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103-463: The Baghdad Zoo was built in 1971 under Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr . The facilities were insufficient, with small confinement spaces considered inhumane . After the first Gulf War , Iraq's zoos suffered from the United Nations Iraq sanctions , limited particular foods, medicines, and vaccines . Saddam Hussein closed the zoo for renovations in the spring of 2002. The zoo was destroyed during

206-407: A 20-year-old Siberian tiger that was the personal property of Uday Hussein , and Saida, a blind brown bear . Several lions escaped from the abandoned zoo and were rounded up by American soldiers in armored fighting vehicles . Four that would not return to their cages were shot by the soldiers. Comics author Brian K. Vaughan wrote the fictionalized graphic novel Pride of Baghdad based on

309-505: A characteristic type of keratin fingernail on the end of each finger and toe. The bottom sides of the hands and feet have sensitive pads on the fingertips . Most have opposable thumbs , a characteristic primate feature most developed in humans , though not limited to this order ( opossums and koalas , for example, also have them). Thumbs allow some species to use tools . In primates, the combination of opposing thumbs, short fingernails (rather than claws) and long, inward-closing fingers

412-427: A coup against Qasim. The plan was simple: to build a support network in the military. A Military Bureau was established to set these plans in motion. Al-Bakr was elected its chairman. The bureau managed to recruit increasing numbers of officers, most often through personal attachments to certain people; for instance, some officers attached themselves to the bureau because of their relationship with al-Bakr. Al-Bakr led

515-490: A decade. With the success of the Iranian revolution , Iraq became the second largest oil exporter in the world. The increase in oil export rejuvenated the country's economy; nearly all economic indexes increased to unprecedented levels. From 1970 to 1980 Iraq's economy grew by 11.7 percent. The growth rates of the 1970s were not sustainable; economic growth depended on high oil prices and Iraq's oil exporting capabilities, and once oil

618-473: A few returning staff they began caring for and feeding the remaining animals, restoring basic hygiene standards, and stabilizing the situation. Anthony's journey to the zoo was delayed by safety and bureaucracy issues in the chaos of the war, and he arrived at the zoo 8 days after the invasion and started to rescue the surviving animals. U.S. Army Captain William Sumner of the 354th Civil Affairs Brigade

721-518: A founding lemur population of a few individuals is thought to have reached Madagascar from Africa via a single rafting event between 50 and 80 mya. Other colonization options have been suggested, such as multiple colonizations from Africa and India, but none are supported by the genetic and molecular evidence. Until recently, the aye-aye has been difficult to place within Strepsirrhini. Theories had been proposed that its family, Daubentoniidae,

824-540: A four-one family distribution instead of five-two as presented here. During the Eocene , most of the northern continents were dominated by two groups, the adapiforms and the omomyids . The former are considered members of Strepsirrhini, but did not have a toothcomb like modern lemurs; recent analysis has demonstrated that Darwinius masillae fits into this grouping. The latter was closely related to tarsiers, monkeys, and apes. How these two groups relate to extant primates

927-420: A group of U.S. Army Reserve soldiers and Iraqi police held a party in the zoo after it had closed. Sergeant Keith Mitchell of the 422nd Civil Affairs Battalion had his right arm severely mauled by a male Bengal tiger ; a soldier, seeing the attack, initially shot and wounded the tiger, when this failed to stop the tiger a final shot fatally wounded the caged animal which bled to death. One report says that Mitchell

1030-474: A large degree of movement in the upper limbs , and opposable thumbs (in most but not all) that enable better grasping and dexterity . Primates range in size from Madame Berthe's mouse lemur , which weighs 30 g (1 oz), to the eastern gorilla , weighing over 200 kg (440 lb). There are 376–524 species of living primates, depending on which classification is used. New primate species continue to be discovered: over 25 species were described in

1133-496: A limited social welfare programme. These programmes were not properly developed until the mid-1970s, when increasing oil revenue allowed the government to invest more in such areas. According to Con Coughlin , the author of Saddam: His Rise and Fall , one of the Ba'ath Party's main goals was the elimination of both the Iraqi upper and middle classes . The standard of living increased due to

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1236-696: A meeting of the National Command, the leading organ of the Ba'ath Party. The meeting did not go as al-Bakr planned, and Michel Aflaq , the Secretary General of the National Command (the Ba'ath Party leader), suggested that the National Command should take over the Iraqi Ba'ath Party cell. The meeting led Arif, the President, to lead the November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état . Following his and the party's ouster, al-Bakr

1339-412: A mix of Arab nationalism and Arab socialism . Al-Bakr first rose to prominence after the 14 July Revolution , which overthrew the monarchy . In the newly established government, he was involved in improving Iraqi–Soviet relations. In 1959 al-Bakr was forced to resign from the Iraqi military; the then Iraqi government accused him of anti-government activities. Following his forced retirement, he became

