131-568: The history of the British Army spans over three and a half centuries since its founding in 1660 and involves numerous European wars , colonial wars and world wars. From the late 17th century until the mid-20th century, the United Kingdom was the greatest economic and imperial power in the world, and although this dominance was principally achieved through the strength of the Royal Navy (RN),
262-613: A Military Secretary , responsible for appointments, courts-martial and official correspondence. Infantry and cavalry units had originally been known by the names of their colonels, such as "Sir John Mordaunt's Regiment of Foot". This could be confusing if colonels succeeded each other rapidly; and two regiments (the Buffs and the Green Howards ) had to be distinguished by their facing colour in official correspondence because for several years, both had colonels named Howard. In time, these became
393-636: A standing army in North America after the war. For the first time, the British Army would be garrisoned in North America in significant numbers in a time of peace. With the defeat of France, the British government no longer sought actively to curry the favour of Native Americans . Urged by his superiors to cut costs, Commander in Chief General Jeffery Amherst initiated policy changes that helped prompt Pontiac's War in 1763, an uprising against
524-550: A Parcel of Rogues in a Nation." As historian Christopher Whatley points out, this was actually a 17th-century Scots folk song; but he agrees money was paid, though suggests the economic benefits were supported by most Scots MPs, with the promises made for benefits to peers and MPs, even if it was reluctantly. Professor Sir Tom Devine agreed that promises of "favours, sinecures, pensions, offices and straightforward cash bribes became indispensable to secure government majorities". As for representation going forwards, Scotland was, in
655-465: A Union, "honours, appointments, pensions and even arrears of pay and other expenses were distributed to clinch support from Scottish peers and MPs". The Scottish economy was severely impacted by privateers during the 1688–1697 Nine Years' War and the 1701 War of the Spanish Succession , with the Royal Navy focusing on protecting English ships. This compounded the economic pressure caused by
786-407: A bloomin' fool -- you bet that Tommy sees! The Seven Years' War , which took place from 1755 to 1763, has sometimes been described as the first true world war, in that conflict took place in almost every continent and on almost all the oceans. Although there were early setbacks, British troops eventually were victorious in every theatre. The war can be said to have started in North America, where it
917-430: A colonel who was a field commander. The British Army, increasingly compelled to disperse units in far-flung colonial outposts, made the battalion the basic unit, under a lieutenant colonel. The function of the regiment became administrative rather than tactical. The colonel of a regiment remained an influential figure but rarely commanded any of its battalions in the field. Many regiments consisted of one battalion only, plus
1048-606: A depot and recruiting parties in Britain or Ireland if the unit was serving overseas. Where more troops were required for a war or garrison duties, second, third and even subsequent battalions of a regiment were raised, but it was rare for more than one battalion of a regiment to serve in the same brigade or division. From the late 17th century onwards, the British army was to be deployed in three main areas of conflict (the Americas , Continental Europe , and Scotland ), one of which (Scotland)
1179-619: A great empire to risk. The bill, which would have compensated current owners for their cash investments, passed the Commons in 1871 but was blocked by the House of Lords. Gladstone then moved to drop the system without any reimbursements, forcing the Lords to backtrack and approve the original bill. Liberals rallied to Gladstone's anti-elitism, pointing to the case of Lord Cardigan (1797–1868), who spent £40,000 for his commission and proved utterly incompetent in
1310-617: A guarantee that the Hanoverian dynasty would succeed Queen Anne to the Scottish crown, and Scotland received a guarantee of access to colonial markets, in the hope that they would be placed on an equal footing in terms of trade. After negotiations ended in July 1706, the acts had to be ratified by both Parliaments. In Scotland, about 100 of the 227 members of the Parliament of Scotland were supportive of
1441-563: A large number of Whigs who supported union. Tories were not in favour of union and only one was represented among the commissioners. Negotiations between the English and Scottish commissioners took place between 16 April and 22 July 1706 at the Cockpit in London. Each side had its own particular concerns. Within a few days, and with only one face to face meeting of all 62 commissioners, England had gained
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#17328549351211572-854: A new Secretary of State for War in 1794. Others who performed specialist functions were the controller of army accounts, the Army Medical Board , the Commissariat Department of HM Treasury , the Board of General Officers, the Judge Advocate General of the Forces , the Commissary General of Muster , the Paymaster of the Forces . The Militia did not belong to the Army and was administrated by
1703-667: A number of key amendments. News of the ratification and of the amendments was received in Westminster, where the Act was passed quickly through both Houses and received the royal assent on 6 March. Though the English Act was later in date, it bore the year '1706' while Scotland's was '1707', as the legal year in England began only on 25 March . In Scotland, the Duke of Queensberry was largely responsible for
1834-424: A predominantly agrarian society, and the lack of manpower caused by previous conflicts contributed to an underwhelming agricultural output, which intermittently escalated into local food shortages or famines. In turn, the overreliance of Scottish landowners on foreign goods led to a deficit of financial capital, as gold and silver were exported overseas and deflation occurred. The Scottish Parliament attempted to combat
1965-550: A rank in the English army from the date of their arrival in England or the date when they were first placed on the English establishment. For example, in 1694 a board of general officers was convened to decide upon rank of English, Irish and Scots regiments serving in the Netherlands, the regiment that became known as the Scots Greys were designated as the 4th dragoons because there were three English regiments raised prior to 1688 when
2096-582: A similar Act, 6 Ann. c. 8. Soon after the Union, the Act 6 Ann. c. 40—later named the Union with Scotland (Amendment) Act 1707 —united the Privy Council of England and Privy Council of Scotland and decentralised Scottish administration by appointing justices of the peace in each shire to carry out administration. In effect it took the day-to-day government of Scotland out of the hands of politicians and into those of
