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47-513: The papal conclave of 1644 to elect Pope Urban VIII 's successor had been a matter of divided loyalties. Many of the cardinals created by Pope Urban VIII had formed a faction loyal to the Kingdom of France , controlled by Urban's Cardinal-Nephew , Antonio Barberini . Others had formed a faction loyal to the Kingdom of Spain . French envoy Cardinal Mazarin had not arrived in time to exercise France's jus exclusivae and Innocent, an ally of Spain,

94-734: A Jubilee . He embellished Rome with inlaid floors and bas-relief in Saint Peter's , erected Gian Lorenzo Bernini 's Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi in Piazza Navona , the Pamphili stronghold in Rome, and ordered the construction of Palazzo Nuovo at the Campidoglio . Innocent X is also the subject of Portrait of Innocent X , a famous painting by Diego Velázquez housed in the family gallery of Palazzo Doria ( Doria Pamphilj Gallery ). This portrait inspired

141-713: A Cardinal and would participate in the conclave, he did not control the College in the same way as the Barberini had tried to control the previous conclave. And so the conclave of 1655 began with the Spanish still opposed to Sacchetti, the French still opposed to anyone nominated by those loyal to Spain and no-one to control the cardinals. As a result, the cardinals entered the conclave with an unprecedented level of independence. A group of cardinals, led by Cardinal Decio Azzolino , began to further

188-516: A brief meeting with Cardinals Flavio Chigi and Decio Azzolino . That night he had a little rest, though his condition did not improve. On 28 December, Innocent X received the Last rites and expressed his desire to take leave of the cardinals. In anticipation of the Pope's expected death many of the cardinals had already gathered in Rome in advance of a subsequent conclave. Thirty-nine gathered at his bedside at

235-556: A family from Gubbio in Umbria who had come to Rome during the pontificate of Pope Innocent IX , Pamphili was trained as a lawyer and graduated from the Collegio Romano . He followed a conventional cursus honorum , following his uncle Girolamo Pamphili as auditor of the Rota , and like him, attaining the position of cardinal-priest of Sant'Eusebio . Before becoming pope, Pamphili served as

282-692: A few years later, Pamphili was raised to the papacy, other Barberini relatives fled to France on embezzlement accusations. Despite this, the Capuchins held fast to their chapel altarpiece. Innocent was responsible for raising the Colegio de Santo Tomás de Nuestra Señora del Santísimo Rosario into the rank of a university. It is now the University of Santo Tomás in Manila , the oldest existing in Asia. In 1650, Innocent X celebrated

329-455: A good working relationship with those cardinals who remained loyal to the French. While still independent, the Squadrone engineered the nomination by the French of Giulio Rospigliosi who was acceptable to the leader of the Spanish faction, Cardinal Ernst Adalbert of Harrach . Rospigliosi was elected and took the throne as Pope Clement IX . Adding further credence to the alleged involvement of

376-578: A large quantity of arms including 20,000 pounds of gunpowder, and a very large sum of money. Rinuccini hoped he could discourage the Confederates from allying with Charles I and the Royalists in the English Civil War and instead encourage them towards the foundation of an independent Catholic – ruled Ireland. At Kilkenny, Rinuccini was received with great honours, asserting in his Latin declaration that

423-455: A papal diplomat to Naples , France , and Spain . Pamphili succeeded Pope Urban VIII (1623–44) on 15 September 1644 as Pope Innocent X, after a contentious papal conclave that featured a rivalry between French and Spanish factions. Innocent X was one of the most politically shrewd pontiffs of the era, greatly increasing the temporal power of the Holy See . Major political events in which he

470-519: A prestigious coalition of non-aligned Italian cardinal-princes connected to the Roman aristocracy. Urban's practice of concentrating power and curial appointments in his family and those related to his relatives came as a disappointment to those very cardinal-princes instrumental in his election. Antonio Barberini continued to promote the candidacy of Cardinal Sacchetti, in accordance with the French policy. Urban VIII and his family had been so overly partial to

517-533: A second tribunal. In 1623 Pope Gregory XV sent him as apostolic nuncio (ecclesiastical diplomat) to the court of the Kingdom of Naples . In 1625 Pope Urban VIII sent him to accompany his nephew, Francesco Barberini , whom he had accredited as nuncio, first to France and then Spain . In January 1626, Pamphili was appointed titular Latin Patriarch of Antioch. In reward for his labors, in May 1626 Giovanni Battista

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564-596: The Archangel Michael , trampling Satan , who bears the recognizable features of Innocent X. This bold political artwork still hangs in a side chapel of the Capuchin friars' Church of the Conception ( Santa Maria della Concezione dei Cappuccini ) in Rome. A legend related to the painting is that the dashing and high-living artist, Guido Reni, had been insulted by rumours he thought were circulated by Cardinal Pamphili. When,