1442-485: A noun use of Latin primat- , from primus ('prime, first rank'). The name was given by Carl Linnaeus because he thought this the "highest" order of animals. The relationships among the different groups of primates were not clearly understood until relatively recently, so the commonly used terms are somewhat confused. For example, ape has been used either as an alternative for monkey or for any tailless, relatively human-like primate. Sir Wilfrid Le Gros Clark

1545-468: A scale not seen since the time of the monarchy . This patrimonial system also favoured those who already owned land; roughly one-third of agricultural land was owned by the estimated 3 percent of landowners. Instead of confiscating their property, and evening out the distribution of land, the government kept the system in place. By the mid-to-late 1970s, the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party's land reform

1648-563: A treaty with the Soviet Union, whereby the later built an oil pipeline to an oil refinery and oil export facility at al-Faw , in the Persian Gulf , to improve Iraq's oil producing capabilities. This agreement would signal the end of the IPC's dominance over Iraq's oil resources; it also reinforced al-Bakr's belief that the company needed to be nationalised. Negotiations between the Iraqi government and

1751-455: A year, and was ousted in November 1963 . Al-Bakr and the party then pursued underground activities and became vocal critics of the government. During this period, al-Bakr was elected the Ba'ath Party's Iraqi branch's Secretary General (the head), and appointed his cousin, Saddam Hussein , the party cell's deputy leader. Al-Bakr and the Ba'ath Party regained power in the coup of 1968, later called

1854-577: Is composed of two sister clades. Prosimian tarsiers in the family Tarsiidae (monotypic in its own infraorder Tarsiiformes), represent the most basal division, originating about 58 mya. The earliest known haplorhine skeleton, that of 55 MA old tarsier-like Archicebus , was found in central China, supporting an already suspected Asian origin for the group. The infraorder Simiiformes (simian primates, consisting of monkeys and apes) emerged about 40 mya, possibly also in Asia; if so, they dispersed across

1957-470: Is unclear. Omomyids perished about 30 mya, while adapiforms survived until about 10 mya. According to genetic studies, the lemurs of Madagascar diverged from the lorisoids approximately 75 mya. These studies, as well as chromosomal and molecular evidence, also show that lemurs are more closely related to each other than to other strepsirrhine primates. However, Madagascar split from Africa 160 mya and from India 90 mya. To account for these facts,

2060-575: The 14 July Revolution . He had a short stint in the public limelight during Qasim's rule, and withdrew Iraq from the Baghdad Pact and was a key player in improving Iraq's bilateral relations with the Soviet Union . In 1959, a year following the coup, al-Bakr was again forced to retire from the military under allegations that he led an anti-government rebellion in Mosul by officers who favoured closer ties with

2163-611: The 17 July Revolution . In the coup's aftermath, he was elected the chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council and the president; he was later appointed the prime minister. Saddam, the Ba'ath Party's deputy, became the deputy chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council and vice president, and was responsible for Iraq's security services. Under al-Bakr's rule, Iraq grew economically due to high international oil prices, which strengthened its position in

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2266-536: The 1966 Syrian coup d'état against the leadership of Michel Aflaq , the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party split in two; a Damascus-based (Syrian-led) Ba'ath Party and a Baghdad-based (Iraqi-led) Ba'ath Party . In February 1968, the Iraqi-led Ba'ath Party convened the Ninth National Congress and elected Aflaq as the Secretary General of the National Command of the Iraqi-led Ba'ath Party. This decision worsened

2369-460: The 2003 invasion of Iraq . For their own safety, zoo workers suspended feeding the animals in early April 2003, when Fedayeen Saddam troops took up defensive positions around the zoo as U.S. forces began the battle of Baghdad . Out of the original 650 to 700 animals in the Baghdad Zoo only 35 had survived to the eighth day of the invasion, and these tended to be some of the larger animals. During

2472-541: The Eocene by island hopping , facilitated by Atlantic Ocean ridges and a lowered sea level. Alternatively, a single rafting event may explain this transoceanic colonization. Due to continental drift , the Atlantic Ocean was not nearly as wide at the time as it is today. Research suggests that a small 1 kg (2.2 lb) primate could have survived 13 days on a raft of vegetation. Given estimated current and wind speeds, this would have provided enough time to make

2575-546: The National Progressive Front in an effort to broaden the support base for his government. In July 1978 a decree was passed which made all non-Ba'thist political activity illegal and membership of any other political party punishable by death for all those who were members or former members of the Armed Forces. His government initially supported closer ties with Nasser , and under his rule Iraq almost joined

2678-594: The Soviet Union . On 9 April 1972, Iraq and the Soviet Union signed a treaty of friendship. The two countries agreed to cooperate in political, economic, and military affairs. The Soviet Union also agreed to supply Iraq with arms. According to historian Charles R. H. Tripp , the Ba'athist coup of 1968 upset "the US-sponsored security system established as part of the Cold War in the Middle East. It appeared that any enemy of

2781-566: The Tethys Sea from Asia to Africa soon afterwards. There are two simian clades, both parvorders : Catarrhini , which developed in Africa, consisting of Old World monkeys , humans and the other apes, and Platyrrhini, which developed in South America, consisting of New World monkeys . A third clade, which included the eosimiids , developed in Asia, but became extinct millions of years ago. As in

