-776: A major infrastructure project to build a road network in Mexico that linked major cities and small villages to the network. He established the National Road Commission as a government agency, envisioning it as a way to increase economic activity by getting crops to market more efficiently, but also as a means to increase the presence of the state in remote communities. Unlike the nineteenth-century railway network, funded by foreign capital and foreign firms, Mexican road construction depended on federal government support and had limited dependence on foreign technology. Mexicans formed road-building companies, most prominently in northern Mexico with revolutionary general Juan Andreu Almazán , in

2295-405: A major strike at the turn of the twentieth century. Scholars review that his hardships in his upbringing; like his social status as a natural or "illegitimate" child, being an orphan, and financial and familial troubles; have all influenced his path, and made him hardworking and determined to overcome such challenges as the eldest to care for his family. "To society at large, Plutarco Elías Calles

2448-462: A member of the Liberal Party , he sought to encourage development of the nation's infrastructure of highways , railroads , and sea ports for the sake of expanding the export economy. By the time Estrada Cabrera assumed the presidency there had been repeated efforts to construct a railroad from the major port of Puerto Barrios to the capital, Guatemala City. Owing to lack of funding exacerbated by

2601-533: A native revolt, much like that of 1840; their only request from Carrera was to keep the natives under control. The altenses did not comply, and led by Guzmán and his forces, they started chasing Carrera; the caudillo hid, helped by his native allies and remained under their protection when the forces of Miguel Garcia Granados arrived from Guatemala City looking for him. On learning that officer José Víctor Zavala had been appointed as Corregidor in Suchitepéquez, Carrera and his hundred jacalteco bodyguards crossed

2754-624: A peasant. With Salazar gone, Carrera reinstated Rivera Paz as head of state. Between 1838 and 1840 a secessionist movement in the city of Quetzaltenango founded the breakaway state of Los Altos and sought independence from Guatemala. The most important members of the Liberal Party of Guatemala and liberal enemies of the conservative régime moved to Los Altos, leaving their exile in El Salvador. The liberals in Los Altos began severely criticizing

2907-747: A police commissioner, and his ability to align himself with the Constitutionalists led by Venustiano Carranza (the political winners of the Mexican Revolution ) allowed him to move up the ranks quickly, allowing him to attain the rank of general by 1915. He led the Constitutional Army in his home state of Sonora from this point on. In 1915 his forces repelled the Conventionalist faction in Sonora under José María Maytorena and Pancho Villa in

3060-664: A railroad and placed under arrest under the order of President Cárdenas. These were false accusations, framing Calles to exile him. Calles was deported to the United States on 9 April 1936 along with the three last highly-influential callistas in Mexico—Morones, Luis León (leader of the Radical Civic Union in Mexico), and General Rafael Melchor Ortega (one-time Governor of Guanajuato ). His son Alfredo and his secretary were also exiled. Guatemala Guatemala , officially

3213-533: A tactical maneuver. Carrera received a visit from a cabinet member of Paredes and told him that he had control of the native population and that he assured Paredes that he would keep them appeased. When the emissary returned to Guatemala City, he told the president everything Carrera said, and added that the native forces were formidable. Guzmán went to Antigua to meet with another group of Paredes emissaries; they agreed that Los Altos would rejoin Guatemala, and that

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3366-497: A total of 984 apartments of twelve different types to accommodate between 3,000 and 5,000 people. The buildings had four types, labeled "A" (largest) "B", "C" and "D", with a total apartment floor space of 700,000 square feet. At the Alemán complex, the buildings zigzag over the site, but in the Juárez complex, the buildings were placed at angles to give a greater sense of privacy and to provide

3519-566: Is characterized by urbanisation, the emergence of independent city-states, and contact with other Mesoamerican cultures. This lasted until approximately 900 AD, when the Classic Maya civilization collapsed . The Maya abandoned many of the cities of the central lowlands or were killed by a drought-induced famine . The cause of the collapse is debated, but the drought theory is gaining currency, supported by evidence such as lakebeds, ancient pollen, and others. A series of prolonged droughts in what

3672-720: Is otherwise a seasonal desert is thought to have decimated the Maya, who relied on regular rainfall to support their dense population. The Post-Classic period is represented by regional kingdoms, such as the Itza , Kowoj , Yalain and Kejache in Petén, and the Mam , Ki'che' , Kackchiquel , Chajoma , Tz'utujil , Poqomchi' , Q'eqchi' and Ch'orti' peoples in the highlands. Their cities preserved many aspects of Maya culture. The Maya civilization shares many features with other Mesoamerican civilizations due to

3825-682: Is the most populous city in Central America. The name "Guatemala" comes from the Nahuatl word Cuauhtēmallān , or "place of many trees", a derivative of the K'iche' Mayan word for "many trees" or, perhaps more specifically, for the Cuate/Cuatli tree Eysenhardtia . This name was originally used by the Mexica to refer to the Kaqchikel city of Iximche , but was extended to refer to the whole country during

3978-606: The Battle of Agua Prieta . Calles became governor of his home state of Sonora in 1915, building a pragmatic reformist political record, which was to promote the rapid growth of the Mexican national economy, the infrastructure of which he helped to establish. In particular, he attempted to make Sonora a dry state (a state in which alcohol is heavily regulated), promoted education, legislation giving social security and collective bargaining to workers; organized an economic ground for Mexico. In 1919, Calles travelled to Mexico City to take up

4131-457: The Laborist Party 's candidate in the 1924 election. His campaign was the first populist presidential campaign in Mexico's history, as he called for land redistribution and promised equal justice, further labor rights , and democratic governance. He won the election and expanded education, implemented infrastructure projects, and improved public health. After this populist phase (1924–1926) he

4284-567: The Maya area . Many outside influences are found in Maya art and architecture, which are thought to have resulted from trade and cultural exchange rather than direct external conquest. After they arrived in the New World , the Spanish started several expeditions to Guatemala, beginning in 1519. Before long, Spanish contact resulted in an epidemic that devastated native populations. Hernán Cortés , who had led

4437-445: The Plan of Agua Prieta . Carranza had attempted to choose an unknown civilian, Ignacio Bonillas , the Mexican ambassador to the U.S. as his successor. Carranza was forced out of power and died escaping, leaving De la Huerta as interim president. De la Huerta then named Calles to the important post of Minister of War. Obregón was elected president in 1920 and he named Calles as Secretary of

