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75-572: The planetarium opened on October 24, 1939, and was the fifth major planetarium in the United States. The Buhl Foundation completely funded the construction and furnishing of the Buhl Planetarium and Institute of Popular Science building at a cost of $ 1.07 million. The building was named after Henry Buhl, Jr. and was designed by architects Ingham, Pratt & Boyd in the " stripped Classical style " and featured an octagonal copper dome that housed

150-517: A Byzantine aristocrat and general who lived c. 1235 to c. 1305–08. It displays the attenuated proportions favored in the late Byzantine era, as well as shifts in style in the mosaics' treatment of figures. As early as the building of Constantine's churches in Palestine there were two chief types of plan in use: the basilican , or axial, type, represented by the basilica at the Holy Sepulchre , and

225-870: A common "vocabulary" of decorative and constructive elements. In much of the Western world , different classical architectural styles have dominated the history of architecture from the Renaissance until World War II . Classical architecture continues to inform many architects. The term classical architecture also applies to any mode of architecture that has evolved to a highly refined state, such as classical Chinese architecture, or classical Mayan architecture. It can also refer to any architecture that employs classical aesthetic philosophy. The term might be used differently from "traditional" or " vernacular architecture " although it can share underlying axioms with it. For contemporary buildings following authentic classical principles,

300-501: A desire for an architecture based on clear rules and rationality. Claude Perrault , Marc-Antoine Laugier and Carlo Lodoli were among the first theorists of Neoclassicism, while Étienne-Louis Boullée , Claude Nicolas Ledoux , Friedrich Gilly and John Soane were among the more radical and influential. Neoclassical architecture held a particularly strong position on the architectural scene c.  1750 –1850. The competing neo-Gothic style however rose to popularity during

375-502: A distinct Byzantine style . The first conscious efforts to bring back the disused language of form of classical antiquity into Western architecture can be traced to the Carolingian Renaissance of the late 8th and 9th centuries. The gatehouse of Lorsch Abbey ( c.  800 ), in present-day Germany thus displays a system of alternating attached columns and arches which could be an almost direct paraphrase of e.g., that of

450-578: A distinct style gradually resulted in the Greek cross plan in church architecture . Civil architecture continued Greco-Roman trends; the Byzantines built impressive fortifications and bridges, but generally not aqueducts on the same scales as the Romans. This terminology was introduced by modern historians to designate the medieval Roman Empire as it evolved as a distinct artistic and cultural entity centered on

525-609: A general public venue on August 31, 1991, but continued to hold science classes, camps and teacher workshops in the building as an annex of its successor, Kamin Science Center , which opened in 1991. In 1994, the Annex closed and all programming moved to the CSC, while the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh sought a new use or owner for the building. In April 2002, Pittsburgh City Council approved

600-630: A great part of current Italy used to belong to the Byzantine Empire before that. Great examples of Byzantine architecture are still visible in Ravenna (for example Basilica di San Vitale which architecture influenced the Palatine Chapel of Charlemagne). As for the East, Byzantine architectural tradition exerted a profound influence on early Islamic architecture , particularly Umayyad architecture . During

675-766: A large scale. Wall mosaics with gold backgrounds became standard for the grandest buildings, with frescos a cheaper alternative. The richest interiors were finished with thin plates of marble or coloured and patterned stone. Some of the columns were also made of marble. Other widely used materials were bricks and stone. Mosaics made of stone or glass tesserae were also elements of interior architecture. Precious wood furniture, like beds, chairs, stools, tables, bookshelves and silver or golden cups with beautiful reliefs, decorated Byzantine interiors. Early Byzantine architecture drew upon earlier elements of Roman and Greek architecture . Stylistic drift , technological advancement , and political and territorial changes meant that

750-853: A model for both in that it combined the elements of a longitudinal basilica with those of a centralized building. Other structures include the ruins of the Great Palace of Constantinople , the innovative walls of Constantinople (with 192 towers) and Basilica Cistern (with hundreds of recycled classical columns). A mosaic in the church begun by the Ostrogoths , San Apollinare in Nuovo in Ravenna, depicts an early Byzantine palace. Hagios Demetrios in Thessaloniki , Saint Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai , Jvari Monastery in present-day Georgia , and three Armenian churches of Echmiadzin all date primarily from