2884-471: The United Arab Republic . During this period he became a member of the Ba'ath Party. Even so, al-Bakr retained his prominence within the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party's Iraqi branch. In the late 1950s, when Saddam became a member of the Ba'ath Party, the two established a bond. Their future close relationship became possible because of Saddam's uncle, Khairallah Talfah . At the very beginning, Saddam

2987-430: The United Arab Republic . The flag of Iraq was modified in preparation for this goal. However, the relationship with Nasser deteriorated and the Iraqi media led a campaign to counteract and reverse the wide Iraqi street support of Nasser with some regular comedy based radio shows famously known as "G'ood's program". The program was suddenly terminated when Nasser died. Bakr's government also strengthened Iraq's ties with

3090-509: The gibbons and orangutan ... the gorilla and chimpanzee ... and humans "; thereby Benton was using apes to mean hominoids. In that case, the group heretofore called apes must now be identified as the non-human apes. As of 2021 , there is no consensus as to whether to accept traditional (that is, common), but paraphyletic, names or to use monophyletic names only; or to use 'new' common names or adaptations of old ones. Both competing approaches can be found in biological sources, often in

3193-501: The strepsirrhines , which include lemurs , galagos , and lorisids ; and the haplorhines , which include tarsiers and simians ( monkeys and apes ). Primates arose 85–55 million years ago first from small terrestrial mammals, which adapted for life in tropical forests : many primate characteristics represent adaptations to the challenging environment among tree tops , including large brain sizes , binocular vision , color vision , vocalizations , shoulder girdles allowing

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3296-856: The 2000s, 36 in the 2010s, and six in the 2020s . Primates have large brains (relative to body size) compared to other mammals, as well as an increased reliance on visual acuity at the expense of the sense of smell , which is the dominant sensory system in most mammals. These features are more developed in monkeys and apes, and noticeably less so in lorises and lemurs. Some primates, including gorillas , humans and baboons , are primarily ground-dwelling rather than arboreal, but all species have adaptations for climbing trees. Arboreal locomotion techniques used include leaping from tree to tree and swinging between branches of trees ( brachiation ); terrestrial locomotion techniques include walking on two hindlimbs ( bipedalism ) and modified walking on four limbs ( quadripedalism ) via knuckle-walking . Primates are among

3399-491: The 24 reconstructive surgeries on his arm, in April, 2007, leaving a wife and one daughter. The North Carolina–based Conservators' Center , an exotic-wildlife conservation and preservation center, offered to donate two mix-breed tiger cubs to the Baghdad Zoo. After considerable legal and bureaucratic hurdles the tigers were delivered to the zoo on August 4, 2008. They were a male, Riley, and a female, Hope. In 2009, three wild boars at

3502-429: The Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party's organisational structure. An-Naif was removed from office on 30 July 1968, and Daud lost his position shortly after. They were both exiled. Their removal was later referred to by the government as the "correctional coup". Al-Bakr consolidated his position in government by appointing himself prime minister and by appointing his close associate, Hardan al-Tikriti , as Minister of Defence in

3605-537: The Arab world and increased Iraqis' standard of living . Land reforms were introduced, and wealth was distributed more equally. A sort of socialist economy was established in the late 1970s under Saddam's direction. Al-Bakr gradually lost power to Saddam in the 1970s, as the latter strengthened his position within the party and the state through security services. In 1979, al-Bakr resigned from all public offices for "health reasons". He died in 1982 of unreported causes. Al-Bakr

3708-762: The Baghdad government was a potential ally of the United States." From 1973 to 1975, the Central Intelligence Agency colluded with Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran to finance and arm Kurdish rebels in the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War in an attempt to weaken al-Bakr. When Iran and Iraq signed the Algiers Agreement in 1975, the support ceased. Al-Bakr died in October 1982 of unreported causes. He

3811-552: The February 1963 Iraqi coup d'état, later called the Ramadan Revolution , and overthrew Qasim's government. In the coup's aftermath, Abdul Salam Arif , an independent, was installed as president, al-Bakr was installed as prime minister and vice president , al-Sadi was chosen as deputy prime minister, and Minister of Interior and Tahir Yahya was chosen as chief of staff. Soon after taking power, two factions were established;

3914-559: The IPC began in December 1971 and ended in March 1972 when the government was given shares in the IPC's equity. However, relations soon soured; the IPC cut its own production at the Kirkuk Field by half. The government saw this as proof of the company's arrogance, and the government also began to see the danger of a private company controlling such a vital source of the government's revenues. The IPC

4017-424: The President, and asked him to surrender. Arif asked for time to consider; he wanted to find out if he had any loyal troops left. He phoned al-Bakr back later that evening and surrendered. Al-Bakr, in return, guaranteed his safety. Later, when the situation was secure, the Ba'ath Party announced it had taken power. Before taking power, the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party tried successfully to recruit military officers for