4590-776: The Quiché region in the Highlands, and Sipacate and Escuintla on the central Pacific coast. Archaeologists divide the pre-Columbian history of Mesoamerica into the Preclassic period (3000 BC to 250 AD), the Classic period (250 to 900 AD), and the Postclassic period (900 to 1500 AD). Until recently, the Preclassic was regarded by researchers as a formative period, in which the peoples typically lived in huts in small villages of farmers, with few permanent buildings. This notion has been challenged since

4743-652: The Republic of Guatemala , is a country in Central America . It is bordered to the north and west by Mexico , to the northeast by Belize , to the east by Honduras , and to the southeast by El Salvador . It is hydrologically bordered to the south by the Pacific Ocean and to the northeast by the Gulf of Honduras . The territory of modern Guatemala hosted the core of the Maya civilization , which extended across Mesoamerica ; in

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4896-530: The Spanish conquest of Mexico , granted a permit to Captains Gonzalo de Alvarado and his brother, Pedro de Alvarado , to conquer this land. Alvarado at first allied himself with the Kaqchikel nation to fight against their traditional rivals the K'iche' (Quiché) nation . Alvarado later turned against the Kaqchikel, and eventually brought the entire region under Spanish domination. During the colonial period, Guatemala

5049-534: The United Provinces of Central America . In 1840, Belgium began to act as an external source of support for Carrera's independence movement, in an effort to exert influence in Central America. The Compagnie belge de colonisation (Belgian Colonization Company), commissioned by Belgian King Leopold I , became the administrator of Santo Tomas de Castilla replacing the failed British Eastern Coast of Central America Commercial and Agricultural Company . Even though

5202-554: The United States . In 1944, authoritarian leader Jorge Ubico was overthrown by a pro-democratic military coup, initiating a decade-long revolution that led to social and economic reforms. In 1954, a US-backed military coup ended the revolution and installed a dictatorship. From 1960 to 1996, Guatemala endured a bloody civil war fought between the US-backed government and leftist rebels, including genocidal massacres of

5355-454: The callistas from political posts and exiling many of his political allies: Tomás Garrido Canabal , Fauto Topete , Emilio Portes Gil , Saturnino Cedillo , Aarón Sáenz , Nicolás Rodríguez Carrasco , Pascual Ortiz Rubio and finally Calles himself. Calles and head of the labor organization CROM , Luis N. Morones , one of the last remaining influential callistas and one-time Minister of Agriculture, were charged with conspiring to blow up

5508-483: The 16th century, most of this was conquered by the Spanish and claimed as part of the viceroyalty of New Spain . Guatemala attained independence from Spain and Mexico in 1821. From 1823 to 1841, it was part of the Federal Republic of Central America . For the latter half of the 19th century, Guatemala suffered instability and civil strife. From the early 20th century, it was ruled by a series of dictators backed by

5661-610: The 1920s charge of the military in Nuevo León, forming the Anáhuac Construction Company, making him a wealthy man. This extensive infrastructure project "connected the country, increasingly linking people from different regions and towns to national political, economic, and cultural life." Work began on the Mexican section of the Pan-American Highway , linking Nuevo Laredo at the U.S.-Mexico border to Tapachula on

5814-714: The American Pacific Coast, Guatemala became a supplementary node to the Transpacific Manila Galleon trade connecting Latin America to Asia via the Spanish owned Philippines. On 11 September 1541, the new capital was flooded when the lagoon in the crater of the Agua Volcano collapsed due to heavy rains and earthquakes; the capital was then moved 6 km (4 mi) to Antigua in the Panchoy Valley, now

5967-566: The Army Marshall rank, even though that rank did not exist and it does not exist in the Guatemalan military. The Marshall called himself President of the Republic, but in reality he was the foreman of oppressed and savaged people, cowardly enough that they had not dared to tell the dictator to leave threatening him with a revolution. The State and Church were a single unit, and the conservative régime

6120-461: The Atlantic side. In 1906 Estrada faced serious revolts against his rule; the rebels were supported by the governments of some of the other Central American nations, but Estrada succeeded in putting them down. Elections were held by the people against the will of Estrada Cabrera and thus he had the president-elect murdered in retaliation. In 1907 Estrada narrowly survived an assassination attempt when

6273-657: The August 1923 Bucareli Treaty . Obregón pushed through ratification in the Mexican Congress, and the U.S. then moved decisively. President Calvin Coolidge sent naval ships to blockade the Gulf Coast to both prevent the rebels from obtaining arms and deliver arms to Obregón's government. Obregón went to war once again and won a decisive victory against his former comrades-in-arms, 14 of whom were summarily executed. Calles's candidacy

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6426-524: The CROM. In that position, Morones was able to advance his organization at the expense of rivals. Some independent unions and more radical were forced into the umbrella of the moderate CROM. Wage increases and betterment of working conditions were evidence that Calles sought to implement Article 123 of the Mexican Constitution , embedding labor rights. The number of labor strikes decreased precipitously during

6579-517: The Calles administration. When railway workers struck in 1926, Morones sent scabs to break the strike. During the Calles presidency, he relied on the financial acumen of his Secretary of the Treasury, Alberto J. Pani , a loyalist of Obregón, and served in his cabinet. Pani's classical liberal policies of a balanced budget and stable currency helped restore foreign investors' confidence in Mexico. Pani advised

6732-489: The Conservative government of Rivera Paz. Los Altos was the region with the main production and economic activity of the former state of Guatemala. Without Los Altos, conservatives lost many of the resources that had given Guatemala hegemony in Central America. The government of Guatemala tried to reach a peaceful solution, but two years of bloody conflict followed. On 17 April 1839, Guatemala declared itself independent from

6885-581: The De la Huerta rebellion in 1923, which cleared the way for Calles's candidacy. Obregón awarded loyalists following that revolt. The military continued to be a potential interventionist force in Mexican politics, with generals presuming that they could rise to the presidency. Calles sought to professionalize the army and decrease its share of the national budget, putting Joaquín Amaro in charge of implementing major changes. Many generals had achieved their status as battlefield promotions. The Calles administration called for

7038-547: The Destruction of Tula and the Popol Vuh . Each legend was depicted with a series of figures nearly eight feet tall each, which tell the story in frames as one ascends the stairs. The figures were chipped from the concrete in bas-relief then painted. Pani's and Mérida's work received mixed reviews, which often reflected the rivalry "Contemporáneo" school of art, and the more politicized Mexican traditional muralist movement . There

7191-660: The Economy . During his presidency, he implemented many left-wing populist and secularist reforms, opposition to which sparked the Cristero War . Born on 25 September 1877 in Sonora , Elías Calles fought in Venustiano Carranza 's Constitutional Army during the Mexican Revolution , which allowed him to rise in politics, joining the cabinets of Presidents Carranza, Adolfo de la Huerta , and Álvaro Obregón . Obregón selected him as