825-515: A museum. It is open everyday, except for Tuesdays. Construction of Hagia Irene The most famous example of Byzantine architecture is the Hagia Sophia , and it has been described as "holding a unique position in the Christian world ", and as an architectural and cultural icon of Byzantine and Eastern Orthodox civilization . The Hagia Sophia held the title of largest church in the world until

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900-518: A regular mix of stone and brick , often with more of the latter. The exterior of the 11th- or 12th-century Pammakaristos Church in Istanbul is an example, though it is even more renowned for Late Byzantine additions discussed below. The Paleologan period is well represented in a dozen former churches in Istanbul, notably St Saviour at Chora and St Mary Pammakaristos . Unlike their Slavic counterparts,

975-462: A simple delineation of the scope of classical architecture is difficult to make. The more or less defining characteristic can still be said to be a reference to ancient Greek or Roman architecture, and the architectural rules or theories that derived from that architecture. In the grammar of architecture, the word petrification is often used when discussing the development of sacred structures such as temples, mainly with reference to developments in

1050-415: A square and divide each side into three so that the middle parts are greater than the others, and then divide the area into nine from these points, we approximate to the typical setting out of a plan of this time. Now add three apses on the east side opening from the three divisions, and opposite to the west put a narrow entrance porch running right across the front. Still in front put a square court. The court

1125-408: A straight extension, to the west. This unbroken area, about 260 ft (80 m) long, the larger part of which is over 100 ft (30 m) wide, is entirely covered by a system of domical surfaces. Above the conchs of the small apses rise the two great semi-domes which cover the hemicycles, and between these bursts out the vast dome over the central square. On the two sides, to the north and south of

1200-502: A strict sense. During the Italian Renaissance and with the demise of Gothic style, major efforts were made by architects such as Leon Battista Alberti , Sebastiano Serlio and Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola to revive the language of architecture of first and foremost ancient Rome. This was done in part through the study of the ancient Roman architectural treatise De architectura by Vitruvius , and to some extent by studying

1275-580: Is defined by its large atrium, and is in fact the only surviving building of the Byzantine Empire to have such a feature. Hagia Irene is composed mainly of three materials: stone, brick, and mortar . Bricks 70 cm x 35 cm x 5 cm were used, and these bricks were glued together using mortar approximately 5 cm thick. The building materials chosen for the construction of the church had to be lightweight, durable, and strong. Volcanic materials were chosen for this purpose, as volcanic concrete

1350-484: Is representative of Byzantine architecture. Both of the domes collapsed at different times throughout history due to earthquakes and had to be rebuilt. The original construction of Hagia Sophia was possibly ordered by Constantine, but ultimately carried out by his son Constantius II in 360. Constantine's building of churches, specifically the Hagia Sophia, was considered an incredibly significant component in his shift of

1425-456: Is the atrium and usually has a fountain in the middle under a canopy resting on pillars. The entrance porch is the narthex . Directly under the center of the dome is the ambo , from which the Scriptures were proclaimed, and beneath the ambo at floor level was the place for the choir of singers. Across the eastern side of the central square was a screen which divided off the bema , where

1500-477: Is very light and durable. Perhaps the most definite feature of the Hagia Irene is the strict contrast between the interior and exterior design. While the plain outside composed of stone and brick favors functionality, the interior is decorated in elaborate mosaics, decorative marble, and, in some places, covered in plaster. Another important characteristic of the church include two domes that follow one behind another,

1575-675: The Nea Ekklesia (both no longer existent) served as a model for most cross-in-square sanctuaries of the period, including the Cattolica di Stilo in southern Italy (9th century), the monastery church of Hosios Lukas in Greece (c. 1000), Nea Moni of Chios (a pet project of Constantine IX ), and the Daphni Monastery near Athens (c. 1050). All three of the later churches display the important shifts in architectural design that occurred following