4120-530: The Regional Command. Saddam, who would prove to be a skilled organiser, revitalised the party. In 1967, al-Bakr called for the establishment of a national unity government between ba'athist and nasserist forces. Al-Bakr's call for a unity government should be taken with a grain of salt; by this time the Military Bureau and the Regional Command were already planning a coup to oust the government. Following

4223-677: The Wild International , and IFAW . The zoo and surrounding park reopened to the public on July 20, 2003, following improvements and renovations by US Army engineers and featured 86 animals, including all 19 surviving lions. Most of these animals were rescued after the invasion from menageries at the Hussein family palaces and private zoos around Baghdad during the ongoing conflict, and included lions , tigers , brown bears , wolves , foxes , jackals , camels , ostriches , badgers , and some primates . Whittington-Jones and Murrani remained at

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4326-478: The absence of zoo staff and officials, the zoo suffered from severe looting . Cages were torn open by thieves who released or took hundreds of animals and birds. Zoo staff said most of the birds and game animals were taken for food as pre-war food shortages in Baghdad were exacerbated by the invasion. Many animals were found roaming the zoo grounds. The remaining animals were found in critical condition, dying of thirst and starving in their cages, including Mandor,

4429-437: The aftermath of the 1973 Arab–Israeli War . The oil revenues strengthened the political elite's patrimonial system; the means of patronage exceeded "anything available" to previous rulers. After the nationalisation of the IPC, Iraq's oil revenue increased from 219 million ID in 1972 1.7 billion ID in 1974 to 3.7 billion ID in 1978 to 8.9 billion ID in 1980. In short, Iraq increased its oil revenue by over 40 times in less than

4532-470: The aftermath of the "corrective coup". Despite al-Bakr's and the Iraqi-led Ba'ath Party's radical rhetoric, their economic policies were neither radical nor very socialist . Al-Bakr's policy can be divided into two parts: the first being a largely populist economic policy, and the second, an economic policy based on cronyism , patronage and nepotism . By the late-1970s, Saddam had de facto control over Iraq's economic development by being chairman of

4635-561: The already bad relations with the Syrian-led Ba'ath Party. Al-Bakr was elected to the National Command as a member at the Ninth National Congress. The coup of 1968, later referred to as the 17 July Revolution , brought al-Bakr and the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party to power in Iraq. Saddam and Salah Omar al-Ali led the coup on the ground, but it was al-Bakr who masterminded it. From his military headquarters, al-Bakr contacted Abdul Rahman Arif ,

4738-802: The author, Colin Groves , increased that number to 376 for his contribution to the third edition of Mammal Species of the World (MSW3). However, publications since the taxonomy in MSW3 was compiled in 2003 have pushed the number to 522 species, or 708 including subspecies. Primate hybrids usually arise in captivity, but there have also been examples in the wild. Hybridization occurs where two species' range overlap to form hybrid zones ; hybrids may be created by humans when animals are placed in zoos or due to environmental pressures such as predation. Intergeneric hybridizations, hybrids of different genera, have also been found in

4841-428: The case of lemurs, the origin of New World monkeys is unclear. Molecular studies of concatenated nuclear sequences have yielded a widely varying estimated date of divergence between platyrrhines and catarrhines, ranging from 33 to 70 mya, while studies based on mitochondrial sequences produce a narrower range of 35 to 43 mya. The anthropoid primates possibly traversed the Atlantic Ocean from Africa to South America during

4944-577: The cause; some, such as Hardan al-Tikriti were already Ba'ath Party members, others, such as Abd ar-Razzaq an-Naif , the deputy head of the military intelligence and Ibrahim Daud, the commander of the Republican Guard , were not members. Immediately after the coup, a power struggle broke out between Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party led by al-Bakr and the military wing, led predominantly by an-Naif and Daud. an-Naif and Daud had been appointed prime minister and Minister of Defence respectively, while al-Bakr

5047-417: The chairman of the Ba'ath Party's Iraqi branch's Military Bureau. Through this office he recruited members to the Ba'athist cause through patronage and cronyism . Prime Minister Abd al-Karim Qasim was overthrown in the Ramadan Revolution (8 February); al-Bakr was appointed prime minister, and later, Vice President of Iraq in a Ba'ath - Nasserist coalition government. The government lasted for less than

5150-419: The clade Euarchontoglires , which is nested within the clade Eutheria of Class Mammalia . Recent molecular genetic research on primates, colugos , and treeshrews has shown that the two species of colugos are more closely related to primates than to treeshrews, even though treeshrews were at one time considered primates. These three orders make up the clade Euarchonta . The combination of this clade with

5253-642: The clade Glires (composed of Rodentia and Lagomorpha ) forms the clade Euarchontoglires. Variously, both Euarchonta and Euarchontoglires are ranked as superorders. Some scientists consider Dermoptera to be a suborder of Primates and use the suborder Euprimates for the "true" primates. The primate lineage is thought to go back at least near the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary or around 63–74 ( mya ). The earliest possible primate/proto-primate may be Purgatorius , which dates back to Early Paleocene of North America ~66mya. The oldest known primates from