611-700: The Barberini family for misappropriation of public funds. The brothers Francesco Barberini , Antonio Barberini and Taddeo Barberini fled to Paris, where they found a powerful protector in Cardinal Mazarin. Innocent X confiscated their property, and on 19 February 1646, issued a papal bull decreeing that all cardinals who might leave the Papal States for six months without express papal permission would be deprived of their benefices and eventually of their cardinalate itself. The French Parlement of Paris declared

658-592: The Quirinal Palace . On 1 January 1655, Mass was celebrated at the pope's bedside, and the same was done on 6 January, when Innocent X also received the Viaticum for the last time. Secretary of State Chigi, who had been in attendance during the last twelve days, Prefect of the Sacred Palace Bishop Scotti, and Sacristan Monsignor Altini, as well as, various attendants were present when the Pope died on

705-496: The Squadrone , Rospigliosi, who was Cardinal Secretary of State , resigned the post and appointed Cardinal Azzolino as his replacement on the very night he was elected. Papal conclave, 1644 The 1644 papal conclave was called upon the death of Pope Urban VIII . It lasted from 9 August to 15 September 1644; the cardinal electors chose Cardinal Giovanni Battista Pamphili, who took office as Pope Innocent X . Pope Urban VIII died on July 29, 1644. His reign (which included

752-573: The formulary controversy , Blaise Pascal 's writing of the Lettres Provinciales , and finally to the razing of the Jansenist convent of Port-Royal and the subsequent dissolving of its community. The death of Pope Urban VIII is said to have been hastened by his chagrin at the result of the First War of Castro , a war he had undertaken against Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma . Hostilities between

799-431: The "Screaming Pope" paintings by 20th-century painter Francis Bacon , the most famous of which is Bacon's Study after Velázquez's Portrait of Pope Innocent X . Innocent X has been described as irritable in his later years. In March 1654, Innocent X suddenly expelled his personal physician of eight years, Gabriel da Fonseca , after Fonseca defended a barber who had bled the Pope. Fonseca claims he had been in service to

846-479: The Barberini nephews (including the cardinals' brother, Taddeo Barberini ) after Innocent X had them investigated and exiled to Paris. Though it's likely he didn't have to, Francesco Barberini countered with a generous offer from the Spanish delegation, which included a promise of the protection of the King Philip IV of Spain for the Barberini (including Francesco himself). Antonio and his delegation agreed and

893-425: The Barberini. Making matters worse, Urban's reign (only 11 years earlier) had been famous for its rampant nepotism , much of which had benefited those same nephews. Innocent's reign had been little better and so cardinals were inclined to elect a pope who would bring repute back to the papacy. At the same time, Innocent's third and final Cardinal-Nephew, Camillo Astalli , had fallen into disrepute. Though he remained

940-671: The Cardinals the full support of the French, and informed them that the Marshal de Brézé was at Marseille, with a fleet and troops, prepared to rush to the assistance of the College of Cardinals. There were also French troops in Lombardy and Savoy who could be called upon to defend the Papal States if necessary. Similar assurances were offered by the Spanish ambassador and the Prince of Parma. Nothing came of

987-761: The European powers. During the Irish Confederate Wars (1641–53) (the Irish component of the British Civil Wars ), Innocent X strongly supported the independent Confederate Ireland , over the objections of Mazarin and the English Queen and then queen mother , Henrietta Maria , exiled in Paris. The pope sent Giovanni Battista Rinuccini , archbishop of Fermo , as a special nuncio to Ireland. He arrived at Kilkenny with

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1034-506: The French that the Imperialists and the Spanish were determined that no supporter of French interests would be elected. On August 9, Spain's Cardinal Gil de Albornoz presented a veto against Sacchetti, signed by the king. Cardinal Antonio Barberini let it be known that the Barberini were prepared to stay in conclave until everyone died before they allowed someone who was not a member of their faction to be elected pope, and that their candidate

1081-570: The French with which he was to buy wavering votes. Maria Antonietta Visceglia suggests that it may have been part of Spain's strategy to split the influence of the Barberini family. With the Habsburgs in Spain as well as the Empire, the results of a papal election often depended on the strength, or lack thereof, of anti-Spain groups, and whether these could unite. Conclave protodeacon Cardinal Carlo de' Medici led

1128-489: The Pamphili family for over two decades, and that the Pope had regarded him not only as his physician but also as a private advisor. Olimpia Maidalchini was married to Innocent X's late brother, and was believed to be his mistress because of her influence over him in matters of promotion and politics. This state of affairs was alluded to in the Encyclopædia Britannica 9th edition (1880): "Throughout his reign

