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142-684: Similarly to the Armenian delegation at the Congress of Berlin (1878), led by Archbishop Mkrtich Khrimian and sought to advocate for the Armenian cause before the major powers, the Armenian National Delegation aimed to resolve the Armenian question . Consequently, the Armenian National Delegation was involved in the settlement of the Armenian side of the First Balkan War , in the negotiation of

284-696: A "second Piedmont". The recognition of the Bulgarian Exarchate by the Ottomans in 1870 had been intended to separate the Bulgarians, religiously from the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople , and politically from Serbia. Pan-Slavism required the end of Ottoman rule in the Balkans. How and whether that goal would be realised was the major question to be answered at the Congress of Berlin. The Balkans were

426-650: A common project for the representatives of the great powers, which included the appointment of European inspectors and guarantees from European states. At that time, the National Delegation distributed a memorandum that outlined the potential benefits of implementing reforms in Western Armenia. The memorandum, produced by the institutions of the Armenian National Assembly, suggested that such reforms could contribute to regional stability and peace. It

568-440: A compensation for Southern Bessarabia, but even so it did not benefit of substantial gain of territory despite its consistent war effort alongside Russia. Romanians deeply resented the loss of Southern Bessarabia and Russo-Romanian relationship remained very cold for decades. Montenegro obtained Nikšić , along with the primary Albanian regions of Podgorica , Bar and Plav-Gusinje . The Ottoman government, or Porte , agreed to obey

710-481: A disintegrating Ottoman Empire. According to historian Erich Eyck , Bismarck supported Russia's position that "Turkish rule over a Christian community (Bulgaria) was an anachronism which undoubtedly gave rise to insurrection and bloodshed and should therefore be ended". He used the Great Eastern Crisis of 1875 as proof of growing animosity in the region. Bismarck's ultimate goal during the Congress of Berlin

852-671: A display of Pan-Slavic hegemonic ambition in southeastern Europe. In Imperial Russia, Pan-Slavism meant the creation of a unified Slavic state, under Russian direction, and was essentially a byword for Russian conquest of the Balkan peninsula. The realisation of the goal would have given Russia control of the Dardanelles and the Bosphorus , thus economic control of the Black Sea and substantially greater geopolitical power. That desire evolved similarly to

994-643: A final, though ultimately unsuccessful, diplomatic effort to address the Armenian question." A new memorandum was presented, in which the demand was made for creating an "Armenian home in Turkey." This was intended to accommodate the 700,000 Armenian refugees and potentially result in accession of Turkish territory to the Republic of Armenia. However, they encountered opposition from the Allies, who were reluctant to see an expansion of Soviet Armenia's territory. Despite their efforts,

1136-511: A historian had been made as early as 1864 by his work on the Holy Roman Empire . In 1872 Bryce travelled to Iceland to see the land of the Icelandic sagas , as he was a great admirer of Njáls saga . In 1876 he ventured through Russia to Mount Ararat , climbed above the tree line and found a piece of hand-hewn timber, 4 feet (1.2 m) long and 5 inches (13 cm) thick. He agreed that

1278-519: A key text for American writers seeking to popularise a view of American history as distinctively Anglo-Saxon. The American Commonwealth contains Bryce's observation that "the enormous majority" of American women opposed their own right to vote. In February 1907 Bryce was appointed Ambassador to the United States . He held this office until 1913, and was very efficient in strengthening Anglo-American ties and friendship. The appointment, criticised at

1420-631: A large Principality of Bulgaria as an autonomous vassal of the sultan. That expanded Russia's sphere of influence to encompass the entire Balkans, which alarmed other powers in Europe. Britain, which had threatened war with Russia if it occupied Constantinople , and France did not want another power meddling in either the Mediterranean or the Middle East, where both powers were prepared to make large colonial gains . Austria-Hungary desired Habsburg control over

1562-452: A major stage for competition between the European great powers in the second half of the 19th century. Britain and Russia had interests in the fate of the Balkans. Russia was interested in the region, both ideologically, as a pan-Slavist unifier, and practically, to secure greater control of the Mediterranean. Britain was interested in preventing Russia from accomplishing its goals. Furthermore,

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1704-401: A minor stumble on the road to Russian hegemony in the Balkans, it actually gave Bosnia-Herzegovina and Serbia over to Austria-Hungary's sphere of influence and essentially removed all Russian influence from the area. The Serbs were upset with "Russia... consenting to the cession of Bosnia to Austria": Ristić who was Serbia's first plenipotentiary at Berlin tells how he asked Jomini, one of

1846-610: A notable degree of ambition, as evidenced by the map included herewith. According to him, the Republic of Armenia was only an "Araratian Armenia" (i.e., Eastern Armenia , at the foot of Mount Ararat ) destined to be integrated into a much larger territory extending from the Caucasus in the east to Cilicia in the west. This vision caused concern among French diplomats, as it challenged the Sykes-Picot agreements . Conversely, while Avetis Aharonian had been tasked by his government to claim only

1988-759: A prominent figure in French political circles, appeared to be part of this strategic maneuver. In the summer of 1913, the Ottoman government published a counter-proposal, suggesting the establishment of general inspectors in Eastern Anatolia to address problems. However, German ambassador Hans von Wangenheim effectively blocked negotiations between European diplomats. Consequently, Boghos Nubar proceeded to Berlin in early August, where he convened with German Foreign Minister Gottlieb von Jagow to persuade him to terminate his obstructionist policy. This "decisive" meeting facilitated

2130-416: A special administration, and the region of Macedonia was returned to the Ottomans on condition of reforms to its governance. The results were initially hailed as a success for peace in the region, but most of the participants were not satisfied with the outcome. The Ottomans were humiliated and had their weakness confirmed as the " sick man of Europe ". Russia resented the lack of rewards, despite having won

2272-472: A stronger Austria-Hungarian Empire, which threatened basically no one, to a powerful Russia, which had been locked in competition with Britain in the so-called Great Game for most of the century. Gorchakov said, "I consider the Berlin Treaty the darkest page in my life". Many Russians were furious over the European repudiation of their political gains, and though there was some thought that it represented only