2227-464: A successor and explicitly required a choice different from the English monarch unless the English were to grant free trade and navigation. Then the Alien Act 1705 was passed in the English parliament, designating Scots in England as "foreign nationals" and blocking about half of all Scottish trade by boycotting exports to England or its colonies, unless Scotland came back to negotiate a Union. To encourage
2358-527: A wider European context of increasing state centralisation during the late 17th and early 18th centuries, including the monarchies of France , Sweden , Denmark-Norway and Spain . While there were exceptions, such as the Dutch Republic or the Republic of Venice , the trend was clear. The dangers of the monarch using one parliament against the other first became apparent in 1647 and 1651. It resurfaced during
2489-557: Is a list of conflicts in Europe ordered chronologically, including wars between European states , civil wars within European states, wars between a European state and a non-European state that took place within Europe, and global conflicts in which Europe was a theatre of war . There are various definitions of Europe and in particular, there is a significant dispute about the eastern and southeastern boundaries, specifically about how to define
2620-846: The Brodie helmet was supplied for better personnel protection against shrapnel and the Mark I tank was invented to try to end the stalemate of trench warfare . The vast majority of the British Army fought in France and Belgium on the Western Front but some units were engaged in the Mediterranean, the Middle East , Africa and Mesopotamia , mainly against the Ottoman Empire . One battalion also fought in China during
2751-701: The College of Justice . On 18 December 1707 the Act for better Securing the Duties of East India Goods was passed which extended the monopoly of the East India Company to Scotland. In the year following the Union, the Treason Act 1708 abolished the Scottish law of treason and extended the corresponding English law across Great Britain. Scotland benefited, says historian G.N. Clark , gaining "freedom of trade with England and
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#17328549351212882-690: The Commonwealth of England , the Kirk Party proclaimed Charles II King of Scotland and England, and in 1650 agreed to restore him to the English throne. In 1653, defeat in the Anglo-Scottish War resulted in Scotland's incorporation into the Commonwealth, largely driven by Cromwell's determination to break the power of the kirk. The 1652 Tender of Union was followed on 12 April 1654 by An Ordinance by
3013-751: The Court Party . For extra votes the pro-court side could rely on about 25 members of the Squadrone Volante , led by the James Graham, 4th Marquess of Montrose and John Ker, 1st Duke of Roxburghe . Opponents of the court were generally known as the Country party , and included various factions and individuals such as the James Hamilton, 4th Duke of Hamilton , John Hamilton, Lord Belhaven and Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun , who spoke forcefully and passionately against
3144-724: The Curragh incident ), and, apart from Ireland, has seldom been deployed against internal threats to authority (one notorious exception being the Peterloo Massacre ). The British Army has been involved in many international conflicts, including the Napoleonic Wars , the Crimean War and both World War I and World War II. Historically, it contributed to the expansion and retention of the British Empire . The British Army has long been at
3275-502: The Darien scheme , and the seven ill years of the 1690s, when 5–15% of the population died of starvation. The Scottish Parliament was promised financial assistance, protection for its maritime trade, and an end to economic restrictions on trade with England. The votes of the Court party, influenced by Queen Anne's favourite, James Douglas, 2nd Duke of Queensberry , combined with the majority of
3406-524: The Declaration of Arbroath of 1320." Ferguson highlights the well-timed payments of salary arrears to members of Parliament as proof of bribery and argues that the Scottish people had been betrayed by their Parliament. Ireland , though a kingdom under the same crown, was not included in the union. It remained a separate kingdom, unrepresented in Parliament, and was legally subordinate to Great Britain until
3537-576: The First English Civil War began in 1642, before becoming concerned at the impact on Scotland of a Royalist victory. Presbyterian leaders like Argyll viewed union as a way to ensure free trade between England and Scotland, and preserve a Presbyterian kirk. Under the 1643 Solemn League and Covenant , the Scots agreed to provide Parliament military support in return for a united Presbyterian church, but did not explicitly commit to political union. As
3668-571: The Home Office through the Lord Lieutenants . In the field, a commander's staff consisted of an Adjutant General (who handled finance, troop returns and legal matters), and a Quartermaster General (who was responsible for billeting and organising movements). There were separate commanders of the Artillery, and Commissary Officers who handled the supplies. The commander of an Army might also have
3799-669: The Indian subcontinent , the French East India Company and the militaries of the most powerful rulers of the Mughal Empire were defeated after the prolonged Third Carnatic War , allowing the steady expansion of British East India Company -controlled territory. In Europe, although Britain's allies (chiefly the Royal Prussian Army ) carried the main burden of the struggle, British troops eventually played an important role at
3930-539: The Industrial Revolution and the enactment of liberal reforms within Britain. The Victorian era was also marked by the steady expansion and consolidation of the British Empire . The role of the military was to defend the Empire and, for the Army, to control the natives. The Industrial Revolution had changed the Army's weapons, transport and equipment, and social changes such as better education had prompted changes to
4061-432: The Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland in 1706, consisted of 25 articles, 15 of which were economic in nature. In Scotland, each article was voted on separately and several clauses in articles were delegated to specialised subcommittees. Article 1 of the treaty was based on the political principle of an incorporating union and this was secured by a majority of 116 votes to 83 on 4 November 1706. To minimise
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4192-543: The Parliament of the United Kingdom . The Prussian system of professional soldiers with up-to-date weapons was far superior to the traditional system of gentlemen-soldiers that Britain used. The Cardwell Reforms centralised power in the War Office, abolished the purchase of officers' commissions, and created reserve forces stationed in Britain by establishing short terms of service for enlisted men. Edward Cardwell (1813–1886) as Secretary of State for War (1868–1874) designed
4323-605: The Peerage of Scotland to sit in the House of Lords . It guaranteed that the Church of Scotland would remain the established church in Scotland, that the Court of Session would "remain in all time coming within Scotland", and that Scots law would "remain in the same force as before". Other provisions included the restatement of the Act of Settlement 1701 and the ban on Roman Catholics from taking