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5356-405: The elaboration of the brain, in particular the neocortex (a part of the cerebral cortex ), which is involved with sensory perception , generation of motor commands , spatial reasoning, conscious thought and, in humans, language . While other mammals rely heavily on their sense of smell , the arboreal life of primates has led to a tactile , visually dominant sensory system, a reduction in

5459-419: The eye sockets reinforces weaker bones in the face, which are put under strain during chewing. Strepsirrhines have a postorbital bar , a bone around the eye socket, to protect their eyes; in contrast, the higher primates, haplorhines , have evolved fully enclosed sockets. Primates show an evolutionary trend towards a reduced snout . Technically, Old World monkeys are distinguished from New World monkeys by

5562-577: The first time. The primate skull has a large, domed cranium , which is particularly prominent in anthropoids . The cranium protects the large brain, a distinguishing characteristic of this group. The endocranial volume (the volume within the skull) is three times greater in humans than in the greatest nonhuman primate, reflecting a larger brain size. The mean endocranial volume is 1,201 cubic centimeters in humans, 469 cm in gorillas , 400 cm in chimpanzees and 397 cm in orangutans . The primary evolutionary trend of primates has been

5665-554: The fossil record date to the Late Paleocene of Africa, c.57 mya ( Altiatlasius ) or the Paleocene-Eocene transition in the northern continents, c. 55 mya ( Cantius , Donrussellia , Altanius , Plesiadapis and Teilhardina ). Other studies, including molecular clock studies, have estimated the origin of the primate branch to have been in the mid-Cretaceous period, around 85 mya. By modern cladistic reckoning,

5768-410: The highest legislative and executive organ of party and state, implemented and decided the goals of the plan. It was the political elite, and not the economic elite, which decided the content of an economic plan; before the Ba'ath took power, it was the other way around. The RCC convened every year to set up a budget for each year to come. From the very beginning, al-Bakr's handling of Iraqi agriculture

5871-534: The lions, giving each speech and a personality. In mid-April 2003 South African conservationist Lawrence Anthony from the Thula Thula Game Reserve in Zululand, traveled in a hired car with two assistants from Kuwait to bring relief to the Baghdad Zoo, the first civilians to gain entry to Iraq after the invasion. Working with the Baghdad Zoo directors Dr. Adel Salman Mousa and Dr. Husham Mohamed Hussan and

5974-568: The living Strepsirrhini divides them into two infraorders, Lemuriformes and Lorisiformes. Order Primates was established by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, in the tenth edition of his book Systema Naturae , for the genera Homo (humans), Simia (other apes and monkeys), Lemur (prosimians) and Vespertilio (bats). In the first edition of the same book (1735), he had used the name Anthropomorpha for Homo , Simia and Bradypus (sloths). In 1839, Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville , following Linnaeus and aping his nomenclature, established

6077-737: The living primates: groups that use common (traditional) names are shown on the right. Dermoptera [REDACTED] lemurs (superfamily Lemuroidea) [REDACTED] lorises and allies (superfamily Lorisoidea) [REDACTED] tarsiers (superfamily Tarsioidea) [REDACTED] New World monkeys (parvorder Platyrrhini) [REDACTED] Old World monkeys (superfamily Cercopithecoidea) [REDACTED] gibbons (family Hylobatidae) [REDACTED] orangutans (subfamily Ponginae) [REDACTED] gorillas (tribe Gorillini) [REDACTED] humans (g. Homo ) [REDACTED] chimpanzees, bonobos (g. Pan ) [REDACTED] All groups with scientific names are clades , or monophyletic groups, and

6180-563: The most cognitively advanced animals, with humans (genus Homo ) capable of creating complex languages and sophisticated civilizations , and non-human primates are recorded to use tools . They may communicate using facial and hand gestures, smells and vocalizations. Close interactions between humans and non-human primates (NHPs) can create opportunities for the transmission of zoonotic diseases , especially virus diseases including herpes , measles , ebola , rabies and hepatitis . Thousands of non-human primates are used in research around

6283-405: The most social of all animals, forming pairs or family groups, uni-male harems, and multi-male/multi-female groups. Non-human primates have at least four types of social systems , many defined by the amount of movement by adolescent females between groups. Primates have slower rates of development than other similarly sized mammals, reach maturity later, and have longer lifespans. Primates are also

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6386-505: The most important economic committees. A shift happened under Saddam's command; a socialist economy , according to Con Coughlin, with government ownership of natural resources and the means of production was established. Saddam also started a diversification programme to ensure that Iraq would not be dependent on its oil revenues in the future. Even before the Ba'ath takeover, the Iraqi government set economic growth targets through economic planning . The Revolutionary Command Council (RCC),

6489-567: The nationalisation of the IPC. The country's electricity grid was expanded, and for the first time in Iraq's history, it reached the countryside. Under Bakr conflicts intensified between the government and the Kurds. In early 1974 heavy fighting erupted in northern Iraq between government forces and Kurdish nationalists, who rejected as inadequate a new Kurdish autonomy law based on a 1970 agreement. The Kurds, led by Mustafa Barzani , received arms and support from Iran . Around this same time he founded