2414-462: A territorial extension of Armenia in the Caucasus, he eventually aligned himself with Boghos Nubar's more ambitious claims, which included the annexation of the six vilayets and the establishment of a corridor to the Black Sea via Trebizond . Consequently, the two delegations convened on February 12, 1919, to establish a Delegation of Integral Armenia . However, they maintained their autonomy within

2556-466: Is an increasing class that has studied at the best universities. It appears that equality has diminished [in this regard] and will diminish further." The work was heavily used in academia, partly as a result of Bryce's close friendships with men such as James B. Angell , President of the University of Michigan and successively Charles W. Eliot and Abbott Lawrence Lowell at Harvard. The work also became

2698-769: The Bodleian Library . There is a large monument to Viscount Bryce in the southwest section of the Grange Cemetery in Edinburgh , facing north at the west end of the central east–west avenue. His ashes are buried there. There is a bust of Viscount Bryce in Trinity Church on Broadway, near Wall Street in New York. A similar bust is in the U.S. Capitol Building and there is a commemorative Bryce Park in Washington DC. In 1965

2840-592: The Conference on the Reform of the Second Chamber in 1917–1918. Bryce married Elizabeth Marion, daughter of Thomas Ashton and sister of Thomas Ashton, 1st Baron Ashton of Hyde , in 1889. Lord and Lady Bryce had no children. Bryce died while on holiday on 22 January 1922, aged 83, of heart failure in his sleep at The Victoria Hotel, Sidmouth , Devon , on the last of his lifelong travels. The viscountcy died with him. He

2982-473: The Congress of Vienna , they were to be sadly disappointed. Bismarck, unhappy to be conducting the Congress in the heat of the summer, had a short temper and a low tolerance for malarky. Thus, any grandstanding was cut short by the testy German chancellor. The ambassadors from the small Balkan territories whose fate was being decided were barely even allowed to attend the diplomatic meetings, which were between mainly

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3124-667: The Dutchman Louis Constant Westenenk and the Norwegian Nicolai Hoff were appointed to the position. However, this legislation was subsequently suspended following the Ottoman Empire's entry into World War I . As the Armenian population of the Ottoman Empire was subjected to mass killings during the Armenian Genocide , the Armenian National Delegation, and thus primarily Boghos Nubar Pasha, negotiated

3266-567: The First and Second Balkan Wars (1912 and 1913 respectively). Continuing nationalism in the Balkans was one of the causes of the First World War in 1914. In the decades leading up to the congress, Russia and the Balkans had been gripped by Pan-Slavism , a movement to unite all the Balkan Slavs under one rule. The Treaty of San Stefano , which had created a " Greater Bulgaria ", was opposed as

3408-662: The First World War . In the 'Salisbury Circular' of 1 April 1878, the British Foreign Secretary, the Marquess of Salisbury , clarified the objections of him and the government to the Treaty of San Stefano because of the favorable position in which it left Russia. In 1954, the British historian A. J. P. Taylor wrote: "If the treaty of San Stefano had been maintained, both the Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary might have survived to

3550-689: The Franco-Armenian Agreement of 1916  [ fr ] . One of the key figures in the formation of the Armenian Legion (initially known as the Legion of the Orient) was Boghos Nubar, who sought to secure compensation for the Armenians after the war. This included the promise of an autonomous Armenian Cilicia under French protection. Nubar, who served as a crucial link between the French government and

3692-596: The Ottoman Empire . Delegates from Greece , Romania, Serbia and Montenegro attended the sessions that concerned their states, but they were not members. The Congress was solicited by Russia's rivals, particularly Austria-Hungary and Britain, and was hosted in 1878 by Bismarck. It proposed and ratified the Treaty of Berlin . The meetings were held at Bismarck's Reich Chancellery , the former Radziwill Palace, from 13 June to 13 July 1878. The congress revised or eliminated 18 of

3834-548: The Pan-Germanism and Pan-Italianism , which had resulted in two unifications, took different forms in the various Slavic nations. Balkan Slavs felt they needed both an equivalent to Piedmont to serve as a base and an outside sponsor corresponding to France. The state that was meant to serve as the locus for unification of the Balkans under a "Slavic" rule was not always clear, as initiative wafted between Serbia and Bulgaria. Italian rhetoric by contrast cast Romania as Latin ,

3976-514: The Russian Empire 's diplomatic efforts led to a renewed focus on the Armenian question . Subsequently, Catholicos Georges V Soureniants was empowered to petition Emperor Nicholas II to protect Ottoman Armenians. As historian Anahide Ter Minassian observes, this development fostered a sense of optimism among Armenian organizations, which initiated the collection, publication, and dissemination of statistical and documentary evidence to bolster

4118-464: The Treaty of Lausanne supersedes the Treaty of Sèvres and effectively extinguishes the aspirations for autonomy of Western Armenia or its incorporation into Eastern Armenia within a Greater Armenia. In August 1923, the Armenian National Delegation pledged to support the Armenian refugees by advocating for their resettlement in Soviet Armenia . In consequence, the delegation put forth a proposal to

4260-454: The Unifications of Italy and of Germany had stymied the ability of a third European power, Austria-Hungary, to expand its domain to the southwest any further. Germany, as the most powerful continental nation since the 1871 Franco-Prussian War had little direct interest in the settlement and so was the only power that could mediate the Balkan question credibly. Russia and Austria-Hungary,

4402-508: The University of Glasgow , the University of Heidelberg and Trinity College, Oxford . He was elected a fellow of Oriel College, Oxford , in 1862 and was called to the Bar , Lincoln's Inn , in 1867. His days as a student at the University of Heidelberg gave him a long-life admiration of German historical and legal scholarship. He became a believer in "Teutonic freedom", an ill-defined concept that