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1650-608: The Colosseum in Rome. Byzantine architecture , just as Romanesque and even to some extent Gothic architecture (with which classical architecture is often posed), can also incorporate classical elements and details but do not to the same degree reflect a conscious effort to draw upon the architectural traditions of antiquity; for example, they do not observe the idea of a systematic order of proportions for columns . In general, therefore, they are not considered classical architectural styles in

1725-508: The Gothic style . In the same way the Parthenon is the most impressive monument for Classical religion , Hagia Sophia remained the iconic church for Christianity . The temples of these two religions differ substantially from the point of view of their interiors and exteriors. For Classical temples, only the exterior was important, because only the priests entered the interior, where the statue of

1800-566: The Ionic . Composite columns line the principal space of the nave. Ionic columns are used behind them in the side spaces, in a mirror position relative to the Corinthian or Composite orders (as was their fate well into the 19th century, when buildings were designed for the first time with a monumental Ionic order). At Hagia Sophia, though, these are not the standard imperial statements. The columns are filled with foliage in all sorts of variations. In some,

1875-596: The Umayyad Caliphate era (661-750), as far as the Byzantine impact on early Islamic architecture is concerned, the Byzantine arts formed a fundamental source to the new Muslim artistic heritage, especially in Syria. There are considerable Byzantine influences which can be detected in the distinctive early Islamic monuments in Syria (709–715). While these give clear reference in plan - and somewhat in decoration - to Byzantine art,

1950-475: The dosseret required to carry the arch , the springing of which was much wider than the abacus of the column. On eastern columns the eagle, the lion and the lamb are occasionally carved, but treated conventionally. There are two types of columns used at Hagia Sophia : Composite and Ionic. The Composite column that emerged during the Late Byzantine Empire , mainly in Rome, combines the Corinthian with

2025-413: The solea , a raised walkway enclosed by a railing or low wall. The continuous influence from the East is widely shown in the fashion of decorating external brick walls of churches built about the 12th century, in which bricks roughly carved into form are set up so as to make bands of ornamentation which it is quite clear are imitated from Cufic writing. This fashion was associated with the disposition of

2100-653: The 20th century was the Church of Saint Sava in Belgrade . One of the less famous Byzantine churches is Hagia Irene . This church served as a model church for the more famous church, Hagia Sophia. Construction on the church began in the 4th century. This was the first church that was built in Constantinople, but due to its location, it was severely damaged by earthquakes and the Nika riots, and required repair several times. The Hagia Irene

2175-515: The 4th century as a cylindrical domed structure built on a square base, and the noble Church of Saint George , Thessaloniki (5th century), or by a vaulted aisle, as at Santa Costanza , Rome (4th century); or annexes were thrown out from the central space in such a way as to form a cross, in which these additions helped to counterpoise the central vault, as at the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia , Ravenna (5th century). The most famous church of this type

2250-609: The 7th century and provide a glimpse on architectural developments in the Byzantine provinces following the age of Justinian. Remarkable engineering feats include the 430 m long Sangarius Bridge , the pointed arch of Karamagara Bridge , as well as the dome of the Church of Hagia Sophia . In the Macedonian dynasty , it is presumed that Basil I 's votive church of the Theotokos of the Pharos and

2325-557: The Byzantine architecture persisted even longer, from the 16th up to the 18th centuries, giving birth to local post-Byzantine schools of architecture. Neo-Byzantine architecture was followed in the wake of the 19th-century Gothic revival , resulting in such jewels as Westminster Cathedral in London , and in Bristol from about 1850 to 1880 a related style known as Bristol Byzantine was popular for industrial buildings which combined elements of

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2400-750: The Byzantine style with Moorish architecture. It was developed on a wide-scale basis in Russia during the reign of Alexander II by Grigory Gagarin and his followers who designed St Volodymyr's Cathedral in Kyiv, St Nicholas Naval Cathedral in Kronstadt , Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in Sofia , Saint Mark's church in Belgrade and the New Athos Monastery in New Athos near Sukhumi . The largest Neo-Byzantine project of