1175-544: The Spanish candidate, as an enemy of Cardinal Mazarin , who guided French policy. They put up their own candidate ( Giulio Cesare Sacchetti ) but could not establish enough support for him and agreed to Cardinal Pamphili as an acceptable compromise, though he had served as legate to Spain. Mazarin, bearing the French veto of Pamphili, arrived too late, and the election was accomplished. Pamphili chose to be called Innocent X. Soon after his accession he initiated legal action against

1222-404: The cardinals wanted an end to nepotism and the Squadrone could provide exactly that. Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni (later elected Pope Alexander VIII ) is said to have exclaimed, "this time we must seek an honest man!". Azzolino gave his reply; "If you want an honest man, there stands one" and pointed to Cardinal Fabio Chigi. With no better a suggestion to be found, the College elected Chigi who took

1269-695: The costly First War of Castro ) had been financially troubling for Rome and for the Church , and the conflict for control of the Church between Spain and France and the ongoing Thirty Years' War meant many cardinals arrived at the conclave seeking a compromise that would bring stability to the Church. But Urban's reign had also subjected the Church to his notorious nepotism . He had appointed three family members as Cardinals; his brother Antonio Marcello Barberini and his two nephews, Francesco Barberini and Antonio Barberini . His nephews, especially, were keen to retain

1316-521: The following morning, on 15 September 1644, Pamphili was elected and took the papal throne as Pope Innocent X . Among Innocent X's first orders of business was to order the removal of the soldiers guarding the various palaces, princes, ambassadors and other notables. He also disbanded the conscripted mounted troops and foot soldiers so that Rome would be less of an armed camp. Furious at the power Innocent's election gave to his already-powerful sister-in-law, Olimpia Maidalchini , Cardinal Alessandro Bichi

1363-471: The influence exercised over him by Maidalchini, his deceased brother's wife, was very great, and such as to give rise to gross scandal, for which, however, there appears to have been no adequate ground.... The avarice of his female counsellor gave to his reign a tone of oppression and sordid greed which probably it would not otherwise have shown, for personally he was not without noble and reforming impulses." German historian Leopold von Ranke concluded that she

1410-602: The night of 6 January 1655. The Swiss Guard escorted Papal Camerlengo Cardinal Antonio Barberini to the Quirinal to perform the requisite rituals and Cardinal de' Medici visited with the Pope's three nephews, who were in another room. After an autopsy, the body was embalmed and the next day taken to the Vatican where it was placed on a catafalque in the Sistine Chapel . On 8 January it was transferred to St. Peter's Basilica, where

1457-516: The object of his mission was to sustain the king but, above all, to rescue from pains and penalties the Catholic people of Ireland in securing the free and public exercise of the Catholic religion, and the restoration of the churches and church property. In the end, Oliver Cromwell restored Ireland to the Parliamentarian side and Rinuccini returned to Rome in 1649, after four fruitless years. During

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1504-630: The papacy and the Duchy of Parma resumed in 1649, and forces loyal to Pope Innocent X destroyed the city of Castro on 2 September 1649. Innocent X objected to the conclusion of the Peace of Westphalia , which his nuncio , Fabio Chigi , protested in vain. In 1650 Innocent X issued the papal brief Zelo Domus Dei against the Peace of Westphalia, and backdated it to 1648 in order to preserve potential claims for confiscated land and property. The protests were ignored by

1551-606: The papacy of Pope Urban VIII, the future Innocent X was the pope's most significant rival among the College of Cardinals . Antonio Barberini, Urban VIII's brother, was a cardinal who had begun his career with the Capuchin brothers . About 1635, at the height of the Thirty Years' War in Germany, in which the papacy was intricately involved, Cardinal Antonio commissioned Guido Reni 's painting of

1598-609: The papal ordinance void in France, but Innocent X did not yield until Mazarin prepared to send troops to Italy. Henceforth the papal policy towards France became more friendly, and somewhat later the Barberini were rehabilitated when the son of Taddeo Barberini, Maffeo Barberini , married Olimpia Giustiniani , a niece of Innocent X. In 1653, Innocent X, with the Cum occasione papal bull , condemned five propositions of Jansenius 's Augustinus , as heretical and close to Lutheranism . This led to

1645-475: The papal throne as Pope Alexander VII . Still protected by Christina of Sweden and led by her now-favourite Azzolino, the Squadrone continued to operate during Pope Alexander's reign and remained highly involved in European politics in the second half of the 17th century. In 1667, Alexander died and the College of Cardinals again convened for the papal conclave of 1667 . By then, the Squadrone had developed