7344-417: The Guatemalan government in several different ways. José Francisco Barrundia established a liberal newspaper for that specific purpose. Vasconcelos supported a rebel faction named "La Montaña" in eastern Guatemala, providing and distributing money and weapons. By late 1850, Vasconcelos was getting impatient at the slow progress of the war with Guatemala and decided to plan an open attack. Under that circumstance,

7497-667: The Guatemalans suffered a severe defeat , which was followed by a truce. Honduras joined with El Salvador, and Nicaragua and Costa Rica with Guatemala. The contest was finally settled in favor of Carrera, who besieged and occupied San Salvador , and dominated Honduras and Nicaragua. He continued to act in concert with the Clerical Party, and tried to maintain friendly relations with European governments. Before he died, Carrera nominated his friend and loyal soldier, Army Marshall Vicente Cerna y Cerna , as his successor. Vicente Cerna y Cerna

7650-471: The Interior . During the Obregón presidency (1920–24), Calles aligned himself with organized labor, particularly the Regional Confederation of Mexican Workers (CROM), headed by Luis N. Morones and the Laborist Party , as well as agraristas , radical agrarians. The serious military conflict was resolved in favor of Obregón when the U.S. threw its support to him. Obregón's government had acceded to concessions to U.S. business interests, particularly oil, in

7803-406: The Maya population perpetrated by the Guatemalan military. The United Nations negotiated a peace accord, resulting in economic growth and successive democratic elections. Guatemala's abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems includes many endemic species and contributes to Mesoamerica's designation as a biodiversity hotspot . Although rich in export goods, around a quarter of

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7956-403: The Mexican Supreme Court decision in exchange for official recognition from Washington of the presidency of Álvaro Obregón. The reaction of the U.S. government to Calles's intention to enforce Article 27 was swift. The American ambassador to Mexico branded Calles a communist, and Secretary of State Frank B. Kellogg issued a threat against Mexico on 12 June 1925. Calles never considered himself

8109-503: The Mexican and U.S. governments, which were heading toward war. In Mexico, Morones was credited with aiding the withdrawal of U.S. troops in Mexico sent by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson . CROM's support for Calles was important for his election. Although the labor movement in Mexico was factionalized, CROM was a staunch supporter of Obregón and Calles. In 1924, Calles won the election. Shortly before his inauguration, Calles had traveled to Germany and France to study social democracy and

8262-431: The Mexico-Guatemala border. Road building was financed internally with a gasoline tax. Education had been an important part of Obregón's administration, particularly under José Vasconcelos . Calles was able to devote more government funding to rural education and added two thousand schools to the thousand that his predecessor had established. A key aim of rural education was to integrate Mexico's indigenous population into

8415-447: The Multifamiliar Juárez complex partially collapsed, and a number of residents died. Many of the buildings could have been saved, but it proved uneconomical to do so. Pensiones Civiles erred when they created the rental contracts with tenants by neglecting to add a clause allowing them to raise rents. By 1985, there were tenants paying as little as 200 pesos a month for rent. (US$ 25 in 1950, $ .10USD in 1985). For this reason, maintenance of

8568-414: The Salvadorean head of state started a campaign against the conservative Guatemalan regime, inviting Honduras and Nicaragua to participate in the alliance; only the Honduran government led by Juan Lindo accepted. In 1851 Guatemala defeated an Allied army from Honduras and El Salvador at the Battle of La Arada . In 1854 Carrera was declared "supreme and perpetual leader of the nation" for life, with

8721-458: The Spanish Empire consisting of Chiapas , Guatemala, El Salvador , Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Honduras, officially proclaimed its independence from Spain at a public meeting in Guatemala City. Independence from Spain was gained, and the Captaincy General of Guatemala joined the First Mexican Empire under Agustín de Iturbide . Under the First Empire, Mexico reached its greatest territorial extent, stretching from northern California to

8874-445: The Spanish colonial period. The first evidence of human habitation in Guatemala dates to 12,000 BC. Archaeological evidence, such as obsidian arrowheads found in various parts of the country, suggests a human presence as early as 18,000 BC. There is archaeological proof that early Guatemalan settlers were hunter-gatherers . Maize cultivation had been developed by the people by 3500 BC. Sites dating to 6500 BC have been found in

9027-414: The United States government, considering Calles's regime Bolshevik , started to refer to Mexico as "Soviet Mexico". The debate on the new oil law occurred in 1925, with U.S. interests opposing all initiatives. By 1926, the new law was enacted. In January 1927 the Mexican government canceled the permits of oil companies that would not comply with the law. Talks of war circulated by the U.S. president and in

9180-400: The apartments with as much natural light as possible. There were no vehicular roads within the complex to allow pedestrians to walk around. All of the vehicular roads that entered terminated at a parking lot before one entered the area where the apartment buildings were located. There was only one road that passed through the complex, Orizaba Street, but this road was lowered below ground level,

9333-462: The assassination of Álvaro Obregón , Elías Calles founded the Institutional Revolutionary Party and held unofficial power as Mexico's de facto leader from 1929 to 1934, a period known as the Maximato . Previously, he served as a general in the Constitutional Army , as Governor of Sonora , Secretary of War , and Secretary of the Interior . During the Maximato, he served as Secretariat of Public Education , Secretary of War again, and Secretary of

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9486-428: The basement, a novel idea in Mexico at that time. The complex was one of the largest projects in the world which integrates artwork into the architecture. Carlos Mérida's mural work here was the most important of his career and the largest mural project in Mexico in the 20th century until the completion of David Alfaro Siqueiros 's The March of Humanity mural cycle at the Polyforum Cultural Siqueiros . Mérida received

9639-470: The buildings and grounds suffered until it became impossible. The government decided that this was the time to condemn nearly all of the buildings, with only several still remaining. The earthquake essentially made the complex disappear. The destruction of the buildings destroyed nearly all of the mural work. Evidence of these remain in photographs and the preliminary sketches, which Mérida donated to UNAM. One student of Mérida's Alfonso Soto Soria, used some of

9792-422: The capital and controlled by urban intellectuals, could not command rural residents and public school teachers to adhere to the program, so on-site, there was a kind of negotiation about how education was shaped. After the Revolution, public health in Mexico was not in a good state, but it had not been particularly good even during the Porfiriato. The Calles administration sought to improve health and hygiene since