4454-473: The Renunciation Act of 1783 . In July 1707 each House of the Parliament of Ireland passed a congratulatory address to Queen Anne, praying that "May God put it in your royal heart to add greater strength and lustre to your crown, by a still more comprehensive Union". The British government did not respond to the invitation and an equal union between Great Britain and Ireland was out of consideration until
4585-713: The Royal Tank Regiment ) was the only corps formed in World War I that survived the cuts. Corps such as the Machine Gun Corps were disbanded, their functions being taken by specialists within infantry units. One new corps was the Royal Signals , formed in 1920 from within the Royal Engineers to take over the role of providing communications. Within the cavalry, sixteen regiments were amalgamated into eight, producing
4716-552: The Siege of Tsingtao . In 1919–1920 there was a short-lived boom in the British economy , caused by a rush of investment pent-up during the war years and another rush of orders for new shipping to replace the millions of tons lost. But, following the boom, interwar Britain faced serious economic woes beginning with the Depression of 1920–1921 . Heavy defence cuts were consequently imposed by
4847-402: The Squadrone Volante , were sufficient to ensure passage of the treaty. Article 15 granted £398,085 and ten shillings sterling to Scotland, a sum known as The Equivalent , to offset future liability towards the English national debt, which at the time was £18 million, but as Scotland had no national debt, most of the sum was used to compensate the investors in the Darien scheme, with 58.6% of
4978-441: The Townshend Acts . North Americans in the Thirteen Colonies objected to both the idea of a " standing army " and " taxation without representation " and increasingly denied that the Parliament of Great Britain should have authority or, eventually, sovereignty over the colonies, positions which Parliament viewed as challenges to parliamentary supremacy . For the British Army, the American War of Independence had its origins in
5109-456: The alliance with France gave Scotland privileges that further encouraged developing cultural and economic ties with the continent rather than England. The union of 1603 only served the political and dynastic ambitions of King James and was detrimental to Scotland economically – exports that Scotland offered were largely irrelevant to English economy, and while the Privy Council of Scotland did keep its ability to manage internal economic policy,
5240-405: The "Fraction Cavalry"; units with unwieldy titles combining two regimental numbers. There was a substantial reduction in the number of infantry battalions and the size of the Territorial Force, which was renamed the Territorial Army. On 31 July 1922, the Army also lost six Irish regiments (5 infantry and 1 cavalry) on the creation of the Irish Free State . List of conflicts in Europe This
5371-430: The 1679 to 1681 Exclusion Crisis , caused by English resistance to the Catholic James II (of England, VII of Scotland) succeeding his brother Charles. James was sent to Edinburgh in 1681 as Lord High Commissioner ; in August, the Scottish Parliament passed the Succession Act, confirming the divine right of kings, the rights of the natural heir "regardless of religion", the duty of all to swear allegiance to that king, and
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5502-471: The 1790s. The union with Ireland finally came about on 1 January 1801. Deeper political integration had been a key policy of Queen Anne from the time she acceded to the throne in 1702. Under the aegis of the Queen and her ministers in both kingdoms, the parliaments of England and Scotland (the Act for a Treaty with England 1705 ) agreed to participate in fresh negotiations for a union treaty in 1705. Both countries appointed 31 commissioners to conduct
5633-439: The Army budget yet increased its strength of the army by 25 battalions, 156 field guns, and abundant stores, while the reserves available for foreign service had been raised tenfold from 3,500 to 36,000 men. The British Army during World War I could trace its origins to the increasing demands of imperial expansion together with inefficiencies highlighted during the Crimean War , which led to the Cardwell and Childers Reforms of
5764-404: The Army, and further talk of reform went nowhere. The demand for professionalization was, however, achieved by Florence Nightingale , who gained worldwide attention for pioneering and publicizing modern nursing while treating the wounded. The Crimean War demonstrated that reforms were urgently needed to guarantee that the Army could protect both the home nation and the Empire. Nevertheless, reform
5895-521: The British Army or colonial militias . The Army itself had established many British units during the war to serve in North America or provide replacements for garrisons. All but three (the 23rd Regiment of (Light) Dragoons and two Highland infantry regiments, the 71st and 78th Foot ) were disbanded immediately after the war. The Army was forced to adapt its tactics to the poor communications and forested terrain of North America. Large numbers of light infantry (detached from line units) were organised, and
6026-472: The British Army played a significant role. As of 2015, there were 92,000 professionals in the regular army (including 2,700 Gurkhas ) and 20,480 Volunteer Reserves . Britain has generally maintained only a small regular army during peacetime, expanding this as required in time of war, due to Britain's traditional role as a sea power . Since the suppression of Jacobitism in 1745, the British Army has played little role in British domestic politics (except for
6157-438: The British Army to remain legal. On paper, this also guarantees representative government, as Parliament must meet at least once a year to ratify the Order in Council renewing the Army Act 1955 ( 3 & 4 Eliz. 2 . c. 18) for a further year. The order of seniority for the most senior line regiments in the British Army is based on the order of seniority in the English army. Scottish and Irish regiments were only allowed to take
6288-449: The British Army. By the middle of the century, the army's administration had developed the form which it would retain for more than a hundred years. A number of independent offices and individual officers were responsible for various aspects of Army administration. The most important were the Commander-in-Chief of the Forces , the Secretary at War , and the twin Secretaries of State ; most of whose military responsibilities were passed to
6419-416: The British Government in the early 1920s as part of a reduction in public expenditure known as the " Geddes Axe " after Sir Eric Geddes . The Government introduced the Ten Year Rule , stating its belief that Britain would not be involved in another major war for 10 years from the date of review. This ten-year rule was continually extended until it was abandoned in 1932. The Royal Tank Corps (which later became