2475-613: The Emperor Justinian I 's reign and survive in Ravenna and Istanbul, as well as in Sofia (the Church of St Sophia ). One of the great breakthroughs in the history of Western architecture occurred when Justinian's architects invented a complex system providing for a smooth transition from a square plan of the church to a circular dome (or domes) by means of pendentives . In Ravenna, the longitudinal basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo , and

2550-499: The Great established a new Roman capital in Byzantium , which became Constantinople , until the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. There was initially no hard line between the Byzantine and Roman Empires, and early Byzantine architecture is stylistically and structurally indistinguishable from late Roman architecture . The style continued to be based on arches, vaults and domes, often on

2625-570: The Greek world. During the Archaic and early Classical periods (about the 6th and early 5th centuries BC), the architectural forms of the earliest temples had solidified and the Doric emerged as the predominant element. The most widely accepted theory in classical studies is that the earliest temple structures were of wood and the great forms, or elements of architectural style, were codified and rather permanent by

2700-562: The Ottoman Empire sieged the Byzantine capital. After the fall of Constantinople, the church was used by the Muslims for their religious services until 1931, when it was reopened as a museum in 1935. Translated from Greek , the name Hagia Sophia means "Holy Wisdom". The construction is a combination of longitudinal and central structures. This church was a part of a larger complex of buildings created by Emperor Justinian . This style influenced

2775-543: The Paleologan architects never accented the vertical thrust of structures. As a result, the late medieval architecture of Byzantium (barring the Hagia Sophia of Trebizond ) is less prominent in height. The Church of the Holy Apostles (Thessaloniki) is cited as an archetypal structure of the late period with its exterior walls intricately decorated with complex brickwork patterns or with glazed ceramics. Other churches from

2850-846: The Renaissance. The Palladian architecture developed from the style of the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio (1508–1580) had a great influence long after his death, above all in Britain, where it was adopted for many of the grander buildings of the Georgian architecture of the 18th and early 19th century. As a reaction to late Baroque and Rococo forms, architectural theorists from c.  1750 through what became known as Neoclassicism again consciously and earnestly attempted to emulate antiquity, supported by recent developments in Classical archaeology and

2925-616: The West for much of Modern history . Even so, because of liberal, personal or theoretically diverse interpretations of the antique heritage, classicism covers a broad range of styles, some even so to speak cross-referencing, like Neo-Palladian architecture , which draws its inspiration from the works of Italian Renaissance architect Andrea Palladio , who himself drew inspiration from ancient Roman architecture. Furthermore, it can be argued that styles of architecture not typically considered classical, like Gothic, can contain classical elements. Therefore,

3000-630: The actual remains of ancient Roman buildings in Italy. Nonetheless, the classical architecture of the Renaissance from the outset represents a highly specific interpretation of the classical ideas. In a building like the Ospedale degli Innocenti in Florence by Filippo Brunelleschi , one of the earliest Renaissance buildings (built 1419–1445), the treatment of the columns for example has no direct antecedent in ancient Roman architecture . During this time period,

3075-418: The advent of Modernism during the early 20th century, classical architecture arguably almost ceased to be practised. As noted above, classical styles of architecture dominated Western architecture for a long time, roughly from the Renaissance until the advent of Modernism. That is to say, that classical antiquity at least in theory was considered the prime source of inspiration for architectural endeavours in

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3150-465: The altar was situated, from the body of the church; this screen, bearing images, is the iconostasis . The altar was protected by a canopy or ciborium resting on pillars. Rows of rising seats around the curve of the apse with the patriarch 's throne at the middle eastern point formed the synthronon. The two smaller compartments and apses at the sides of the bema were sacristies, the diaconicon and prothesis . The ambo and bema were connected by