9945-473: The church, officials insisted that they pursued the rule of law. During his presidential campaign, Calles clarified that he was not an "enemy of religion"; he approved of "all religious beliefs because [he] consider[ed] them beneficial for the moral progress that they encompass." He was, however, an enemy of "the political priest, the scheming priest, the priest as exploiter." This position of lauding religion while inveighing against earthly ecclesiastic machinations

10098-420: The church. During his term as president, he moved to enforce the anticlerical articles of the Constitution of 1917 , which led to a violent and lengthy conflict known as the Cristero Rebellion or the Cristero War , which was characterized by reprisals and counter-reprisals. The Mexican government violently persecuted the clergy, massacring suspected Cristeros and their supporters. The conflict ended in 1929 with

10251-402: The city after Corregidor general Mariano Paredes was called to Guatemala City to take over the presidential office. They declared on 26 August 1848 that Los Altos was an independent state once again. The new state had the support of Doroteo Vasconcelos ' régime in El Salvador and the rebel guerrilla army of Vicente and Serapio Cruz, who were sworn enemies of Carrera. The interim government

10404-478: The city. These communities contained their own administration, businesses, recreational areas and schools, as well as health and other services. These were planned to be semiautonomous units, usually located near a Metro station. Architect Mario Pani was behind this complex and several others. Prior, he created the Centro Urbano Miguel Alemán (commonly called the Multifamiliar Alemán) in the late 1940s, as an experiment in providing low cost housing. Its success prompted

10557-406: The collapse of the internal coffee trade, the railway fell 100 kilometres (60 mi) short of its goal. Estrada Cabrera decided, without consulting the legislature or judiciary, that striking a deal with the UFCO was the only way to finish the railway. Cabrera signed a contract with UFCO's Minor Cooper Keith in 1904 that gave the company tax exemptions, land grants, and control of all railroads on

10710-399: The colony eventually crumbled, Belgium continued to support Carrera in the mid-19th century, although Britain continued to be the main business and political partner to Carrera. Rafael Carrera was elected Guatemalan Governor in 1844. On 21 March 1847, Guatemala declared itself an independent republic and Carrera became its first president. During the first term as president, Carrera brought

10863-405: The commission in 1951, which took him three years. The murals covered an area of 4,000 m2. The goal of Mérida's work was to fuse it into the building, rather than just use it as a canvas. The complex then became an example of "plastic integration" where the architecture and the art work with each other and neither detracts from the other. This project would become the most sophisticated realization of

11016-559: The commission of the Centro Urbano Benito Juárez by Mexican President Miguel Alemán Valdés to house government employees and their families. With this project, Pani and his associate Enrique del Moral looked to improve upon the stark lines of the Alemán project. Pani's work on this and other projects paralleled that of French architect Le Corbusier , using the latter's principles such as location, mobility, architectural aesthetics, history and more. These projects would make Pani

11169-460: The concept in the post World War I period. The Guatemalan -born artist sculpted and painted images of pre-Hispanic legends from Mexico. However, the native depicted in these stories have decidedly European faces. This mixing of native dress with European faces reflects what is called "Mestizo Art" and reflects the then Mexican government's social ideology of promoting the "mestizo" (mixed native European heritage) as Mexico's identity. One example of

11322-495: The country back from extreme conservatism to a traditional moderation; in 1848, the liberals were able to drive him from office, after the country had been in turmoil for several months. Carrera resigned of his own free will and left for México. The new liberal regime allied itself with the Aycinena family and swiftly passed a law ordering Carrera's execution if he returned to Guatemalan soil. The liberal criollos from Quetzaltenango were led by general Agustín Guzmán who occupied

11475-544: The country to war in an unsuccessful attempt to attain it, losing his life on the battlefield in 1885 against forces in El Salvador. Manuel Barillas was president from 16 March 1886 to 15 March 1892. Manuel Barillas was unique among liberal presidents of Guatemala between 1871 and 1944: he handed over power to his successor peacefully. When election time approached, he sent for the three Liberal candidates to ask them what their government plan would be. Happy with what he heard from general Reyna Barrios , Barillas made sure that

11628-433: The destroyed structures were built has not been redeveloped. 19°24′34.82″N 99°9′26.97″W  /  19.4096722°N 99.1574917°W  / 19.4096722; -99.1574917 Plutarco El%C3%ADas Calles Plutarco Elías Calles (born Francisco Plutarco Elías Campuzano ; 25 September 1877 – 19 October 1945) was a Mexican soldier and politician who served as President of Mexico from 1924 to 1928. After

11781-513: The economics of the time, and therefore land management. From 1839 to 1871, the Consulado held a consistent monopolistic position in the regime. Guatemala's "Liberal Revolution" came in 1871 under the leadership of Justo Rufino Barrios , who worked to modernize the country, improve trade, and introduce new crops and manufacturing. During this era coffee became an important crop for Guatemala. Barrios had ambitions of reuniting Central America and took

11934-477: The editorial pages of the New York Times . Mexico managed to avoid war through a series of diplomatic maneuvers. Soon afterward, a direct telephone link was established between Calles and President Calvin Coolidge , and the U.S. ambassador to Mexico, James R. Sheffield , was replaced with Dwight Morrow . Morrow won the Calles government over to the United States position and helped negotiate an agreement between

12087-547: The escalation of the Cristero War, his crackdowns on labor unions, and for continuing to hold onto power after his presidency. The party he founded, including its two subsequent incarnations, established what Peruvian writer Mario Vargas Llosa would describe as "the perfect dictatorship" and ruled Mexico without democratic opposition for much of the twentieth century through a combination of corruption, repression, and electoral fraud. Born Francisco Plutarco Elías Campuzano , he

12240-433: The fighting. The key infrastructure of Mexican railways, which had linked many cities and production sites in Mexico to the national market and the United States, had been damaged. The national currency in Mexico had been replaced by paper money issued by revolutionary factions without backing by specie. In response to this, many people used the more stable U.S. paper dollars. The lack of currency meant that in agriculture there

12393-418: The first " Exposición Centroamericana " ("Central American Fair") in 1897. During his second term, Barrios printed bonds to fund his ambitious plans, fueling monetary inflation and the rise of popular opposition to his regime. His administration also worked on improving the roads, installing national and international telegraphs and introducing electricity to Guatemala City. Completing a transoceanic railway

12546-529: The first presidency, from 1844 to 1848, he brought the country back from excessive conservatism to a moderate regime, and – with the advice of Juan José de Aycinena y Piñol and Pedro de Aycinena – restored relations with the Church in Rome with a Concordat ratified in 1854. After Carrera returned from exile in 1849 the president of El Salvador, Doroteo Vasconcelos , granted asylum to the Guatemalan liberals, who harassed