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4544-526: The 20th century. Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy and the occupation and administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina also obtained the right to station garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar , which remained under Ottoman administration. The Sanjak preserved the separation of Serbia and Montenegro, and the Austro-Hungarian garrisons there would open the way for a dash to Salonika that "would bring

4686-599: The 29 articles in the Treaty of San Stefano . Furthermore, by using as a foundation the Treaties of Paris (1856) and of Washington (1871), the treaty rearranged the East. The principal mission of the participants at the Congress was to deal a fatal blow to the burgeoning movement of pan-Slavism . The movement caused serious concern in Berlin and even more so in Vienna, which was afraid that

4828-483: The Armenian government, such as Rouben Ter Minassian or Hovhannes Katchaznouni , who feared that it would serve to further fuel Turkish nationalism. The Armenian National Congress convened in Paris between February 24 and April 22, 1919. On April 2, 1919, a new Armenian National Delegation was elected, with Boghos Nubar Pasha continuing to chair the body. The "neutral" tendency was represented by Abraham Ter Hagopian, while

4970-463: The Armenian newspaper Azadamard , the Ottoman government indicated its willingness to implement reforms and asserted that it had reached an agreement with Boghos Nubar Pasha on the majority of points, except for the issue of guarantees, following a meeting in Paris. Nevertheless, this official stance was largely driven by the Ottoman government's necessity to obtain a French financial loan to resume hostilities against Bulgaria . The visit of Boghos Nubar,

5112-590: The Armenian recruitment committee for legionnaires, saw the Legion of the Orient as a foundation for the future Armenian army. Following the declaration of independence of the Democratic Republic of Armenia (May 1918) and the conclusion of hostilities, the Armenian National Delegation proclaimed the independence of Integral Armenia and formally notified the Allied powers in a note dated November 30, 1918. In this document,

5254-709: The Armenian state adopted an Act of Unified Armenia , which notably promised the participation of Ottoman Armenians in the government of Armenia. The Act was promulgated on the anniversary date of the founding of the Armenian Republic, and both are celebrated by Armenians in Armenia and the diaspora . The particularly splendid celebration also took place in Paris, attended by both delegations and European Armenian and pro-Armenian intellectuals. As Anahide Ter Minassian observes, A. Aharonian lauded Armenian unity in lyrical terms, whereas Boghos Nubar Pasha, in more measured terms, evoked

5396-473: The Armenians. Some participants were present, such as Avetis Aharonian, Alexander Khatissian, Lévon Pachalian , and Gabriel Noradounghian. As Anahide Ter Minassian notes, the latter could observe the burial of the Armenian question "behind the scenes." She adds, "They persistently engage with the Conference for several months, repeatedly seeking engagement with the Allies to reinforce their commitments and pursue

5538-477: The Austrian proposals relative to Bosnia-Herzegovina about to come before the congress while Austria would support British demands". The Congress of Berlin is frequently viewed as the culmination of the battle between Alexander Gorchakov of Russia and Otto von Bismarck of Germany. Both were able to persuade other European leaders that a free and independent Bulgaria would greatly improve the security risks posed by

5680-527: The Austro-Hungarian Empire in later decades. The League of the Three Emperors , established in 1873, was destroyed since Russia saw lack of German support on the issue of Bulgaria's full independence as a breach of loyalty and the alliance. The border between Greece and Turkey was not resolved. In 1881, after protracted negotiations, a compromise border was accepted after a naval demonstration of

5822-639: The Balkan states and the Ottoman Empire following the Ottoman defeat, resulting in the Treaty of London in May 1913. On several occasions, he visited Edward Grey , head of the Foreign Office. In this context, which also witnessed the ascendance of the Young Turks to power, Boghos Nubar Pasha, a figure more conservative than the Armenian Revolutionary Federation (ARF), called for reforms within

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5964-516: The Balkans, and Germany wanted to prevent its ally from going to war. German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck thus called the Congress of Berlin to discuss the partition of the Ottoman Balkans among the European powers and to preserve the League of Three Emperors in the face of the spread of European liberalism . The Congress was attended by Britain, Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy , Russia and

6106-514: The Balkans, reduce the role of the defeated Ottoman Empire in the region, and balance the distinct interests of Britain, Russia and Austria-Hungary. He also wanted to avoid domination of the Balkans by Russia or the formation of a Greater Bulgaria , and to keep Constantinople in Ottoman hands. Finally Bismarck wanted to encourage the development of civil rights for Jews in the region. The affected territories were instead granted varying degrees of independence. Romania became fully independent, though

6248-541: The Balkans. Although Austria-Hungary gained substantial territory, this angered the South Slavs and led to decades of tensions in Bosnia and Herzegovina, culminating in the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand . In the long term, the settlement led to rising tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary, and disputes over nationalism in the Balkans. Grievances with the results of the congress festered until they exploded in

6390-464: The British, who considered the entire Mediterranean to be a British sphere of influence and saw any Russian attempt to gain access there as a grave threat to British power. On 4 June, before the Congress opened on 13 June, British Prime Minister Lord Beaconsfield had already concluded the Cyprus Convention , a secret alliance with the Ottomans against Russia in which Britain was allowed to occupy

6532-467: The Canadians that probably three-fourths of the business of the British embassy at Washington was Canadian, and of the eleven or twelve treaties he had signed nine had been treaties relating to the affairs of Canada. "By those nine treaties," he said, "we have, I hope, dealt with all the questions that are likely to arise between the United States and Canada questions relating to boundary; questions relating to

6674-601: The Conference and particularly in the months that followed, with the objective of "attempting to influence the stances of various parties, relying on pro-Armenian national committees", such as the British Armenia Committee or the Armenian Committee of Berlin. He was thus supported by some pro-Armenian British Members of Parliament in the House of Commons , yet he encountered difficulty in persuading British diplomats of

6816-486: The Congress [REDACTED] James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce , OM , GCVO , PC , FRS , FBA (10 May 1838 – 22 January 1922), was a British academic, jurist, historian, and Liberal politician. According to Keoth Robbins, he was a widely traveled authority on law, government, and history whose expertise led to high political offices culminating with his successful role as ambassador to