6550-410: The British military occupation of the former New France . Amherst was recalled during the war and replaced as commander in chief by Thomas Gage . The American Revolution had its origins in George III 's unpopular attempts to station a permanent garrison force in British America , and in the taxes, duties, and customs levied on colonies to fund the force such as the Sugar Act , the Stamp Act , and
6681-440: The Crimean war, where he ordered the disastrous "Charge of the Light Brigade" in 1854. Cardwell was not powerful enough to install a general staff system; that had to await the 20th century. He did rearrange the war department. He made the office of Secretary of State for War superior to the Army's commander in Chief; the commander was His Royal Highness the Duke of Cambridge (1819–1904), the Queen's first cousin, and an opponent of
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#17328549351216812-447: The Crown far greater control than in England but he withdrew his demands due to the 1689–1692 Jacobite Rising . The English succession was provided for by the English Act of Settlement 1701 , which ensured that the monarch of England would be a Protestant member of the House of Hanover . Until the Union of Parliaments, the Scottish throne might be inherited by a different successor after Queen Anne , who had said in her first speech to
6943-440: The English Parliament. Episcopacy in Scotland was abolished in 1690, alienating a significant part of the political class; it was this element that later formed the bedrock of opposition to Union. The 1690s were a time of economic hardship in Europe as a whole and Scotland in particular, a period now known as the Seven ill years which led to strained relations with England. In 1698, the Company of Scotland Trading to Africa and
7074-408: The English and Scottish armies were already combined under one operational command and stationed in the Dutch Republic fighting in the War of Spanish Succession . Consequently, although the regiments were now part of the new British military establishment, they remained under the same operational command, and so not only were the regiments of the old armies transferred in situ to the new army so too
7205-406: The English parliament that a Union was "very necessary". The Scottish Act of Security 1704 , however, was passed after the English parliament, without consultation with Scotland, had designated Electoress Sophia of Hanover (granddaughter of James I and VI) as Anne's successor, if Anne died childless. The Act of Security granted the Parliament of Scotland , the three Estates , the right to choose
7336-421: The English throne. After defeat in the 1647–1648 Second English Civil War , Scotland was occupied by English troops, which were withdrawn once those whom Cromwell held responsible had been replaced by the Kirk Party . In December 1648, Pride's Purge paved the way for the Trial of Charles I in England by excluding MPs who opposed it. Following the execution of Charles I in January 1649, and establishment of
7467-403: The Estates") issued an address to William and Mary "as both kingdomes are united in one head and soveraigne so they may become one body pollitick, one nation to be represented in one parliament", reserving "our church government, as it shall be established at the tyme of the union". William and Mary were supportive of the idea but it was opposed both by the Presbyterian majority in Scotland and
7598-411: The Hanoverian monarchs or the Whig governments, to maintain order or influence in the Highlands. In 1739 the first full regiment, the 42nd Regiment of Foot , was formed in the region. Towards the end of the 18th century, the battalion became the major tactical unit of the army. On the continent of Europe, where large field formations were usual, a regiment was a formation of two or more battalions, under
7729-403: The Indies received a charter to raise capital through public subscription. The Company invested in the Darién scheme , an ambitious plan funded almost entirely by Scottish investors to build a colony on the Isthmus of Panama for trade with East Asia. The scheme was a disaster; the losses of over £150,000 severely impacted the Scottish commercial system. The Acts of Union may be seen within
7860-412: The Netherlands, and Mary refused to rule without him. In Scotland, conflict over control of the kirk between Presbyterians and Episcopalians and William's position as a fellow Calvinist put him in a much stronger position. He originally insisted on retaining Episcopacy, and the Committee of the Articles , an unelected body that controlled what legislation Parliament could debate. Both would have given
7991-422: The Protector for the Union of England and Scotland, creating the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. It was ratified by the Second Protectorate Parliament on 26 June 1657, creating a single Parliament in Westminster, with 30 representatives each from Scotland and Ireland added to the existing English members. While integration into the Commonwealth established free trade between Scotland and England,
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#17328549351218122-470: The Protectorate and their French allies. For political expediency he also included some elements of the New Model Army. The whole force consisted of two corps of horse and five or six of infantry. It is, however, on this narrow and solid basis that the structure of the English army was gradually erected. The horse consisted of two regiments the Life Guards (formed from exiled cavaliers); and The Blues (or The Oxford Blues), formed by Lord Oxford, out of some of
8253-400: The Regular Army of 247,000 and Territorial Force of 145,000), over half of which were posted overseas to garrison the British Empire . This total included the Regular Army and reservists in the Territorial Force. Together they formed the BEF, for service in France and became known as the Old Contemptibles . The 'second' army was Kitchener's Army , formed from the volunteers in 1914–1915, which
8384-413: The Royal Warrant that created the first regiments of what would become the British Army , although Scotland and England maintained separate military establishments until the Acts of Union 1707 . King Charles put into these regiments those cavaliers who had attached themselves to him during his exile on the European continent and had fought for him at the Battle of the Dunes against the Roundheads of
8515-400: The Scot Greys were first placed on the English establishment. In 1713 when a new board of general officers was convened to decide upon rank of several regiments, the seniority of the Scots Greys was reassessed and based on their entry into England in June 1685. At that time there was only one English regiment of dragoons and so after some delay the Scots Greys obtained the rank of 2nd dragoons in
8646-502: The Scotland's main trade partners before the union, and the English Navigation Acts severely limited Scottish ability to trade by sea, and made the Scottish ambitions to expand the trade beyond Europe unachievable. Opinion in Scotland at the time was that England was sabotaging Scottish economic expansion. In the years leading to 1707, Scottish economy was lagging behind not only from the impact of wars, but also because of chronic deflation and industrial underdevelopment. Scotland remained