12699-519: The first time this was done in Mexico City. Pani placed four of the "C" type buildings right alongside this underpass to free even more space between the buildings for park and recreational space. About 2,500 trees were planted at the site. These emphasis on space reduced Le Corbusier's recommendation of 1,000 residents per hectare to 240, and would make this the least densely populated of his apartment projects. The apartments were split into two levels, with

12852-480: The first two years of his presidency (1924–26) benefiting workers and peasants. In this, he followed the pattern of his predecessor, Obregón. However, in the second two years of his presidency and into his post-presidency, Calles precipitated a major conflict between the Mexican government, the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico as an institution, and Mexican Catholics. Calles did not recognize the freedom to join

13005-487: The following decades it would be Siquieros’ work at the Ciudad Universitaria that would draw tourists, leaving the work at the apartment complex forgotten. Before construction began, Pani had engineers test the ground, and it was declared solid. For this reason, the concrete structures of the complex were never reinforced. The building survived a number of major, but less severe quakes than the one in 1985, and little

13158-417: The fortifications of the Guatemalan capital, in place since the battle of Villa Nueva. Taking advantage of Salazar's good faith and Ferrera's weapons, Carrera took Guatemala City by surprise on 13 April 1839; Salazar, Mariano Gálvez and Barrundia fled before the arrival of Carrera's militiamen. Salazar, in his nightshirt, vaulted roofs of neighboring houses and sought refuge, reaching the border disguised as

13311-569: The forward motion of the cars. The most intricate work was done on the taller "B" buildings, which had ten floors and 72 apartments each. Residents primarily used the interior elevators but outside staircases were placed and decorated with murals. On these staircases, Mérida depicted four central Mexican and one Mayan legends, The Story of Texcoco, the Legend of the Fifth Sun , the Sacrifice of Ixlolxóchitl,

13464-468: The founding of several banks in support of campesinos, but more importantly, the Banco de México , Mexico's national bank. Pani also managed to achieve relief of part of Mexico's foreign debt. After coming into conflict with Calles, Pani resigned in 1927. The military continued to be very top-heavy with revolutionary generals and the army allocated a third of the national budget. Generals had participated in

13617-473: The generals fought under his command, and waited—for a long time—until Carrera's death before beginning their revolt against the tamer Cerna. During Cerna's presidency, liberal party members were prosecuted and sent into exile; among them, those who started the Liberal Revolution of 1871. In 1871, the merchants guild, Consulado de Comercio, lost their exclusive court privilege. They had major effects on

13770-509: The government and the oil companies. Another source of conflict with the United States was Mexico's support for the liberals in the civil war in Nicaragua , as the United States supported the conservatives. This conflict ended when both countries signed a treaty in which they allowed each other to support the side they considered to be the most democratic. According to historian Robert Weis: Against claims that revolutionaries sought to destroy

13923-438: The government ceased re-distributing lands to poorer peasants. Calles was the candidate of the workers and all for helping those in need of work, campaigning against competing labor organizers, but still opposed and suppressed Communism. By the summer of 1933, two of Calles's former wartime subordinates had risen to the top of the party: Manuel Pérez Treviño and Lázaro Cárdenas . Calles mentored Treviño and supported him to be

14076-466: The government to implement other measures for sanitation and hygiene. Also part of the program was the mandatory registration of prostitutes. Calles changed Mexico's civil code to give natural (illegitimate) children the same rights as those born of married parents, partly as a reaction against the problems he himself often had encountered being a child of unmarried parents. According to false rumors, his parents had been Syrians or Turks , giving him

14229-455: The government would take any steps necessary to guarantee Calles's diplomatic protections, including armed force; Calles was escorted across the border back into Mexico by US marines without incident, though Valls promised that "the day of reckoning was only postponed." In protest of this treatment, the Mexican consulate in Laredo was closed, restricting the flow of tourists and merchandise during

14382-432: The health of citizens was considered important to economic development. He gave the issue prominence by creating a cabinet-level position in public health. The ministry was in charge of promoting vaccination against communicable diseases, improving potable water access, sewage and drainage systems, and inspecting restaurants, markets, and other food providers. A new 1926 sanitary code ordered mandatory vaccination and empowered

14535-401: The high degree of interaction and cultural diffusion that characterized the region. Advances such as writing, epigraphy , and the calendar did not originate with the Maya; however, their civilization fully developed them. Maya influence can be detected from Honduras , Belize , Guatemala, and Northern El Salvador to as far north as central Mexico, more than 1,000 km (620 mi) from

14688-506: The holiday season. The consulate was reopened in January after pressure from President Hoover and the Chamber of Commerce led Texas governor Moody and Laredo city officials to offer assurances that Mexican citizens would not be unlawfully molested. President-elect Obregón was murdered by José de León Toral , a Catholic militant, before he could assume power. Calles was ineligible to return to

14841-550: The integration of architecture and art were the panels of the "C" buildings. These panels were created when Pani decided to push the closets to outside of the main walls to save interior floor space This created protruding half boxes distributed over the exterior walls’ surfaces. Mérida used these as canvases to place images. Another example is the underpass walls along Orizaba Street. Mérida realized that motorists did not have time to contemplate peripheral images, so he placed elongated anthropomorphic figures which preceded and anticipated

14994-523: The invasion and were in Mataquescuintla – swore they would never forgive Morazán even in his grave; they felt it impossible to respect anyone who would not avenge family members. After sending several envoys, whom Carrera would not receive – and especially not Barrundia whom Carrera did not want to murder in cold blood – Morazán began a scorched-earth offensive, destroying villages in his path and stripping them of assets. The Carrera forces had to hide in

15147-417: The kitchen and living room on one floor and the bedrooms above or below. In this way, elevators only had to stop at every third floor. All apartment and elevator access was through open passages. Within the apartments, open space was created by eliminating walls between the living and dining rooms, which was popular in the United States starting in the 1950s and 1960s. Tenants disposed of garbage though chutes to

15300-493: The labor movement and he drew comparisons to Mexico. His international travel gave him a perspective beyond the Mexican context. He particularly admired the infrastructure and industry in Germany, as well as the strides that a strong organized labor movement had made. He also observed the power of populist rhetoric to build support. Calles's inauguration was a great state occasion, with some 50,000 spectators. His predecessor, Obregón,

15453-502: The late 20th century by discoveries of monumental architecture from that period, such as the Mirador Basin cities of Nakbé , Xulnal, El Tintal , Wakná and El Mirador . The Classic period of Mesoamerican civilization corresponds to the height of the Maya civilization . It is represented by countless sites throughout Guatemala, although the largest concentration is in Petén . This period