6958-464: The Congress also included two Ramgavars , namely Archag Tchobanian and Vahan Tekeyan , as well as two Dashnaks (FRA), namely Armen Garo and Hagop Nevrouz. The Congress charged the Delegation to establish a unified Armenia. As a symbol of the union between the two delegations, their two leaders co-signed an article titled "The Armenian Cause" in the journal La Paix des peuples on March 10, 1919. In

7100-426: The Congress of Berlin was considered to be a dismal failure. After finally defeating the Turks despite many past inconclusive Russo-Turkish wars, many Russians had expected "something colossal", a redrawing of the Balkan borders in support of Russian territorial ambitions. Instead, the victory resulted in an Austro-Hungarian gain on the Balkan front that was brought about by the rest of the European powers' preference for

7242-471: The Delegation of the Republic of Armenia, both of which have demanded that the Treaty of Sèvres be respected in its entirety. The former eventually acquiesces, while the latter persists in its rejection of this revision. In June 1921, Boghos Nubar Pasha, "demoralized and ill", resigns from his position at the head of the Armenian National Delegation; he is succeeded by Gabriel Noradoungian . The Lausanne Conference of 1922-1923 did not extend an invitation to

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7384-421: The Delegation's correspondence from 1913 to 1921 and an extensive press review compiled by Aram Andonian , remains at the Nubar Library. Congress of Berlin The Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878) was a diplomatic conference to reorganise the states in the Balkan Peninsula after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, which had been won by Russia against the Ottoman Empire . Represented at

7526-436: The French mandate, a venture that only endured from 1920 to 1921. It ultimately succumbed to the French defeat at the hands of the Kemalist forces during the Cilicia campaign . The London Conference is convened in part to address the Turkish issue. Turkey is represented by two delegations, one Ottoman and one Kemalist , in a position of strength as a result of its successes against the Armenians and its favorable relations with

7668-411: The High Commissioner for Refugees of the League of Nations , which entailed the resettlement of 50,000 refugees in the Sardarabad plain, situated close to Yerevan . To foster closer ties with the Armenian diaspora, the Armenian Soviet authorities maintained close relations with organizations such as the Armenian National Delegation and the Armenian General Benevolent Union . This desire was realized with

7810-683: The Opposition proposed that the Foreign Minister should be impeached for violating the constitution by his policy during the Near East Crisis and by the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina. The motion was lost by 179 to 95. By the Opposition rank and file the gravest accusations were raised against Andrassy. United Kingdom [REDACTED] Russia [REDACTED] Germany [REDACTED] Austria-Hungary [REDACTED] France [REDACTED] Kingdom of Italy [REDACTED] Ottoman Empire [REDACTED] Romania [REDACTED] Greece [REDACTED] Serbia [REDACTED] Montenegro [REDACTED] Albanians in

7952-439: The Ottoman Empire under the stipulations outlined in the Treaty of Berlin (particularly Article 61). However, he did not advocate for Armenian autonomy or independence from the Empire. He maintained contact with the ARF, notably with Vahan Papazian , an influential figure in the Armenian institutions of Constantinople, who visited him in Paris in February 1913 to clarify the key points of the reforms to be implemented. They agreed on

8094-409: The Ottoman Empire, Boghos Nubar Pasha put forth a proposal linking the provision of European material aid to the implementation of reforms. However, this proposal was not given due consideration by the major powers. At that time, only Russia demonstrated a genuine interest in the Armenian question. In late June or early July, Boghos Nubar met with Mehmet Cavit Bey . In a subsequent statement published in

8236-422: The Ottoman capital, utilizing the Armenian memorandum as the foundation for their discussions. The Armenian National Delegation, continuing its diplomatic work in Europe, underscored to diplomats that the Armenians were not pursuing autonomy but rather the establishment of an administration that would guarantee their security. In his discussions with British financial circles, Boghos Nubar sought to persuade them that

8378-409: The Ottoman government, Mustafa Kemal rejected the Treaty of Sèvres, and the Kemalist forces emerged victorious against the Armenian forces during the Turkish–Armenian War (September to December 1920). The Armenian Republic ceased to exist with the Sovietization of Armenia on November 29, 1920. In response, Boghos Nubar Pasha sought to establish an Armenian national home in the Cilicia region through

8520-419: The Political Council of the Armenian National Assembly was responsible for managing the issue from the Ottoman and Russian sides, the National Delegation was tasked with external diplomatic action, particularly about the major European powers. Upon his arrival in Paris, Boghos Nubar promptly sought an audience with the Ottoman ambassador to propose a consensus among the Russians, English, Germans, and French on

8662-465: The Russian delegates, what consolation remained to the Serbs. Jomini replied that it would have to be the thought that 'the situation was only temporary because within fifteen years at the latest we shall be forced to fight Austria.' 'Vain consolation!' comments Ristić. Italy was dissatisfied with the results of the Congress, and the tensions between Greece and the Ottoman Empire were left unresolved. Bosnia-Herzegovina would also prove to be problematic for

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8804-480: The Russo-Turkish War of 1812 but lost to Moldavia/Romania in 1856 after the Crimean War . The Bulgarian state that Russia had created by the Treaty of San Stefano was divided into the Principality of Bulgaria and Eastern Rumelia , both of which were given nominal autonomy, under the control of the Ottoman Empire. Bulgaria was promised autonomy, and guarantees were made against Turkish interference, but they were largely ignored. Romania received Northern Dobruja as

8946-405: The Soviets. Despite the concessions made by the Allies, British Prime Minister Lloyd George demanded that the Turks recognize the "rights of Ottoman Armenian subjects to possess a National Home on the eastern borders of Anatolia." This notion of "home" represents a clear deviation from the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. This deviation has been denounced by both the Armenian National Delegation and