6592-475: The number of cusps on their molars : monkeys have four, apes have five - although humans may have four or five. The main hominid molar cusp ( hypocone ) evolved in early primate history, while the cusp of the corresponding primitive lower molar (paraconid) was lost. Prosimians are distinguished by their immobilized upper lips, the moist tip of their noses and forward-facing lower front teeth. Primates generally have five digits on each limb ( pentadactyly ), with

6695-467: The olfactory region of the brain and increasingly complex social behavior. The visual acuity of humans and other hominids is exceptional; they have the most acute vision known among all vertebrates, with the exception of certain species of predatory birds . Primates have forward-facing eyes on the front of the skull; binocular vision allows accurate distance perception, useful for the brachiating ancestors of all great apes. A bony ridge above

6798-491: The order Primates is monophyletic . The suborder Strepsirrhini , the " wet-nosed " primates, is generally thought to have split off from the primitive primate line about 63 mya, although earlier dates are also supported. The seven strepsirrhine families are the five related lemur families and the two remaining families that include the lorisids and the galagos . Older classification schemes wrap Lepilemuridae into Lemuridae and Galagidae into Lorisidae , yielding

6901-413: The orders Secundates (including the suborders Chiroptera , Insectivora and Carnivora ), Tertiates (or Glires ) and Quaternates (including Gravigrada , Pachydermata and Ruminantia ), but these new taxa were not accepted. Before Anderson and Jones introduced the classification of Strepsirrhini and Haplorhini in 1984, (followed by McKenna and Bell's 1997 work Classification of Mammals: Above

7004-591: The park in 2009. Plant species within the zoo and Al Zawra’a Gardens include: Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr Field Marshal Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr (1 July 1914 – 4 October 1982) was an Iraqi politician who served as the fourth president of Iraq , from 17 July 1968 to 15 July 1979. He was a leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party and later the Baghdad-based Ba'ath Party and its regional organisation Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region (the Ba'ath Party's Iraqi branch), which espoused Ba'athism ,

7107-451: The party's left-wing faction; the establishment of collective farms soon halted. Other measures were also introduced which benefited the landholding peasants, but these reforms were never able to counter the decline in agricultural production. Because of this, and the high population growth at the time, Iraq became a net importer of food grains; imports of food grain increased twelvefold from the early 1960s. The introduction of subsidies and

7210-406: The people and the economy; Saddam visited Moscow and negotiated a treaty whereby the Soviet Union would buy some of Iraq's oil, and second, the government did not nationalise the IPC subsidiaries and gave French members "special treatment". These French members bought nearly a quarter of Iraq's oil production. This policy proved highly successful, and there was a massive increase in the price of oil in

7313-408: The political elite could bestow lands to people to increase the support for the government. The government could do this because the government was Iraq's biggest landowner. The co-operatives which had been established provided a means of social control through their regulation. Corruption also proved to be a problem, and the acquisition of land of people close to the political leadership was repeated on

7416-404: The previous land reforms, such as by paying more attention to the relationship to the type of land and irrigation system, and limits on how much land could be owned. Co-operatives were established, and cultivators were obliged to join them if they wanted to benefit from government subsidies and investments. At around this time, the government also established several collective farms to placate

7519-430: The primates, several of these groups are paraphyletic , or rather they do not include all the descendants of a common ancestor. In contrast with Clark's methodology, modern classifications typically identify (or name) only those groupings that are monophyletic ; that is, such a named group includes all the descendants of the group's common ancestor. The cladogram below shows one possible classification sequence of

7622-410: The radicals, mostly military men, who wished for socialist policies , and the moderates, led by Talib Shabib , who wanted to broaden the government's traditional base of support by including non-Ba'athists in government. Al-Bakr was a moderate and spent much of his time trying to seek a compromise between the two factions. To solve the ideological differences between the party factions, al-Bakr called

7725-400: The removal of financial burdens from the peasantry were populist, but were also part of al-Bakr's plan of creating a patrimonial system with himself at the top. This system gave the economic levers of powers to the political elite, which it used to confiscate the properties of its political opponents. The continued sequestration of land increased the strength of the patrimonial system; members of

7828-538: The same work, and sometimes by the same author. Thus, Benton defines apes to include humans, then he repeatedly uses ape-like to mean 'like an ape rather than a human'; and when discussing the reaction of others to a new fossil he writes of "claims that Orrorin ... was an ape rather than a human". A list of the families of the living primates is given below, together with one possible classification into ranks between order and family. Other classifications are also used. For example, an alternative classification of

7931-430: The sequence of scientific classification reflects the evolutionary history of the related lineages. Groups that are traditionally named are shown on the right; they form an "ascending series" (per Clark, see above), and several groups are paraphyletic: Thus, the members of the two sets of groups, and hence names, do not match, which causes problems in relating scientific names to common (usually traditional) names. Consider