15606-490: The latter would help Guzmán defeat his enemy and also build a port on the Pacific Ocean. Guzmán was sure of victory this time, but his plan evaporated when in his absence Carrera and his native allies occupied Quetzaltenango; Carrera appointed Ignacio Yrigoyen as Corregidor and convinced him that he should work with the K'iche', Q'anjobal and Mam leaders to keep the region under control. On his way out, Yrigoyen murmured to

15759-502: The legislature convened for the election of President Estrada Cabrera, who triumphed thanks to the large number of soldiers and policemen who went to vote in civilian clothes and to the large number of illiterate family that they brought with them to the polls. One of Estrada Cabrera's most famous and most bitter legacies was allowing the entry of the United Fruit Company (UFCO) into the Guatemalan economic and political arena. As

15912-477: The liberal forces of Honduran leader Francisco Morazán and Guatemalan José Francisco Barrundia invaded Guatemala and reached San Sur, where they executed Chúa Alvarez, father-in-law of Rafael Carrera , then a military commander and later the first president of Guatemala. The liberal forces impaled Alvarez's head on a pike as a warning to followers of the Guatemalan caudillo . Carrera and his wife Petrona – who had come to confront Morazán as soon as they learned of

16065-399: The loyalty of a few generals. While the United States threatened intervention if he was removed through revolution, a bipartisan coalition came together to remove him from the presidency. He was removed from office after the national assembly charged that he was mentally incompetent, and appointed Carlos Herrera in his place on 8 April 1920. Guatemala joined with El Salvador and Honduras in

16218-546: The major points of contention with the U.S. was oil. Calles quickly rejected the Bucareli Agreements of 1923 between the U.S. and Mexico, when Álvaro Obregón was president, and began drafting a new oil law that would strictly enforce article 27 of the Mexican constitution. The oil problem stemmed from Article 27 of the Mexican Constitution of 1917, which re-stated a law of Spanish origin that made everything under

16371-577: The mediation of the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico, Dwight Morrow with the Mexican government and the Vatican. On 14 June 1926, President Calles enacted anticlerical legislation known formally as The Law Reforming the Penal Code and unofficially as the Calles Law . Calles's anti-Catholic actions included outlawing religious orders, preventing corruption from the Church. However, Catholic antipathy towards Calles

16524-477: The most famous was the Jesuit Miguel Pro . Where there had been 4,500 priests in Mexico before the rebellion, in 1934 there were only 334 priests licensed by the government to serve fifteen million people, the rest having been eliminated by emigration, expulsion, execution, and assassination. By 1935, seventeen states had no priests at all. The conflict weakened Calles politically, and that weakness paved

16677-481: The most important Mexican architect of the 20th century. The complex was inaugurated on 10 September 1952, the day of President Alemán's sixth report to Congress . The original complex covered an area of 250,000 square meters. However, construction surface at the ground level only covered 16,000, leaving 80 percent of the grounds free for parks and sports areas. It contained nineteen buildings of various heights, between three and nineteen floors. These buildings contained

16830-487: The mountains. Believing Carrera totally defeated, Morazán and Barrundia marched to Guatemala City , and were welcomed as saviors by state governor Pedro Valenzuela and members of the conservative Aycinena clan  [ es ] , who proposed to sponsor one of the liberal battalions, while Valenzuela and Barrundia gave Morazán all the Guatemalan resources needed to solve any financial problem he had. The criollos of both parties celebrated until dawn that they finally had

16983-479: The nation-state, so Spanish-language instruction was an integral aspect of public education. Along with turning rural indigenous into Spanish speakers, education aimed to create a loyal and patriotic citizenry. Secretary of Education José Manuel Puig Cassauranc developed education materials lauding the accomplishments of Sonorans Obregón and Calles as heirs to the Revolution. The Secretariat of Public Education, based in

17136-516: The nickname El Turco (The Turk). His detractors drew comparisons between Calles and the " Grand Turk ", the anti-Christian leaders from the era of the Crusades . In order not to draw too much attention to his unhappy childhood, Calles chose to ignore those rumors rather than to fight them. Another important legal innovation in Calles's presidency was the Law of Electrical Communications (1926), which asserted

17289-733: The opportunity to shoot Carrera, but did not, because he needed the support of the Guatemalan peasants to counter the attacks of Francisco Ferrera in El Salvador . Instead, Morazán left Carrera in charge of a small fort in Mita, without any weapons. Knowing that Morazán was going to attack El Salvador, Francisco Ferrera gave arms and ammunition to Carrera and convinced him to attack Guatemala City. Meanwhile, despite insistent advice to definitively crush Carrera and his forces, Salazar tried to negotiate with him diplomatically; he even went as far as to show that he neither feared nor distrusted Carrera by removing

17442-477: The original designed to create a monument to the work done at the Juárez complex. This can be found at an apartment complex called Fuentes Brotantes. Like other planned urban communities of the mid 20th century, what remains of the Conjunto Urbano Benito Juárez has continued to deteriorate. There are problems with lack of parking, crowded streets, abandoned units and crime. Much of the land on which

17595-492: The party's nominee at the time, teaching his experiences and policies, but soon yielded to pressure from party officials and agreed to support Cárdenas—a former revolutionary general, governor of Michoacán, and popular land reformer—as the PNR's presidential candidate in the 1934 Mexican Presidential election . By this time, the PNR had become so entrenched that Cárdenas' victory was a foregone conclusion; he won with almost 98 percent of

17748-527: The population (4.6 million) face food insecurity . Other extant major issues include poverty, crime, corruption, drug trafficking, and civil instability. With an estimated population of around 17.6 million, Guatemala is the most populous country in Central America, the 4th most populous country in North America and the 11th most populous country in the Americas . Its capital and largest city, Guatemala City ,

17901-577: The post of Secretary of Industry, Commerce, and Labor in the government of President Venustiano Carranza , the leader of the Constitutionalist faction that had won the Mexican Revolution. Calles's position put him in charge of the Mexican economy, which had been devastated by the fighting during the Civil War. The two main sources of production, mining, and agriculture, had been severely affected by

18054-429: The power to choose his successor. He held that position until he died on 14 April 1865. While he pursued some measures to set up a foundation for economic prosperity to please the conservative landowners, military challenges at home and a three-year war with Honduras, El Salvador, and Nicaragua dominated his presidency. His rivalry with Gerardo Barrios, President of El Salvador, resulted in open war in 1863. At Coatepeque