9088-497: The Trade Disputes Act and the redistributive "People's Budget," which he regarded as making unwarranted concessions to socialism. Bryce had become well known in America for his book The American Commonwealth (1888), a thorough examination of the institutions of the United States from the point of view of a historian and constitutional lawyer. Bryce painstakingly reproduced the travels of Alexis de Tocqueville , who wrote Democracy in America (1835–1840). Tocqueville had emphasised

9230-422: The United Kingdom sought to moderate Russian ambitions and denounced Germany's position, accusing it of interference in Ottoman Empire affairs. For Russia, the absence of reforms in the Armenian provinces of the Ottoman Empire would inevitably result in a further intensification of the prevailing disorder. It was therefore argued that the only viable solution to the problem would be a Russian military intervention. In

9372-404: The United States, 1907–13. In that era, he represented the interests of the vast British Empire to the United States. His intellectual influence was greatest in The American Commonwealth (1888), an in-depth study of American politics that shaped the understanding of America in Britain and in the United States as well. Bryce was born in Arthur Street in Belfast , County Antrim , in Ulster ,

9514-410: The administration of Bosnia-Herzegovina and secured the control of a corridor leading to the Aegean Sea . Both of these territories had to remain de jure part of the Ottoman Empire, but in 1914 the British Empire formally annexed Cyprus, whereas Bosnia-Herzegovina was annexed by Austria in 1908. Thus, the Berlin Congress sowed the seeds of further conflicts, including the Balkan Wars and (ultimately)

9656-428: The alliances in Europe before the First World War were thus noticeable. One reason that Bismarck was able to mediate the various tensions at the Congress of Berlin was his diplomatic persona. He sought peace and stability when international affairs did not pertain to Germany directly. Since he viewed the current situation in Europe as favourable for Germany, any conflicts between the major European powers that threatened

9798-401: The article, they explained that it would be a denial of justice if "The former territories of Turkish Armenia must be kept intact, along with those of Russian Armenia, regardless of any pretext or form of separation that may arise. Such a move would be tantamount to dismembering a living body and would inevitably lead to a perpetuation of persecution, oppression, and bloodshed." On May 28, 1919,

9940-518: The author of The American Commonwealth , made himself thoroughly at home in the country; and, after the fashion of American ministers or ambassadors in England, he took up with eagerness and success the role of public orator on matters outside party politics, so far as his diplomatic duties permitted. He made many personal friends among American politicians, such as President Theodore Roosevelt. The German ambassador in Washington, Graf Heinrich von Bernstorff , later stated how relieved he felt that Bryce

10082-638: The birth of the "new and indivisible Armenian nation." Moreover, the two delegations collaborated in organizing a Franco-Armenian banquet on July 17, 1919, intending to commemorate the Allied victory in the war. In attendance were Deputies Denys Cochin and Charles Guernier , as well as Paul Fleurot  [ fr ] , Gustave Schlumberger , Auguste Gauvain  [ fr ] , Alfred Vallette , Camille Mauclair , Gabriel Mourey , Henri Coulon  [ fr ] , Ludovic de Contenson , Gaston Deschamps , Abbot Delarue, Frédéric Macler , Paul Desfeuilles, Émile Pignot, and others. At this assembly, each of

10224-610: The case for Russian diplomatic action. In November 1912, Georges V Soureniants concluded a diplomatic agreement, known as a "kontak", which established the Armenian National Delegation in Paris . The Catholicos enjoyed the support of the Viceroy of the Caucasus , Illarion Vorontsov-Dashkov , and the National Bureau, which represented the Armenians of Russia and was established in 1912. He appointed businessman and diplomat Boghos Nubar Pacha as

10366-597: The classic 19th century Liberalism of John Bright and William Gladstone, of free trade, free speech and press, personal liberty, and responsible leadership. This notably genial gregarious man had his hates, chief among them illiberal regimes: the Turkish oppressors of Bulgars and Armenians, and, later the Kaiser's Reich in World War I. Bryce had a distrust of current democratic practices seen as late as his Modern Democracy (1921), which

10508-516: The conference. On December 25, 1913, the finalized reform project was presented to the Ottoman authorities by Russian and German diplomats. The reform project in Ottoman Armenia was finally signed on February 8, 1914. It still included the clause establishing Western oversight, a clause previously rejected by the Ottomans. The responsibility of selecting the two general inspectors was assigned to Boghos Nubar Pasha and his Delegation. In April 1914,

10650-572: The constituency of Tower Hamlets in London. In 1885 he was returned for South Aberdeen and he was re-elected there on succeeding occasions. He remained a Member of Parliament until 1907. Bryce's intellectual distinction and political industry made him a valuable member of the Liberal Party. As early as the late 1860s he served as Chairman of the Royal Commission on Secondary Education. In 1885 he

10792-617: The country, and his experiences while travelling with his party. In 1900 he introduced a Private Member's Bill to secure access for the public to the mountains and moorlands in Scotland. The "still radical" Bryce was made Chief Secretary for Ireland in Prime Minister Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman 's cabinet in 1905 and remained in office throughout 1906. Bryce was critical of many of the social reforms proposed by this Liberal Government, including old-age pensions,

10934-538: The degree of Doctor of Laws from Dartmouth College , and in October 1902 he received an honorary degree ( LLD ) from the University of St Andrews , and in 1914 he received an honorary degree from Oxford. He became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1894. In earlier life, he was a notable mountain climber, ascending Mount Ararat in 1876, and published a volume on Transcaucasia and Ararat in 1877; in 1899 to 1901, he

11076-567: The delegation declared that "the independence of Integral Armenia shall be under the aegis of the Allied Powers and the United States, or the League of Nations as soon as it is formed." In the aftermath of the war, the Armenian National Delegation participated in the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 . Among the delegation's agents was the author Zabel Yesayan , who was appointed inspector by

11218-463: The delegation for the duration of the conference. As a refugee in the Caucasus between 1916 and 1918, she engaged in the significant task of collecting testimonies from refugees of the Armenian Genocide. She proceeded from Tehran to Paris in late 1918, where she delivered to the Armenian delegates a substantial body of documentation on the crimes committed by the Ottoman Empire. The Delegation