8777-514: The Scottish army, the Welsh people, and the English Fleet, all now turned against the New Model Army. The Army beat the lot! Having survived Parliament's attempts to disband it, the New Model Army prospered as an institution during the Interregnum . It was disbanded in 1660 with the restoration of the Stuart monarchy under Charles II . At his restoration Charles II sought to create a small standing army made up of some former Royalist and New Model Army regiments. On 26 January 1661, Charles II issued
8908-558: The Scottish historian Christopher Smout , prior to the Union of the Crowns the Scottish economy had been flourishing completely independently of the English one, with little to no interaction between each other. Developing a closer economic partnership with England was unsustainable, and Scotland's main trade partner was continental Europe, especially the Netherlands , where Scotland could trade its wool and fish for luxurious imports such as iron, spices or wine. Scotland and England were generally hostile to each other and were often at war, and
9039-425: The Union of the Crowns and asserted the need to renegotiate this union. During this period, the Darien failure, the succession issue and the Worcester seizure all provided opportunities for Scottish writers to attack the Court Party as unpatriotic and reaffirm the need to fight for true interests of Scotland. According to Scottish historian William Ferguson , the Acts of Union were a "political job" by England that
9170-512: The West Indies, North America and India. Troops were often recruited locally, to lessen the burden on the Army. Sometimes these were part of the British army, for example the 60th (Royal American) Regiment of Foot . On other occasions (as in the case of troops raised by the British East India Company ), the local forces were administered separately from the British Army, but cooperated with it. Troops sent to serve overseas could expect to serve there for years, in an unhealthy climate far removed from
9301-401: The bells in the tune "Why should I be so sad on my wedding day?" Threats of widespread civil unrest resulted in Parliament imposing martial law . Virtually all of the print discourses of 1699–1706 spoke against incorporating union, creating the conditions for wide spread rejection of the treaty in 1706 and 1707. Country party tracts condemned English influence within the existing framework of
9432-802: The best New Model Army horse regiments. The foot regiments were Grenadier Guards (initially two regiments Lord Wentworth's Regiment and John Russell's Regiment of Guards which amalgamated in 1665), the Coldstream Guards (the New Model Army regiment of General Monck ), the Royal Scots (formed from the Scotch guard in France), and the Second Queen's Royals . Many of Charles' subjects were uneasy at his creation of this small army. Pamphleteers wrote tracts voicing
9563-576: The bulk of the changes in the Haldane reforms put to the test. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) of six divisions was quickly sent to the Continent, while the Territorial Forces fourteen divisions and Reserves were mobilised as planned to provide a second line. During the war there were three distinct British Armies. The 'first' army was the small volunteer force of about 400,000 soldiers (comprising
9694-622: The colonies" as well as "a great expansion of markets". The agreement guaranteed the permanent status of the Presbyterian church in Scotland, and the separate system of laws and courts in Scotland. Clark argued that in exchange for the financial benefits and bribes that England bestowed, what it gained was of inestimable value. Scotland accepted the Hanoverian succession and gave up her power of threatening England's military security and complicating her commercial relations ... The sweeping successes of
9825-484: The colonists' representatives was the protection of the settlers from raids by Native American war parties, while the British generals often had different strategic priorities. Partly through the naval superiority gained by the Royal Navy , Britain was eventually able to deploy superior strength in North America, winning the decisive Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec City and conquering New France . Similarly, in
9956-554: The comforts of British society. This led to the army being recruited from the elements of society with the least stake in it; the very poorest or worst-behaved. The red-coated soldier , "Thomas Lobster", was a much-derided figure, as described in the Rudyard Kipling poem Tommy : For it's Tommy this, an' Tommy that, an' "Chuck him out, the brute!" But it's "Saviour of 'is country" when the guns begin to shoot; An' it's Tommy this, an' Tommy that, an' anything you please; An' Tommy ain't
10087-423: The cost of being increasingly dependent on trade with England. A power struggle developed between Scotland and England in the 1680s, as Scotland recovered from the political turmoil and set on its own economic ambitions, which London considered a threat to its dominant and well-established position. English wars with continental powers undermined Scottish trade with France and the Netherlands, countries that used to be
10218-463: The countries of the former Soviet Union . This list is based on a wide definition that includes much of the interface between Europe and Western Asia . Acts of Union 1707 The Acts of Union refer to two Acts of Parliament , one by the Parliament of England in 1706, the other by the Parliament of Scotland in 1707. They put into effect the Treaty of Union agreed on 22 July 1706, which merged
10349-457: The creation of an efficient military machine [, The New Model Army,] and its proving on the battlefield, predates the Restoration by 15 years. It was on the fields of Naseby , Dunbar and Dunes that the foundations of the British professional army were laid. The New Model Army was the first full-time professional army raised within the three kingdoms of England , Ireland and Scotland . It
10480-569: The decisive Battle of Minden . The result of this war was to leave the British Empire as the dominant imperial power in North America, and the only European power east of the Mississippi River (although it would return East Florida back to the Spanish Empire ). There was increasing tension between the British government and the American colonists, especially when it was decided to maintain
10611-629: The desire to ensure free trade. Continued opposition meant these negotiations were abandoned by the end of 1669. Following the Glorious Revolution of 1688, a Scottish Convention met in Edinburgh in April 1689 to agree a new constitutional settlement; during which the Scottish Bishops backed a proposed union in an attempt to preserve Episcopalian control of the kirk. The parliament ("Convention of
10742-646: The economic benefits were diminished by the costs of military occupation. Both Scotland and England associated union with heavy taxes and military rule; it had little popular support in either country, and was dissolved after the Restoration of Charles II in 1660. The Scottish economy was badly damaged by the English Navigation Acts of 1660 and 1663 and England's wars with the Dutch Republic , Scotland's major export market. An Anglo-Scots Trade Commission