18207-516: The presidency, but he took steps to avoid a political vacuum. Emilio Portes Gil was appointed temporary president, while Calles created a new political party, the National Revolutionary Party (Spanish: Partido Nacional Revolucionario , PNR), the predecessor of today's Institutional Revolutionary Party (Spanish: Partido Revolucionario Institucional , PRI). The period that Obregón had been elected to serve, between 1928 and 1934,

18360-611: The presidency. There are two different descriptions of how Cabrera was able to become president. The first states that Cabrera entered the cabinet meeting "with pistol drawn" to assert his entitlement to the presidency, while the second states that he showed up unarmed to the meeting and demanded the presidency by virtue of being the designated successor. The first civilian Guatemalan head of state in over 50 years, Estrada Cabrera overcame resistance to his regime by August 1898 and called for elections in September, which he won handily. In 1898

18513-617: The provinces of Central America (excluding Panama, which was then part of Colombia), which had not initially approved becoming part of the Mexican Empire but joined the Empire shortly after their independence. This region was formally a part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain throughout the colonial period, but as a practical matter had been administered separately. It was not until 1825 that Guatemala created its own flag. In 1838

18666-533: The radio airwaves as being under government regulation. Radio stations had to comply with government regulations, which included constraints on religious or political messages, and had to broadcast government announcements without cost. Although in the 1920s, there were relatively few people owning radios, the regulations were an important assertion of state power. During the Lázaro Cárdenas presidency (1934–40), state control over broadcasts expanded further. One of

18819-700: The segregated native communities started developing a new Indian identity under Carrera's leadership. In the meantime, in the eastern part of Guatemala, the Jalapa region became increasingly dangerous; former president Mariano Rivera Paz and rebel leader Vicente Cruz were both murdered there after trying to take over the Corregidor office in 1849. When Carrera arrived to Chiantla in Huehuetenango , he received two altenses emissaries who told him that their soldiers were not going to fight his forces because that would lead to

18972-455: The shadow of Obregón, who had powerful allies in the military and among state governors and the Congress. The contrast between Calles and Obregón was in personality and level of power. "To many, Calles appeared Obregón's creation, a caretaker president who would return power to the caudillo upon the conclusion of his term." Calles sought to build his own power base. He launched a reform program that

19125-416: The soil property of the state. The language of Article 27 threatened the oil possession of U.S. and European oil companies, especially if the article was applied retroactively. A Mexican Supreme Court decision had ruled that foreign-owned fields could not be seized as long as they were already in operation before the constitution went into effect. The Bucareli Agreements stated that Mexico would agree to respect

19278-494: The states of Jalisco , Zacatecas , Guanajuato , Colima and Michoacán , began to oppose him, and on 1 January 1927, a war cry went up from the faithful Catholics, " ¡Viva Cristo Rey! ", long live Christ the King! Almost 100,000 people on both sides died in the war. A truce was negotiated with the assistance of U.S. Ambassador Dwight Morrow in which the Cristeros agreed to lay down their arms. Particularly offensive to Catholics after

19431-525: The truce was Calles's insistence on a complete state monopoly on education, taking away focus from the Catholic education and introducing secular education in its place, saying: "We must enter and take possession of the consciences of the children, of the consciences of the young, because they do belong, and should belong to the revolution." The effects of Calles's policy on the Church were between 1926 and 1934. At least 4,000 priests were killed or expelled; one of

19584-593: The vote. Cárdenas had been associated with Calles for over two decades; he had joined Calles's army in Sonora in 1915. For that reason, Calles and his allies trusted Cárdenas, and Calles believed he could work with Cárdenas as he had with his predecessors. Cárdenas soon asserted himself as an independent. Conflicts between Calles and Cárdenas arose not long after Cárdenas was sworn in. Calles opposed Cárdenas's support for labor unions, especially his tolerance and support for strikes, while Cárdenas opposed Calles's view. Cárdenas started to isolate Calles politically, removing

19737-633: The wars against the Yaqui and Apache . Plutarco Elías Calles's father, Plutarco Elías Lucero, lost his own father, José Juan Elías Pérez, in 1865 to battle wounds sustained during the resistance to the French Intervention , leaving his widow with eight children, of which Plutarco was the oldest. The family's fortunes declined precipitously; it lost or sold much of its land, some of it to the Cananea Copper Company, whose labor practices resulted in

19890-408: The way for Alvaro Obregón to return to the presidency in the 1928 election. Obregón ran unopposed in the 1928 presidential election. He was able to stand as a candidate despite having served as president before. Under Calles's administration in 1926, a constitutional change was passed that allowed for a non-consecutive re-election, and in 1928 Obregón was elected as Calles's successor; this amendment

20043-492: Was president of Guatemala from 24 May 1865 to 29 June 1871. Liberal author Alfonso Enrique Barrientos  [ es ] , described Marshall Cerna's government in the following manner: A conservative and archaic government, badly organized and with worse intentions, was in charge of the country, centralizing all powers in Vicente Cerna, ambitious military man, who not happy with the general rank, had promoted himself to

20196-458: Was a main objective of his government, with a goal to attract international investors at a time when the Panama Canal was not yet built. After the assassination of general José María Reina Barrios on 8 February 1898, the Guatemalan cabinet called an emergency meeting to appoint a new successor, but declined to invite Estrada Cabrera to the meeting, even though he was the designated successor to

20349-507: Was allowed to return to Mexico in 1941, where he died in 1945. His remains are buried in the Monument to the Revolution in Mexico City. Elías Calles is a controversial figure in Mexican history. Supporters have praised his reforms in areas such as health, infrastructure, and public education, as well as his attempts to separate church and state and to prevent political instability in the wake of Obregón's assassination. Detractors have criticized

20502-461: Was also reluctance to accept Mérida's work as "Mexican" as he remained a Guatemalan citizen his entire life. One example of this mixed message was from Siqueiros , who initially praised the "plastic integration" concept but then condemned both the art and the architecture as "bourgeois", poorly done and representing a return to the pre Mexican Revolution Porfiiran era . While Siquieros criticized Mérida's work as something attractive for tourists, in

20655-447: Was an audiencia , a captaincy-general ( Capitanía General de Guatemala ) of Spain, and a part of New Spain (Mexico). The first capital, Villa de Santiago de Guatemala (now known as Tecpan Guatemala ), was founded on 25 July 1524 near Iximché , the Kaqchikel capital city. The capital was moved to Ciudad Vieja on 22 November 1527, as a result of a Kaqchikel attack on Villa de Santiago de Guatemala. Owing to its strategic location on

20808-465: Was an atheist, and he instilled in his nephew a strong commitment to secular education and an attitude of disdain toward the Roman Catholic Church, which was separated from the state during this time. This was later reflected in his social agenda, which included the expansion of public education and the removal of church influence from education, politics, and unions. Plutarco's father's family