8034-406: The species level ), Primates was divided into two superfamilies: Prosimii and Anthropoidea . Prosimii included all of the prosimians : Strepsirrhini plus the tarsiers . Anthropoidea contained all of the simians . Rodentia (rodents) Lagomorpha (rabbits, hares, pikas) Scandentia (treeshrews) Dermoptera (colugos) † Plesiadapiformes crown primates Order Primates is part of

8137-677: The structure of the nose, and from apes by the arrangement of their teeth . In New World monkeys, the nostrils face sideways; in Old World monkeys, they face downwards. Dental pattern in primates vary considerably; although some have lost most of their incisors , all retain at least one lower incisor. In most strepsirrhines, the lower incisors form a toothcomb , which is used in grooming and sometimes foraging. Old World monkeys have eight premolars , compared with 12 in New World monkeys. The Old World species are divided into apes and monkeys depending on

8240-438: The superfamily Hominoidea: In terms of the common names on the right, this group consists of apes and humans and there is no single common name for all the members of the group. One remedy is to create a new common name, in this case hominoids . Another possibility is to expand the use of one of the traditional names. For example, in his 2005 book, the vertebrate palaeontologist Benton wrote, "The apes, Hominoidea, today include

8343-764: The voyage between the continents. Apes and monkeys spread from Africa into Europe and Asia starting in the Miocene . Soon after, the lorises and tarsiers made the same journey. The first hominin fossils were discovered in northern Africa and date back 5–8 mya. Old World monkeys disappeared from Europe about 1.8 mya. Molecular and fossil studies generally show that modern humans originated in Africa 100,000–200,000 years ago. Although primates are well studied in comparison to other animal groups, several new species have been discovered recently , and genetic tests have revealed previously unrecognised species in known populations. Primate Taxonomy listed about 350 species of primates in 2001;

8446-461: The wild. Although they belong to genera that have been distinct for several million years, interbreeding still occurs between the gelada and the hamadryas baboon . On 24 January 2018, scientists in China reported in the journal Cell the creation of two crab-eating macaque clones , named Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua , using the complex DNA transfer method that produced Dolly the sheep , for

8549-454: The world because of their psychological and physiological similarity to humans. About 60% of primate species are threatened with extinction. Common threats include deforestation , forest fragmentation , monkey drives , and primate hunting for use in medicines, as pets, and for food. Large-scale tropical forest clearing for agriculture most threatens primates. The English name primates is derived from Old French or French primat , from

8652-444: The zoo for another year during which time they also found homes in the US for over 30 Baghdad street dogs. The story of the rescue of the Baghdad zoo is recounted in the book Babylon's Ark by authors Lawrence Anthony and Graham Spence. A more recent book for children called Saving the Baghdad Zoo, a True Story of Hope and Heroes , was released on February 9, 2010. On September 18, 2003,

8755-403: The zoo reported that they had about 1070 animals. To keep visitors safe, Zawraa Park, in which the zoo is located, is guarded by the special police units that guard other government facilities. Visitors are frisked and bags and baskets are checked for explosives. Although numbers cannot be verified, the director general of parks and gardens, Salah Abu al-Lail, expected close to 8 million visitors to

8858-592: The zoo were euthanized due to fears that they could get infected with the A/H1N1 flu virus (Swine flu). In 2008, the zoo had grown to about 800 animals, though most of these were birds. The only large animals at the zoo were two female lions left from the 22 original lions before the invasion. On August 4, 2008, the zoo received two tiger cubs (Hope and Riley) from the Mebane, North Carolina–based Conservators' Center, an exotic-wildlife conservation and preservation center. By 2009,

8961-412: Was appointed president and chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council , which had been established the morning after the coup and had become the highest executive and legislative branch of government. While an-Naif and Daud, according to Con Coughlin , should have had the upper hand because of their support within the military, they lost the power struggle to al-Bakr due to his political skills and

9064-474: Was beginning to have an effect. By 1976, 71 percent of state-owned land was given 222,000 new farmers. These farmers were also given up-to-date agricultural equipment. Co-operatives increased from a low 473 in 1968 to 1,852 in 1976. The government, which was still embroiled in a conflict with the Iraqi Petroleum Company (IPC), a private enterprise, on Law 80 of 1961. Iraq was later able to negotiate

9167-729: Was born 1 July 1914 in Tikrit , Ottoman Iraq . He belonged to the Abu Bakr clan of the al-Bejat branch of the Nasir tribe . His father Hassan Bakr Omar passed away in 1938. That same year he entered the Iraqi Military Academy after spending six years as a primary-school teacher . During his early military career, he took part in the Rashid Ali al-Gaylani 's failed revolt against the British in 1941 , and

9270-481: Was cut out of the picture, Iraq's growth would decrease dramatically. On taking power, the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party promised wealth distribution and a more equal society; the government's effort to implement this was hampered by the government's lack of revenue. The government was able to fulfill this promise with the increase in oil revenues in the 1970s. Immediately after taking power, Al-Bakr introduced subsidies on basic commodities, and introduced tax relief and