11360-496: The disposal and the use of boundary waters; questions relating to the fisheries in the international waters where the two countries adjoin one another; questions relating to the interests which we have in sealing in the Behring Sea, and many other matters." He could boast that he left the relations between the United States and Canada on an excellent footing. In 1914, after his retirement as Ambassador and his return to Britain, Bryce

11502-491: The egalitarianism of early-19th-century America, but Bryce was dismayed to find vast inequality: "Sixty years ago, there were no great fortunes in America, few large fortunes, no poverty. Now there is some poverty ... and a greater number of gigantic fortunes than in any other country of the world" and "As respects education ... the profusion of…elementary schools tends to raise the mass to a higher point than in Europe ... [but] there

11644-520: The end of 1920 and then the victory of the Kemalists during the Turkish War of Independence (1919–1922), the Treaty of Sèvres was revised and replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), which dashed Armenian hopes. The Armenian National Delegation then assumed responsibility for the care of Armenian refugees before disappearing in early 1925. During the First Balkan War , which commenced in October 1912,

11786-474: The end, the powers concurred that reforms were necessary, provided that their implementation was left to the discretion of the Ottoman government. The Russians denounced this condition, which they believed would not allow for the concrete implementation of any reforms. Boghos Nubar, however, insisted on the essential nature of control of the reforms by the great powers. The United Kingdom and Germany refused this control to be Russian, which did not particularly bother

11928-627: The establishment of the Relief Committee for Armenia  [ fr ] in 1921. Discussions with the Delegation had commenced as early as 1922. The delegation's activities ceased in 1925. A letter dated January 31, 1925, informed the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of its intention to conclude its mission. However, it proposed the formation of a Central Committee for Armenian Refugees in Paris, 56 rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré, to assume responsibility for continuing its work. The organization that succeeded

12070-674: The evidence fit the Armenian Church 's belief that it was from Noah's Ark and offered no other explanations. In 1872 Bryce, a proponent of higher education, particularly for women, joined the Central Committee of the National Union for Improving the Education of Women of All Classes (NUIEWC). In 1880 Bryce, an ardent Liberal in politics, was elected to the House of Commons as member for

12212-401: The following individuals delivered a speech: Archag Tchobanian, Boghos Nubar Pasha, and Avetis Aharonian. Despite their differences of opinion, the Armenian National Delegation and the Delegation of the Armenian Republic ultimately pursue the same goals: international recognition of the Armenian Republic, the acquisition of a mandate over Armenia, and the repatriation of refugees. However, after

12354-497: The great powers had resulted in the cession of Thessaly and the Arta Prefecture to Greece. Two states that didn't participate in the war, Great Britain and Austria-Hungary, achieved great benefits from this Congress. The former was granted administrative control of Cyprus in exchange for guarantees that Britain would use the island as a base to protect the Ottoman Empire against possible Russian aggression. The latter obtained

12496-662: The head of the Armenian National Delegation, who also feared Russian control over Anatolian Armenia. The European powers concluded the Conference without further ado and charged their respective ambassadors in Constantinople, at Russia's behest, with the responsibility of continuing the negotiations. In mid-1913, Nicholas II amassed troops in the Caucasus , at the border with the Ottoman Empire, and sought to intensify pressure by ordering his agents to incite Kurdish provocations in Western Armenia. As historian Raymond Kévorkian observes, Boghos Nubar Pasha persisted in traveling during

12638-574: The head of the delegation. Among its members were other prominent figures of the Parisian Armenian community, such as the writer Archag Chobanian and the former Ottoman minister Gabriel Noradounghian , who became a member after his exile to France in November 1918. Aram Andonian served as its secretary between 1919 and 1923. This delegation, established during the First Balkan War to represent

12780-499: The interests of Ottoman Armenians, was dispatched to Paris to advocate for the Armenian cause before the six powers that had signed the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. This was in accordance with the Armenian delegation's efforts at the Berlin Congress , led by Archbishop Mkrtich Khrimian . In early December 1912, Boghos Nubar Pasha arrived in Paris. This was at a time when the Ottoman Empire had requested an armistice (December 3). While

12922-571: The invitation, citing the responsibility of the Political Council, appointed by the Armenian National Assembly, to conduct negotiations within the Ottoman Empire. In late September 1913, European diplomats reached an agreement whereby the eastern provinces of the Ottoman Empire would be grouped into two territorial entities, each administered by an inspector. On October 17, 1913, Boghos Nubar Pasha conveyed to Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Sazonov his satisfaction with this compromise. By this date,

13064-453: The issue was essentially resolved; the remaining objective was to persuade the Ottoman authorities to endorse the agreement. An international conference on Armenian reforms was convened in Paris on November 30 and October 1, 1913, by the Armenian National Delegation to finalize the project's remaining points. Representatives of Armenian committees and pro-Armenian organizations, as well as German, Russian, British, and Italian diplomats, attended

13206-584: The lower classes, and was actively expressed through the Slav committees". Eventually, Russia sought and obtained Austria-Hungary's pledge of benevolent neutrality in the coming war, in return for ceding Bosnia Herzegovina to Austria-Hungary in the Budapest Convention of 1877 . act: The Berlin Congress in effect postponed resolution of the Bosnian question and left Bosnia and Herzegovina under Habsburg control. This

13348-519: The meeting were Europe's then six great powers : Russia , Great Britain , France , Austria-Hungary , Italy , and Germany ; the Ottomans ; and four Balkan states: Greece , Serbia , Romania and Montenegro . The congress concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Berlin , replacing the preliminary Treaty of San Stefano which had been signed three months earlier. The leader of the congress, German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck , sought to stabilise