20961-667: Was assassinated as president-elect. Elías Calles prevented political instability by founding the Institutional Revolutionary Party in 1929. During the presidencies of Emilio Portes Gil , Pascual Ortiz Rubio , and Abelardo Rodríguez , Elías Calles served as the kingmaker of Mexican politics, with only Rodríguez able to assert much true influence. During this period, Elías Calles became more ideologically conservative . In 1934, Elías Calles supported Lázaro Cárdenas for president, but Cárdenas exiled him and many of his allies to implement more socialist reforms. Elías Calles

21114-434: Was central...to the justification of the anticlerical campaign in general. As president, Calles expressed determination to enforce the laws of the 1917 constitution that mandated secular education, banned foreign priests as well as confessional political parties and newspapers, nationalized all church properties, and granted local governments the authority to limit the number of priests. Calles had implemented several reforms in

21267-521: Was committed to separating church from state (1926–1928), passing several anticlerical laws that resulted in the Cristero War . He allowed CROM 's Luis N. Morones to consolidate unions under the Laborist Party, and launched a failed attempt to cancel the Bucareli Treaty . Obregón still held significant political sway and was Elías Calles's main base of support. Obregón won the 1928 election but

21420-461: Was descended from a prominent family in the Provincias Internas , most often recorded as Elías González. The first of this line to settle in Mexico was Francisco Elías González (1707–1790), who emigrated from La Rioja , Spain, to Zacatecas , Mexico in 1729. Eventually, Francisco Elías González moved north to Chihuahua , where, as commander of the presidio of Terrenate, he played a role in

21573-495: Was enhanced because of his vociferous anti-Catholicism. In response to the government's enforcement of anticlerical laws, the Catholic Church called for a clerical strike, which entailed ceasing to celebrate Mass, baptize children, sanctify marriage, and perform rituals for the dead. The clerical strike went on for three years. Due to Calles's strict enforcement of anti-clerical laws, people in strongly Catholic areas, especially

21726-423: Was illegitimate because his parents never married, but he was even more so in the eyes of religion. Denying the authority of religion would at least in part be an attempt to negate his own illegitimacy." As a young man, Calles worked in many different jobs, from bartender to schoolteacher, and always had an affinity for political opportunities. Calles was a supporter of Francisco I. Madero , under whom he became

21879-481: Was known about how earthquakes affect superstructures in the 1950s. However, one earthquake, in 1957, did damage several buildings and led to their condemnation. The real destruction occurred during the 1985 Mexico City earthquake, thirty three years after the complex was finished. This earthquake severely damaged the Colonia Roma section of the city, leaving many buildings in ruins. Buildings A1, B2 and C3 of

22032-430: Was later repealed in 1934. In addition, Mexico passed an amendment to the constitution in 1927 that expanded a presidential term from four years to six years. In December of 1929, District Attorney John Valls of Laredo, Texas sent a telegram to US Secretary of State Henry Stimson notifying the federal government of Valls's intent to arrest Calles on a warrant for the 1922 murder of Lucio Blanco . Stimson replied that

22185-426: Was led by Guzmán himself and had Florencio Molina and the priest Fernando Davila as his Cabinet members. On 5 September 1848, the criollos altenses chose a formal government led by Fernando Antonio Martínez. In the meantime, Carrera decided to return to Guatemala and did so, entering at Huehuetenango , where he met with native leaders and told them that they must remain united to prevail; the leaders agreed and slowly

22338-418: Was modeled on the one in Sonora. It intended to promote economic development, professionalize the army, and promote social and educational welfare. He relied on worker and peasant organizations to support his consolidation of power, particularly Luis N. Morones of the CROM. Morones was appointed to a cabinet position as Secretary of Industry, Commerce, and Labor at the same time that he retained leadership in

22491-618: Was no incentive to produce for the market, which led to food shortages. In addition, malnourished populations are more vulnerable to disease, and Mexico suffered from the Spanish flu pandemic . Calles gained political experience in his months serving in Carranza's government, and his attempt to settle a labor dispute in Orizaba gained him the support of workers there. In 1920, he aligned himself with fellow Sonoran revolutionary generals Adolfo de la Huerta and Álvaro Obregón to overthrow Carranza under

22644-449: Was one of two natural children of his bureaucrat father, Plutarco Elías Lucero, and his mother, María Jesús Campuzano Noriega. He adopted the Calles surname from his mother's sister's husband, Juan Bautista Calles, as he and his wife, María Josefa Campuzano, raised Plutarco after the death of his mother. His uncle was from a family of school teachers but was himself a small-scale dealer in groceries and alcoholic beverages. Plutarco's uncle

22797-399: Was present for the first peaceful transfer of presidential power since 1884 when Porfirio Díaz succeeded Manuel González . Workers from the CROM, headed by Luis Morones and the Laborist Party of Mexico displayed banners. The release of balloons and doves figured in the spectacle. The De la Huerta rebellion had thinned the ranks of the military. Although Calles was president, he remained in

22950-561: Was reformed under Amaro and remained a hope for the improvement of officers. Since the Porfiriato , railroads have been important to economic development and exerting political control over more remote areas. Fighting during the Revolution damaged railways, so rebuilding had been ongoing since the end of the military phase. Calles privatized the railways and a line was built to connect Sonora, Calles's home state, and Mexico City. Even more important, during his presidency, Calles began what became

23103-554: Was strongly allied to the power of regular clergy of the Catholic Church , who were then among the largest landowners in Guatemala. The tight relationship between church and state had been ratified by the Concordat of 1852 , which was the law until Cerna was deposed in 1871. Even liberal generals like Serapio Cruz  [ es ] realized that Rafael Carrera's political and military presence made him practically invincible. Thus

23256-518: Was supported by labor and peasant unions. The Laborist Party which supported his government in reality functioned as the political-electoral branch of the powerful Regional Confederation of Mexican Workers (CROM), led by Luis N. Morones . Morones had a national reputation as a labor leader and had allied with Samuel Gompers , head of the American Federation of Labor , a moderate craft union organization. In 1916 Gompers and Morones put pressure on

23409-569: Was when Calles was requested to come in as an advisor but was instead considered the Jefe Máximo , the "maximum chief," and the power behind the presidency; and was a title he never used for himself. The period is known as the Maximato (1928–1934), with many regarding Emilio Portes Gil, Pascual Ortiz Rubio , and Abelardo Rodríguez as puppets of Calles. Officially, after 1929, Calles served as minister of war as he continued to suppress corruption. Still,

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