3225-403: The centralization of power from Rome in the west to Constantinople in the east, and was considered the high-point of religious and political celebration. The construction of the final version of the Hagia Sophia, which still stands today, was overseen by Emperor Justinian. Between the rule of these two Emperors, Hagia Sophia was destroyed and rebuilt twice. Following its reconstruction, Hagia Sophia

3300-513: The churches and basilicas have high-riding domes, which created vast open spaces at the centers of churches, thereby heightening the light. The round arch is a fundamental of Byzantine style. Magnificent golden mosaics with their graphic simplicity brought light and warmth into the heart of churches. Byzantine capitals break away from the Classical conventions of ancient Greece and Rome with sinuous lines and naturalistic forms, which are precursors to

3375-460: The circular, or central, type, represented by the great octagonal church once at Antioch . Those of the latter type we must suppose were nearly always vaulted , for a central dome would seem to furnish their very purpose. The central space was sometimes surrounded by a very thick wall, in which deep recesses, to the interior, were formed, as at Church of St. George, Sofia , built by the Romans in

3450-409: The construction of several other buildings, such as St. Peter's Basilica . Hagia Sophia should have been built to withstand earthquakes, but since the construction of Hagia Sophia was rushed this technology was not implemented in the design, which is why the building has had to be repaired so many times due to damages from the earthquakes. The dome is the key feature of Hagia Sophia as the domed basilica

3525-417: The decoration of important public structures, classical orders were used more freely, mosaics replaced carved decoration, complex domes rested upon massive piers , and windows filtered light through thin sheets of alabaster to softly illuminate interiors. Most of the surviving structures are sacred, with secular buildings having been destroyed. Prime examples of early Byzantine architecture date from

3600-402: The deity to whom the temple was dedicated was kept. The ceremonies were held outside, in front of the temple. Instead, Christian liturgies were held inside the churches. Byzantine columns are quite varied, mostly developing from the classical Corinthian , with the ornamentation undercut with drills, and fluted shafts almost entirely abandoned. The block of stone was left rough as it came from

3675-453: The dome was included in a considerably larger square, of which the four divisions, to the east, west, north and south, were carried up higher in the vaulting and roof system than the four corners, forming in this way a sort of nave and transepts . Sometimes the central space was square, sometimes octagonal, or at least there were eight piers supporting the dome instead of four, and the nave and transepts were narrower in proportion. If we draw

3750-438: The dome, it is supported by vaulted aisles in two stories which bring the exterior form to a general square. At the Holy Apostles (6th century) five domes were applied to a cruciform plan; the central dome was the highest. After the 6th century there were no churches built which in any way competed in scale with these great works of Justinian, and the plans more or less tended to approximate to one type. The central area covered by

3825-550: The early 1800s, and the later part the 19th century was characterised by a variety of styles, some of them only slightly or not at all related to classicism (such as Art Nouveau ), and Eclecticism . Although classical architecture continued to play an important role and for periods of time at least locally dominated the architectural scene, as exemplified by the Nordic Classicism during the 1920s, classical architecture in its stricter form never regained its former dominance. With

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3900-567: The end of Iconoclasm, when architectural design and decoration became more standardized. The Hagia Sophia church in Ochrid (present-day North Macedonia ), built in the First Bulgarian Empire in the time of Boris I of Bulgaria , and eponymous cathedral in Kyiv (present-day Ukraine ) testify to a vogue for multiple subsidiary domes set on drums, which would gain in height and narrowness with

3975-448: The exterior brick and stone work generally into many varieties of pattern, zig-zags, key-patterns etc.; and, as similar decoration is found in many Persian buildings, it is probable that this custom also was derived from the East. The domes and vaults to the exterior were covered with lead or with tiling of regional variety. The window and door frames were of marble . The interior surfaces were adorned all over by mosaics or frescoes in

4050-454: The first being a lower oval, and the second being a higher semi-circle. Throughout history Hagia Irene has undergone several changes. There were multiple repairs due to the Nika riots and earthquakes. When the Ottomans took over Hagia Irene they repurposed it and made a few changes, but none as drastic as what was done to Hagia Sophia. Today, Hagia Irene is still standing and open to visitors as