10873-481: The eighteenth-century wars owed much to the new unity of the two nations. By the time Samuel Johnson and James Boswell made their tour in 1773, recorded in A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland , Johnson noted that Scotland was "a nation of which the commerce is hourly extending, and the wealth increasing" and in particular that Glasgow had become one of the greatest cities of Britain. According to
11004-443: The end of the Napoleonic Wars , the army had been through a series of structural, recruitment, tactical and training reforms and its manpower had vastly increased. At its peak, in 1813, the regular army contained over 250,000 men. The British infantry was "the only military force not to suffer a major reverse at the hands of Napoleonic France ." During the long reign of Queen Victoria , British society underwent great changes such as
11135-530: The exiled House of Stewart and their Jacobite supporters to regain the throne , leading to severe uprisings. These were often related to European conflict, as the Stuarts and Jacobites were aided and encouraged by Britain's continental enemies for their own ends. After the Battle of Culloden in 1746, these rebellions were crushed. Finally, as the British empire expanded, the army was increasingly involved in service in
11266-511: The fear of a people who within living memory had experienced the Rule of the Major-Generals and had liked neither the imposition of military rule, or the costs of keeping an army in being when the country was not at war with itself or others. People also remembered the " Eleven Years' Tyranny " of Charles I and feared that a standing army under royal command would allow monarchs in the future to ignore
11397-532: The first such manoeuvres since the Napoleonic Wars. The Crimean War (1854–56) had so many blunders and failures—most famously the ill-advised " Charge of the Light Brigade "—that it became an iconic symbol of logistical, medical and tactical failures and mismanagement. Public opinion in Britain was outraged at the failures of traditional methods in the face of modernization everywhere else in British society;
11528-575: The forefront of new military developments. It was the first in the world to develop and deploy the tank, and what is now the Royal Air Force (RAF) had its origins within the British Army as the Royal Flying Corps (RFC). At the same time the British Army emphasises the continuity and longevity of several of its institutions and military tradition. The English Army was first established as a standing military force in 1660. In 1707 many regiments of
11659-448: The foreign policy of Scotland was now in English hands. This limited Scotland's hitherto expansive trade with continental Europe, and forced it into English wars. While the Scottish economy already suffered because of English wars with France and Spain in the 1620s, the civil wars in England had a particularly disastrous effect on Scotland and left it relatively impoverished as a result. The economy would slowly recover afterwards, but at
11790-408: The formerly rigid drills of the line infantry were modified to a style known as "loose files and an American scramble". While the British defeated the colonists in most of the set-piece battles of the war, none of these had any decisive result, whereas the British defeats at the Battle of Saratoga and Siege of Yorktown adversely affected British morale, prestige and manpower. Historians have examined
11921-519: The fund allocated to its shareholders and creditors. The role played by bribery has long been debated. £20,000 was distributed by David Boyle, 1st Earl of Glasgow , of which 60% went to the Duke of Queensberry, the Queen's Commissioner in Parliament . Another negotiator, John Campbell, 2nd Duke of Argyll was given an English dukedom . Robert Burns is commonly quoted in support of the argument of corruption: "We're bought and sold for English Gold, Such
12052-603: The independence of the Scottish Crown. It then went beyond ensuring James's succession to the Scottish throne by explicitly stating the aim was to make his exclusion from the English throne impossible without "the fatall and dreadfull consequences of a civil war". The issue reappeared during the 1688 Glorious Revolution . The English Parliament generally supported replacing James with his Protestant daughter Mary , but resisted making her Dutch husband William of Orange joint ruler. They gave way only when he threatened to return to
12183-588: The issue of responsibility for the defeat in terms of personalities. They also have explored such issues as communications and supply, a lack of defined objectives, and the underestimation of the American forces. The British Army during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars experienced a time of rapid change. At the beginning of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1793, the army was a small, awkwardly administered force of barely 40,000 men. By
12314-564: The late 19th century. These gave the British Army its modern shape, and defined its regimental system. The Esher Report in 1904, recommended radical reform of the British Army, such as the creation of an Army Council , a General Staff and the abolition of the office of Commander in Chief of the Forces and the creation of a Chief of the General Staff. The Haldane Reforms in 1907, created an expeditionary force of seven divisions , it also reorganized
12445-535: The military occupation of Boston in 1768. Tensions between the army and local civilians helped contribute to the Boston Massacre of 1770, but outright warfare did not begin until 1775, when the " Minutemen " militias in the Massachusetts Bay Province attacked an army detachment sent to seize colonial munitions at Battles of Lexington and Concord . Reinforcements were sent to America to put down what
12576-514: The name of England "were as yf [ sic ] to make a conquest of our name, which was more than ever the Dane or Norman could do". Instead, James set about creating a unified Church of Scotland and England, as the first step towards a centralised, Unionist state. However, despite both being nominally Episcopal in structure, the two were very different in doctrine; the Church of Scotland , or kirk,
12707-695: The negotiations. Most of the Scottish commissioners favoured union, and about half were government ministers and other officials. At the head of the list was the Duke of Queensberry, and the Lord Chancellor of Scotland , the Earl of Seafield . The English commissioners included the Lord High Treasurer , Sidney Godolphin, 1st Earl of Godolphin , the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal , William Cowper, Baron Cowper , and
12838-405: The new united parliament, only to get 45 MPs, one more than Cornwall, and only 16 (unelected) peers in the House of Lords. The Union was carried by members of the Scottish elite against the wishes of the great majority. Sir George Lockhart of Carnwath , the only Scottish negotiator to oppose Union, noted "the whole nation appears against (it)". Another negotiator, Sir John Clerk of Penicuik , who