1692-496: The saber-rattling, except to unnerve some members of the Sacred College. Cardinal Mazarin was furious and blamed the ambassador who in turn claimed Antonio Barberini had included the clause is his own agreement as an excuse for turning on the French and siding with the Spanish. Mazarin, keen to remain on good terms with the Barberini, recalled the ambassador and continued to support the Barberini. Mazarin later provided shelter for

1739-455: The sealing of the coffin was witnessed by Cardinals Niccolò Albergati-Ludovisi , Fabio Chigi, Luigi Omodei , Pietro Vito Ottoboni , Marcello Santacroce , Baccio Aldobrandini, Cristoforo Vidman , Lorenzo Raggi , Carlo Pio di Savoia and Gualtieri, Princes Pamphili, Ludovisi and Giustiniani, and the Master of Ceremonies Fulvio Servantio. A funeral held on 17 January. Innocent's tomb is located in

1786-519: The view within the College that it was time for a pope who would lead the Catholic Church away from the nepotism which had caused the Church considerable suffering over the preceding decades. Azzolino was also the representative of the very-much-in-fashion Christina, Queen of Sweden . The group called themselves the Flying Squad; Squadrone Volante . The conclave of 1655 was straightforward enough –

1833-427: The wealth, power and property they had amassed during their uncle's reign and both sought to move the conclave in their favour. They started by hiring, it was rumoured, bands of brigands and mercenaries to roam the streets of the city causing trouble, creating noise and generally making it uncomfortable for the cardinals inside the conclave. Anne of Austria , French Queen Mother and sister to Philip IV of Spain ,

1880-411: Was Sacchetti. The effect, however, was to increase opposition to Sacchetti. The French Ambassador, Saint-Chamont, became alarmed by reports of the movement of Spanish Neapolitan troops on the southern border of the Papal States. He feared that this might be an invasion, with the purpose of capturing the College of Cardinals and forcing the election of a pope favorable to the Spanish interest. He assured

1927-477: Was adamant that none of the older cardinals appointed by the pro-Spanish Pope Paul V should be elected to the Papal throne. Francesco Barberini sided with the cardinals loyal to Spain. Urban VIII had been a strong francophile and the mood of the conclave was with Spain from the beginning. Antonio, at the direction of Cardinal Jules Mazarin , sided with the cardinals loyal to France and was supported with funding from

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1974-591: Was directly descended from Pope Alexander VI . In 1594 he graduated from the Roman College and followed a conventional path through the ranks of the Catholic Church. He served as a consistorial lawyer in 1601, and in 1604 succeeded his uncle, Cardinal Girolamo Pamphili, as auditor of the Roman Rota , the ecclesiastical appellate tribunal. He was also a canonist of the Sacred Apostolic Penitentiary ,

2021-410: Was elected. At the death of Pope Innocent X , the College of Cardinals came together for the papal conclave of 1655 . While Pope Urban's Barberini nephews and supporters still pushed for Giulio Cesare Sacchetti to be elected, Innocent had created a large number of cardinals; some with loyalties to Spain, others with no loyalty to any particular monarchy . Many of these cardinals refused to support

2068-503: Was involved included the English Civil War , conflicts with French church officials over financial fraud issues, and hostilities with the Duchy of Parma related to the First War of Castro . In theology, Innocent X issued a papal bull condemning the beliefs of Jansenism . Giovanni Battista Pamphili was born in Rome on 5 May 1574, the son of Camillo Pamphili, of the Roman Pamphili family . The family, originally from Gubbio ,

2115-497: Was made nuncio to the court of Philip IV of Spain . The position led to a lifelong association with the Spaniards which was of great use during the papal conclave of 1644 . He was created Cardinal in pectore in 1627 and published in 1629. The 1644 conclave for the election of a successor to Pope Urban VIII was long and contentious, lasting from 9 August to 15 September. A large French faction led by Urban VIII's nephews objected to

2162-455: Was not Innocent X's lover. In his later years, Innocent X suffered from gout , causing him intense pain and severely restricting his movements. The eighty-year-old pontiff's health began to decline in August 1654. By the evening of 26 December his condition had deteriorated to the extent that the family was summoned. On 27 December, he blessed his nephew, niece, and their children, and then had

2209-595: Was said to have exclaimed, "We have just elected a female pope". Supporters of Bichi and the French delegation hung banners in churches calling her "Pope Olimpia I". Pope Innocent X Pope Innocent X (6 May 1574 – 7 January 1655), born Giovanni Battista Pamphilj (or Pamphili ), was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 15 September 1644 to his death, in January 1655. Born in Rome of

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