4125-461: The higher parts of the edifice, and below with incrustations of marble slabs, which were frequently of very beautiful varieties, and disposed so that, although in one surface, the coloring formed a series of large panels. The better marbles were opened out so that the two surfaces produced by the division formed a symmetrical pattern. Ultimately, Byzantine architecture in the West gave way to Carolingian , Romanesque , and Gothic architecture . But

4200-500: The lease of the building and it is now part of the Children's Museum of Pittsburgh . It was added to the List of Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation Historic Landmarks in 2001, and the List of City of Pittsburgh historic designations on July 29, 2005. Classical architecture Classical architecture usually denotes architecture which is more or less consciously derived from

4275-675: The new capital of Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul ) rather than the city of Rome and its environs. Its architecture dramatically influenced the later medieval architecture throughout Europe and the Near East. When the Roman Empire became Christian (after having extended eastwards) with its new capital at Constantinople , its architecture became more sensuous and ambitious. This new style with exotic domes and richer mosaics would come to be known as "Byzantine" before it traveled west to Ravenna and Venice and as far north as Moscow . Most of

4350-402: The octagon. Finally, at Hagia Sophia (6th century) a combination was made which is perhaps the most remarkable piece of planning ever contrived. A central space of 100 ft (30 m) square is increased to 200 ft (60 m) in length by adding two hemicycles to it to the east and the west; these are again extended by pushing out three minor apses eastward, and two others, one on either side of

4425-422: The octagonal, centralized structure of the church of San Vitale , commissioned by Emperor Justinian but never seen by him, was built. Justinian's monuments in Istanbul include the domed churches of Hagia Sophia and Hagia Irene (both discussed in more detail below), but there is also an earlier, smaller church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus (locally referred to as " Little Hagia Sophia "), which might have served as

4500-798: The outskirts of the Byzantine world, as most significant and ancient churches and buildings were in Asia Minor. During World War I , almost all churches that ended up within the Turkish borders were destroyed or converted into mosques. Some were abandoned as a result of the Greek and Christian genocides from 1915 to 1923. Similar styles can be found in countries such as Bulgaria , Croatia , North Macedonia , Russia , Serbia and other Slavic lands, as well as in Sicily ( Cappella Palatina ) and Veneto ( St Mark's Basilica , Torcello Cathedral ). In Middle Byzantine architecture "cloisonné masonry" refers to walls built with

4575-689: The plan of the Umayyad Mosque has also a remarkable similarity with 6th- and 7th-century Christian basilicas, but it has been modified and expanded on the transversal axis and not on the normal longitudinal axis as in the Christian basilicas. The tile work, geometric patterns, multiple arches, domes, and polychrome brick and stone work that characterize Muslim and Moorish architecture were influenced heavily by Byzantine architecture. In Bulgaria , North Macedonia , Serbia , Romania , Belarus , Georgia , Armenia , Ukraine , Russia and other Orthodox countries

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4650-487: The principles of Greek and Roman architecture of classical antiquity , or sometimes more specifically, from De architectura (c. 10 AD) by the Roman architect Vitruvius . Different styles of classical architecture have arguably existed since the Carolingian Renaissance , and prominently since the Italian Renaissance . Although classical styles of architecture can vary greatly, they can in general all be said to draw on

4725-404: The progress of time. In Istanbul and Asia Minor the architecture of the Komnenian period is almost non-existent, with the notable exceptions of the Elmali Kilise and other rock sanctuaries of Cappadocia , and of the Churches of the Pantokrator and of the Theotokos Kyriotissa in Istanbul. Most examples of this architectural style and many of the other older Byzantine styles only survive on

4800-407: The projector. Equipment in the Buhl Planetarium included a Zeiss II Planetarium projector with 106 lenses capable of producing 9000 images of stars. The projector was manufactured by the Zeiss Optical Works in Jena, Germany, at a cost of $ 135,000. The planetarium had a 492-seat “Theater of the Stars” with a 65-foot-diameter dome. This projector was officially retired in 1994. The Buhl Planetarium