12969-478: The newspapers demanded drastic reforms, and parliamentary investigations exposed a multiplicity of grave problems. However, the reform campaign was not well organized. This allowed the traditional aristocratic leadership of the Army to pull itself together and block all serious reforms. No one was punished. The outbreak of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 shifted attention to the heroic defense of British interests by
13100-544: The official names of the regiments. In 1751 a numeral system was adopted, with each regiment gaining a number according to their rank in the order of precedence , so John Mordaunt's Regiment became the 47th Regiment of Foot . The later Jacobite risings were centred in the Scottish Highlands . From the late 17th century, the Government had organised Independent Highland Companies in the area, from clans which supported
13231-474: The opposition of the Church of Scotland , an Act was also passed to secure the Presbyterian establishment of the Church, after which the Church stopped its open opposition, although hostility remained at lower levels of the clergy. The treaty as a whole was finally ratified on 16 January 1707 by a majority of 110 votes to 69. The two Acts incorporated provisions for Scotland to send representative peers from
13362-516: The prerogatives of the crown on this delicate point. Parliament finally succeeded in acquiring a control over the army, and under a general bill, commonly called the Mutiny Act , laid down the restrictions which, whilst respecting the rights of the sovereign, were likewise to shield the liberty of the people. It did this by making the standing army conditional on an annually renewed act of Parliament. To this day, annual continuation notices are required for
13493-641: The previously separate Kingdom of England and Kingdom of Scotland into a single Kingdom of Great Britain , with Queen Anne as its sovereign. The Acts took effect on 1 May 1707, creating the Parliament of Great Britain , based in the Palace of Westminster . The two countries had shared a monarch since the Union of the Crowns in 1603, when James VI of Scotland inherited the English throne from his cousin Elizabeth I . Attempts had been made in 1606, 1667, and 1689 to unite
13624-514: The reforms that Gladstone promoted in the name of efficiency and democracy. In 1868 he abolished flogging , raising the private soldier status to more like an honourable career. In 1870 Cardwell abolished "bounty money" for recruits, discharged known bad characters from the ranks. He pulled 20,000 soldiers out of self-governing colonies, like Canada after Canadian Confederation , which learned they had to help defend themselves. The most radical change, and one that required Gladstone's political muscle,
13755-492: The reforms. The surveyor-general of the ordnance, and the financial secretary became key department heads reporting to the Secretary. The militia was reformed as well and integrated into the Army. The term of enlistment was reduced to 6 years, so there was more turnover and a larger pool of trained reservists. The territorial system of recruiting for regiments was standardised and adjusted to the current population. Cardwell reduced
13886-560: The route was lined with crowds of cheering people, and once he reached London a huge crowd had formed. On 17 April, the Duke was gratefully received by the Queen at Kensington Palace and the Acts came into effect on 1 May 1707. A day of thanksgiving was declared in England and Ireland but not in Scotland, where the bells of St Giles rang out the tune of "why should I be so sad on my wedding day" . The Treaty of Union , agreed between representatives of
14017-486: The successful passage of the Union act by the Parliament of Scotland. In Scotland, he was greeted by stones and eggs but in England he was cheered for his action. He had personally received around half of the funding awarded by the Westminster Treasury. In April 1707, he travelled to London to attend celebrations at the royal court, and was greeted by groups of noblemen and gentry lined along the road. From Barnet ,
14148-523: The terms of service and outlook of many soldiers. Nevertheless, it retained many features inherited from the Duke of Wellington's army, and since its prime function was to maintain the expanding British Empire , it differed in many ways from the conscripted armies of continental Europe. For example, it did not undertake large-scale manoeuvres. Indeed, the Chobham Manoeuvres of 1853 involving 7,000 troops were
14279-526: The throne. It also created a customs union and monetary union . The Act provided that any "laws and statutes" that were "contrary to or inconsistent with the terms" of the Act would "cease and become void". The Scottish Parliament also passed the Protestant Religion and Presbyterian Church Act 1707 guaranteeing the status of the Presbyterian Church of Scotland. The English Parliament passed
14410-472: The two countries, but it was not until the early 18th century that both political establishments came to support the idea, albeit for different reasons. Prior to 1603, England and Scotland had different monarchs, but when Elizabeth I died without children, she was succeeded by her distant relative, James VI of Scotland . After her death, the two Crowns were held in personal union by James (reigning as James VI and I ), who announced his intention to unite
14541-541: The two realms. The 1603 Union of England and Scotland Act established a joint Commission to agree terms, but Parliament of England was concerned this would lead to an absolutist structure similar to that of Scotland. James was forced to withdraw his proposals, but used the royal prerogative to take the title "King of Great Britain". Attempts to revive the project of union in 1610 were met with hostility. English opponents such as Sir Edwin Sandys argued that changing
14672-628: The union, when the Scottish Parliament began its debate on the act on 3 October 1706, but the deal had already been done. The Court party enjoyed significant funding from England and the Treasury and included many who had accumulated debts following the Darien Disaster . The Act ratifying the Treaty of Union was finally carried in the Parliament of Scotland by 110 votes to 69 on 16 January 1707, with
14803-594: The volunteers into a new Territorial Force of fourteen cavalry brigades and fourteen infantry divisions, and changed the old militia into the special reserve to reinforce the expeditionary force. The British Army was different from the French and German Armies at the beginning of the conflict in that it was made up from volunteers not conscripts . It was also considerably smaller than its French and German counterparts. The British entry into World War I in August 1914 saw
14934-549: The war dragged on, the ministry also sought to recruit Loyalist soldiers. Five American Loyalist units (known as the American Establishment , formed in 1779) were placed on the regular army roster, though there were many other Loyalist units. When the war ended in 1783 with the British government forced to recognize its defeat and U.S. independence under the Treaty of Paris , many United Empire Loyalists fled north to British Canada , where many subsequently served with