13490-670: The merits of the reform project. He was disconcerted by the passive stance of the United Kingdom, which starkly contrasted with that of the Ottoman officials, particularly Grand Vizier Mahmoud Shevket Pacha , who expressed support for the proposed reforms. Boghos Nubar also engaged with Italian political figures, such as Deputy Galli, who made a public statement in June 1913 in the Italian Parliament in favor of reforms in Ottoman Armenia. In June 1913, European diplomats resumed negotiations in

13632-419: The most important strategic section of the Balkans, was too multinational to be part of Bulgaria and permitted it to remain under the Ottoman Empire. Eastern Rumelia, which had its own large Turkish and Greek minorities, became an autonomous province under a Christian ruler, with its capital at Philippopolis . The remaining portions of the original "Greater Bulgaria" became the new state of Bulgaria. In Russia,

13774-463: The negotiating table. In the latter half of February and the following weeks, the Armenian delegations continued to provide a plethora of documents to the diplomats present, which were, for the majority, well received by the Americans but received a more reserved reception from the French. This conception of Armenia was a source of great enthusiasm for the Armenians themselves, except for a few members of

13916-570: The newly formed entity. Together, they drafted the Memorandum on the Armenian Question , which was to be presented at the peace conference. In it, the Armenians requested a large territory and the payment of reparations by Turkey. The Council of Ten agreed to listen to the Delegation, which presented the Memorandum on February 26, 1919. However, despite this, the Armenians could not secure a seat at

14058-687: The nominal rule of the Ottoman Empire. That sparked the Great Game , the massive British fear of the growing Russian influence in the Middle East . The new principality, including a very large portion of Macedonia as well as access to the Aegean Sea , could easily threaten the Dardanelles Straits , which separate the Black Sea from the Mediterranean Sea . The arrangement was not acceptable to

14200-522: The official list of nationalities. This was indicative of France's acknowledgment of the dissolution of the Armenian Republic. The archives of the Armenian National Delegation are currently housed at the Nubar Library  [ fr ] . In the 1980s, some of these materials were transferred to Yerevan and later relocated to the National Archives of Armenia. The remaining collection, comprising

14342-615: The peace conference in August 1919, a peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire was not signed, and the various issues concerning the Armenians remained unresolved. From late 1919 until the spring of 1920, Boghos Nubar Pasha and his Delegation undertook a mission to negotiate with the First Republic of Armenia and its Prime Minister Alexander Khatissian the formation of a unity government with the representatives of Ottoman Armenians. However, these negotiations were unsuccessful. The Treaty of Sèvres

14484-406: The present day. The British, except for Beaconsfield in his wilder moments, had expected less and were therefore less disappointed. Salisbury wrote at the end of 1878: We shall set up a rickety sort of Turkish rule again south of the Balkans. But it is a mere respite. There is no vitality left in them." Though the Congress of Berlin constituted a harsh blow to Pan-Slavism , it, by no means, solved

14626-451: The proposed reforms would guarantee the security of their loans in the Ottoman Empire. Similarly, in his conversations with the German government, he endeavored, in collaboration with the Armenian Committee of Berlin, to illustrate that implementing reforms would be the most effective means of preventing a Russian invasion of the Ottoman Empire. In the context of the economic crisis that impacted

14768-453: The question of the area. The Slavs in the Balkans were still mostly under non-Slavic rule, split between the rule of Austria-Hungary and the ailing Ottoman Empire. The Slavic states of the Balkans had learned that banding together as Slavs benefited them less than playing to the desires of a neighboring great power. That damaged the unity of the Balkan Slavs and encouraged competition between the fledgling Slav states. The underlying tensions of

14910-480: The reform project in Ottoman Armenia from 1912 to 1914 , and then in the settlement of World War I , particularly during the Paris Peace Conference of 1919. In collaboration with the Delegation of the Republic of Armenia, it participated in the negotiations that led to the Treaty of Sèvres (1920), which recognized Armenia as a free and independent state. However, with the Sovietization of independent Armenia at

15052-539: The reforms to be implemented in Ottoman Armenia . Subsequently, Boghos Nubar made regular journeys from Paris to Berlin , Geneva , and London . In this city, his contacts with high-ranking English dignitaries were relayed by the influential British Armenia Committee (in which Lord Bryce sat), which sought to have reforms in Ottoman Armenia discussed at the London Conference convened to negotiate peace between

15194-463: The region would continue to simmer for thirty years until they again exploded in the Balkan Wars of 1912–1913. In 1914, the assassination of Franz Ferdinand , the Austro-Hungarian heir, led to the First World War . In hindsight, the stated goal of maintaining peace and balance of powers in the Balkans obviously failed since the region would remain a source of conflict between the great powers well into

15336-407: The region, further complicating matters. France and the United Kingdom pursued a status quo diplomacy to preserve their interests, opposing a Russian annexation of eastern Anatolia. However, Germany opposed any reform, as it would jeopardize its economic dominance over the Ottoman Empire. Additionally, its Young Turk allies urged it to thwart this "Russian project." During the Conference, France and

15478-603: The representatives of the great powers. According to Henry Kissinger , the congress saw a shift in Bismarck's Realpolitik . Until then, as Germany had become too powerful for isolation, his policy was to maintain the League of the Three Emperors. Now that he could no longer rely on Russia's alliance, he began to form relations with as many potential enemies as possible. Bowing to Russia's pressure, Romania, Serbia and Montenegro were all declared independent principalities. Russia recovered Southern Bessarabia , which it had annexed in

15620-625: The repressed Slavic nationalities would revolt against the Habsburgs . The British and the French governments were nervous about both the diminishing influence of the Ottoman Empire and the cultural expansion of Russia to the south, where both Britain and France were poised to colonise Egypt and Palestine . By the Treaty of San Stefano, the Russians, led by Foreign Minister Alexander Gorchakov , had managed to create in Bulgaria an autonomous principality, under

15762-483: The resolution of the impasse, particularly in Constantinople. Johannes Lepsius , a Protestant theologian who played a pivotal role in the negotiations by acting as an intermediary between the Armenian Patriarchate of Constantinople and the German embassy, conveyed to Boghos Nubar via telegram that "the situation [was] favorable" and extended an invitation to him to visit the Ottoman capital. Boghos Nubar declined