4875-525: The quarry, and the sculptor evolved new designs to his own fancy, so that one rarely meets with many repetitions of the same design. One of the most remarkable designs features leaves carved as if blown by the wind; the finest example being at the 7th-century Hagia Sophia (Thessaloniki) . Those in the Cathedral of Saint Mark, Venice  (1071) specially attracted John Ruskin 's fancy. Others appear in Sant'Apollinare in Classe , Ravenna  (549). The column in San Vitale, Ravenna  (547) shows above it

4950-456: The small, lush leaves appear to be caught up in the spinning of the scrolls – clearly, a different, nonclassical sensibility has taken over the design. The columns at Basilica of San Vitale show wavy and delicate floral patterns similar to decorations found on belt buckles and dagger blades. Their inverted pyramidal form has the look of a basket. Buildings increased in geometric complexity , brick and plaster were used in addition to stone in

5025-411: The study of ancient architecture developed into the architectural theory of classical architecture; somewhat over-simplified, that classical architecture in its variety of forms ever since have been interpretations and elaborations of the architectural rules set down during antiquity. Most of the styles originating in post- Renaissance Europe can be described as classical architecture. This broad use of

5100-417: The term New Classical architecture is sometimes used. Classical architecture is derived from the architecture of ancient Greece and ancient Rome. With the collapse of the western part of the Roman empire , the architectural traditions of the Roman empire ceased to be practised in large parts of western Europe. In the Byzantine Empire , the ancient ways of building lived on but relatively soon developed into

5175-515: The term is employed by Sir John Summerson in The Classical Language of Architecture . The elements of classical architecture have been applied in radically different architectural contexts than those for which they were developed, however. For example, Baroque or Rococo architecture are styles which, although classical at root, display an architectural language much in their own right. During these periods, architectural theory still referred to classical ideas but rather less sincerely than during

5250-483: The time the Archaic became emergent and established. It was during this period, at different times and places in the Greek world, that the use of dressed and polished stone replaced the wood in these early temples, but the forms and shapes of the old wooden styles were retained in a skeuomorphic fashion, just as if the wooden structures had turned to stone, thus the designation "petrification" or sometimes "petrified carpentry" for this process. This careful preservation of

5325-528: The traditional wooden appearance in the stone fabric of the newer buildings was scrupulously observed and this suggests that it may have been dictated by religion rather than aesthetics, although the exact reasons are now lost in antiquity. Not everyone within the reach of Hellenic civilization made this transition. The Etruscans in Italy were, from their earliest period, greatly influenced by their contact with Greek culture and religion, but they retained their wooden temples (with some exceptions) until their culture

5400-621: The years immediately predating the fall of Constantinople survive on Mount Athos and in Mistra (e.g. Brontochion Monastery ). That site also has preserved secular architecture such as the Palace of the Despots and several houses. In the late Byzantine period, c. 1310, a highly ornate parekklesion was added to the Pammakaristos Church in Constantinople for the tomb of Michael Glabas Tarchaniotes,

5475-512: Was completely absorbed into the Roman world, with the great wooden Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol in Rome itself being a good example. Nor was it the lack of knowledge of stone working on their part that prevented them from making the transition from timber to dressed stone. Byzantine architecture Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire , or Eastern Roman Empire, usually dated from 330 AD, when Constantine

5550-459: Was that of the Holy Apostles, Constantinople . Vaults appear to have been early applied to the basilican type of plan; for instance, at Hagia Irene , Constantinople (6th century), the long body of the church is covered by two domes. At Saint Sergius , Constantinople, and San Vitale, Ravenna, churches of the central type, the space under the dome was enlarged by having apsidal additions made to

5625-490: Was the first building of its type to have a special sound system for the hearing-impaired in its operating theater. The planetarium also housed a thirty-five foot long Foucault pendulum and a ten-inch, Siderostat -type, refractor telescope (now the second largest of its type). The planetarium also housed the Miniature Railroad and Village from 1954. The Buhl Planetarium and Institute of Popular Science closed as

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