15065-668: The war progressed, Scots and English Presbyterians increasingly viewed the Independents, and associated radical groups like the Levellers , as a bigger threat than the Royalists. Both Royalists and Presbyterians agreed monarchy was divinely ordered, but disagreed on the nature and extent of Royal authority over the church. When Charles I surrendered in 1646, a pro-Royalist faction known as the Engagers allied with their former enemies to restore him to
15196-472: The war, General James Wolfe amalgamated companies from several regiments into an ad hoc unit, the Louisbourg Grenadiers . There were also disagreements between high-ranking British officers and the provincial troops recruited from the colonies. It was laid down that even the most senior Provincial officers were subordinate to comparatively junior officers in the British Army. The first concern of
15327-401: The wishes of Parliament. The English were not fully reconciled to the need for a standing army until the reign of William III when the near perpetual wars with other European states made a modest standing army a necessity to defend England and to maintain her prestige in the world. But public opinion, always anxious of the bad old days, was resolved to allow itself no rest until it had defined
15458-463: Was Calvinist in doctrine, and viewed many Church of England practices as little better than Catholicism. As a result, attempts to impose religious policy by James and his son Charles I ultimately led to the 1639–1651 Wars of the Three Kingdoms . The 1639–1640 Bishops' Wars confirmed the primacy of the kirk, and established a Covenanter government in Scotland. The Scots remained neutral when
15589-451: Was achieved by economic incentives, patronage and bribery to secure the passage of the Union treaty in the Scottish Parliament in order satisfy English political imperatives, with the union being unacceptable to the Scottish people, including both the Jacobites and Covenanters . The differences between Scottish were "subsumed by the same sort of patriotism or nationalism that first appeared in
15720-451: Was an ardent Unionist, observed it was "contrary to the inclinations of at least three-fourths of the Kingdom". As the seat of the Scottish Parliament, demonstrators in Edinburgh feared the impact of its loss on the local economy. Elsewhere, there was widespread concern about the independence of the kirk, and possible tax rises. As the treaty passed through the Scottish Parliament, opposition
15851-636: Was created in 1645 by the English Long Parliament and it proved supreme in field. At the end of the First Civil War the New Model Army survived attempts by Parliament to disband it. Winston Churchill described its prowess thus: The Story of the Second English Civil War is short and simple. King, Lords and Commons, landlords, merchants, the City and the countryside, bishops and presbyters,
15982-538: Was destined to go into action at the Battle of the Somme . The 'third' was formed after the introduction of conscription in January 1916 and by the end of 1918 the British Army had reached its peak of strength of four million men and could field over seventy divisions. The war also saw the introduction of new weapons and equipment. The Maxim machine gun was replaced by the improved and lighter Vickers and Lewis machine guns ,
16113-564: Was effectively ended at the Battle of Culloden in 1746. The major theatre was often the continent of Europe. Not only did Britain's monarchs have dynastic ties with Holland or Hanover after the Hanoverian Succession , but Britain's foreign policy often required intervention to maintain a balance of power in Europe (usually at the expense of the Kingdom of France ). Within England and especially Scotland, there were repeated attempts by
16244-526: Was impossible until the 1870s when the army assumed the form it took in 1914. Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone paid little attention to military affairs apart from budgets, but as he and the rest of stunned Europe watched the German coalition led by Prussia crushed France in a matter of weeks , the myriad old inadequacies of the British army set the agenda. His Secretary of State for War, Edward Cardwell proposed far-reaching reforms that Gladstone pushed through
16375-618: Was initially expected to be a short-lived rebellion, despite the fact that in July 1776 the Second Continental Congress leading the revolt declared the Thirteen Colonies' independence as the United States of America . Because the British army was understrength at the outset of the war, the British government hired the mercenaries of several German states, referred to generically as " Hessians ", to fight in North America. As
16506-424: Was known as the French and Indian War . The early years saw several British defeats. The British units first despatched to the Continent were untrained in the bush warfare they met. To provide light infantry, several corps such as Rogers' Rangers were raised from the colonists. (A light infantry regiment, the 80th Regiment of Light-Armed Foot , was raised by Colonel Thomas Gage , but subsequently disbanded). During
16637-512: Was no problem if they were entirely wanting in military knowledge or leadership skills. From the Tory perspective it was essential to keep the officer corps the domain of gentlemen, and not a trade for professional experts. They warned the latter might menace the oligarchy and threaten a military coup; they preferred an inefficient army to an authoritarian state. The unification of Germany by Otto von Bismarck made this reactionary policy too dangerous for
16768-479: Was set up in January 1668 but the English had no interest in making concessions, as the Scots had little to offer in return. In 1669, Charles II revived talks on political union; his motives may have been to weaken Scotland's commercial and political links with the Dutch, still seen as an enemy and complete the work of his grandfather James I. On the Scottish side, the proposed union received parliamentary support, boosted by
16899-517: Was the institutional ethos, customs, and traditions, of the old standing armies that had been created shortly after the Stuart Restoration 47 years earlier. Stuart Asquith argues for roots before 1660: Many authorities quote the Restoration of 1660 as the birth date of our modern British Army. While this may be true as far as continuity of unit identity is concerned, it is untrue in a far more fundamental sense. The evidence of history shows that
17030-409: Was to abolish the system of officers obtaining commissions and promotions by purchase, rather than by merit. The system meant that the rich landholding families controlled all the middle and senior ranks in the army. Promotion depended on the family's wealth, not the officer's talents, and the middle class was shut out almost completely. British officers were expected to be gentlemen and sportsmen; there
17161-502: Was voiced by petitions from shires, burghs, presbyteries and parishes. The Convention of Royal Burghs claimed: we are not against an honourable and safe union with England, [... but] the condition of the people of Scotland, (cannot be) improved without a Scots Parliament. Not one petition in favour of Union was received by Parliament. On the day the treaty was signed, the carillonneur in St Giles Cathedral , Edinburgh, rang
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