9373-429: Was either a lemuriform primate (meaning its ancestors split from the lemur line more recently than lemurs and lorises split) or a sister group to all the other strepsirrhines. In 2008, the aye-aye family was confirmed to be most closely related to the other Malagasy lemurs, likely having descended from the same ancestral population that colonized the island. Suborder Haplorhini , the simple-nosed or "dry-nosed" primates,

9476-477: Was expelled from the party in 1964, and al-Bakr succeeded him in office. The remaining members of the Military Bureau were given high offices within the Regional Command. The Ba'ath Party tried unsuccessfully to oust the Arif government in 1964. In the failed coup's aftermath, both al-Bakr and Saddam, were sentenced to jail for two years. In 1966, when Saddam was released from prison, al-Bakr appointed him Deputy Secretary of

9579-404: Was given a state funeral, attended by Michel Aflaq (father of the Ba'athist ideology), who was reported to have led his funeral procession, and King Hussein of Jordan . He was buried in Baghdad's Al Karkh cemetery. Primate sister: Dermoptera Plesiadapiformes ( cladistically including crown primates ) Primates is an order of mammals , which is further divided into

9682-401: Was handled with a populist touch. For instance, in 1969 the government cancelled all compensation for sequestered lands. This decree relieved the beneficiaries of the reform by removing the financial burden. Investments in agriculture increased, and by May 1970 the government had introduced a new land reform. This land reform tried to revitalise Iraqi agriculture by resolving some of the issues of

9785-682: Was imprisoned and expelled from the army. After 15 years of trying to rehabilitate himself al-Bakr was reinstated in the Iraqi Army in 1956, the same year he became a member of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party 's Iraqi branch . In 1957, he was promoted to brigadier . Around this time al-Bakr got into contact with the Free Officers and Civilians Movement . He helped bring down the Hashemite Monarchy and bring Abd al-Karim Qasim to power during

9888-433: Was jailed. The November coup had the effect of strengthening al-Bakr's position within the party as well as that of his close associates. After a couple of years, al-Bakr was elected as the Iraqi branch's Secretary General of the Regional Command. Simultaneously with al-Bakr's rise to power, Saddam's position within the party also strengthened. During this time period, Saddam became one of al-Bakr's closest associates, and he

9991-447: Was nationalised in June 1972. The nationalisation of the IPC proved to be the last important element of foreign control over Iraq's control, and Iraq as a whole. Austerity measures were introduced in anticipation of the loss of revenue. Even so, the nationalisation proved highly popular with the people. In addition, al-Bakr and Saddam had taken steps to make the anticipated loss less severe on

10094-408: Was one of the primatologists who developed the idea of trends in primate evolution and the methodology of arranging the living members of an order into an "ascending series" leading to humans. Commonly used names for groups of primates such as prosimians , monkeys , lesser apes , and great apes reflect this methodology. According to our current understanding of the evolutionary history of

10197-475: Was only a Ba'ath Party member, not a party activist. Because of Qasim's government's repressive policy towards the opposition, Ali Salih al-Sa'di , Secretary (leader) of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party's Iraqi branch, reorganised the party's rank and file, and on 24 December 1962 launched a nationwide protest against Qasim's government. The government's treatment of dissent did not soften and by 1963 several leading Iraqi Ba'athists had travelled to Beirut to plan

10300-583: Was restored after a three-month probationary period. The tiger underwent a necropsy, in which no foreign food was found in its digestive tract, nor was any found around or near the cage. The event inspired a play titled Bengal Tiger at the Baghdad Zoo , which was staged by the Center Theatre Group in Los Angeles in 2009 and 2010. Mitchell received an honorable medical discharge in 2006, but died from complications of diabetes, something he developed during

10403-536: Was the military officer in charge of the zoo and joined the team improving security and stemming the tide of looters. He appointed Anthony as interim zoo administrator, and remained in charge of the zoo for 14 months. He departed with his brigade in March 2004. Iraqi veteran Farah Murrani joined the rescue effort with Brendan Whittington-Jones of the Thula Thula game reserve . At various times they were joined by other conservation organizations including Wildaid , Care for

10506-427: Was trusted with important tasks. Saddam was tasked with establishing the party's security apparatus. Al-Bakr consolidated his hold on the Ba'ath Party's Iraqi branch by appointing supporters to important offices. By appointing fellow Tikritis and by appointing family members to top offices, al-Bakr was ensuing a policy of nepotism . Ali Salih al-Sadi , the Secretary General of the Iraqi branch's Regional Command,

10609-469: Was trying to feed the tiger a chicken kabob, but Mitchell denied this. The initial reports of drunkenness by the soldiers led to public condemnation, but Mitchell said he had one beer. Tests were not performed until the next morning on a half-dozen of the soldiers which found no evidence of alcohol. Court martial proceedings occurred in Washington, D.C., where Mitchell was exonerated of charges. Mitchell's rank

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