15904-488: The son of Margaret, daughter of James Young of Whiteabbey , and James Bryce, LLD , from near Coleraine , County Londonderry . The first eight years of his life were spent residing at his grandfather's Whiteabbey residence, often playing for hours on the tranquil picturesque shoreline. Annan Bryce was his younger brother. He was educated under his uncle Reuben John Bryce at the Belfast Academy , Glasgow High School ,

16046-487: The specifications contained in the Organic Law of 1868 and to guarantee the civil rights of non-Muslim subjects. The region of Bosnia-Herzegovina was handed over to the administration of Austria-Hungary, which also obtained the right to garrison the Sanjak of Novi Pazar , a small border region between Montenegro and Serbia. Bosnia and Herzegovina were put on the fast track to eventual annexation. Russia agreed that Macedonia ,

16188-427: The status quo was against German interests. Also, at the Congress of Berlin, "Germany could not look for any advantage from the crisis" that had occurred in the Balkans in 1875. Therefore, Bismarck claimed impartiality on behalf of Germany at the Congress, which enabled him to preside over the negotiations with a keen eye for foul play. Though most of Europe went into the Congress expecting a diplomatic show, much like

16330-405: The strategically-placed island of Cyprus . The agreement predetermined Beaconsfield's position during the Congress and led him to issue threats to unleash a war against Russia if it did not comply with Ottoman demands. Negotiations between Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy and British Foreign Secretary Marquess of Salisbury had already "ended on 6 June by Britain agreeing to all

16472-564: The time as withdrawing from the regular diplomatic corps one of its most coveted posts, proved a great success. The United States had been in the habit of sending, as minister or ambassador to the Court of St James's , one of its leading citizens: a statesman, a man of letters, or a lawyer whose name and reputation were already well known in Great Britain. For the first time Great Britain responded in kind. Bryce, already favourably regarded in America as

16614-456: The two powers that were most invested in the fate of the Balkans, were allied with Germany in the conservative League of Three Emperors , which had been founded to preserve the monarchies of Continental Europe . The Congress of Berlin was thus mainly a dispute among supposed allies of Bismarck and his German Empire, the arbiter of the discussion, would thus have to choose before the end of the congress which of their allies to support. That decision

16756-499: The vilayets of Erzurum , Trebizond , Van , and Bitlis to the President of the United States for resolution (Article 89). However, the Treaty of Sèvres does not mention Cilicia . Additionally, Boghos Nubar Pasha and the Armenian National Delegation are present, and the former jointly signed a protocol with Avetis Aharonian, which guarantees the freedoms, notably cultural and religious, of minorities in Armenia. Despite being signed by

16898-513: The violation of Belgian neutrality and the stories of outrages committed in Belgium by German troops brought him speedily into line with national feeling. Following the outbreak of the First World War Bryce was commissioned by Prime Minister H. H. Asquith to write what became known as The Bryce Report in which he described German atrocities in Belgium. The report was published in 1915 and

17040-541: The war that the conference was supposed to resolve, and felt humiliated by the other great powers in their rejection of the San Stefano settlement. Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece all received far less than they thought they deserved, especially Bulgaria which was left with less than half of the territory envisioned by the Treaty of San Stefano. Bismarck became hated by Russian nationalists and Pan-Slavists , and later found that he had tied Germany too closely to Austria-Hungary in

17182-610: The western half of the Balkans under permanent Austrian influence". "High [Austro-Hungarian] military authorities desired... [an] immediate major expedition with Salonika as its objective". On 28 September 1878 the Finance Minister, Koloman von Zell, threatened to resign if the army, behind which stood the Archduke Albert , were allowed to advance to Salonika. In the session of the Hungarian Parliament of 5 November 1878

17324-538: The whole Liberal cabinet, the following year. The Liberals remained out of office for the next ten years. In 1897, after a visit to South Africa, Bryce published a volume of Impressions of that country that had considerable influence in Liberal circles when the Second Boer War was being discussed. He devoted significant sections of the book to the recent history of South Africa, various social and economic details about

17466-615: Was "one of the best informed men on all subjects I have ever met". In 1918 he was appointed GCVO . Bryce was president of the American Political Science Association from 1907 to 1908. He was the fourth person to hold this office. He was president of the British Academy from 1913 to 1917. In 1919 he delivered the British Academy's inaugural Raleigh Lecture on History, on "World History". Bryce chaired

17608-553: Was a comparative study of a certain number of popular governments in their actual working. On the other hand, he was a leader in promoting international organizations. During the last years of his life Bryce served as a judge at the International Court in The Hague, and promoted the establishment of the League of Nations . Bryce received numerous academic honours from home and foreign universities. In September 1901, he received

17750-401: Was concluded on August 10, 1920. Armenia, represented by the delegation led by Avetis Aharonian, was present at the negotiating table and among the signatories. The treaty partially satisfies the Armenian delegation, as it obligates the Ottoman Empire to recognize Armenia as a free and independent state (Article 88) and to submit the question of the border between the Ottoman Empire and Armenia in

17892-510: Was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium , following which his ashes were buried near to his parents at Grange Cemetery , Edinburgh . Lady Bryce is recalled in the memoirs of Captain Peter Middleton , grandfather of Catherine, Duchess of Cambridge who wrote, "Nor will I forget my terror of Lady Bryce", who was the aunt of his mother's first cousins, sisters Elinor and Elizabeth Lupton . Lady Bryce died in 1939. Her papers are held at

18034-599: Was damning of German behaviour against civilians. Bryce's account was confirmed by Vernon Lyman Kellogg , the Director of the American Commission for Relief in Belgium, who told the New York Times that the German military had enslaved hundreds of thousands of Belgian workers, and abused and maimed many of them in the process. Bryce strongly condemned the Armenian genocide in the Ottoman Empire mainly in 1915. Bryce

18176-946: Was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society . He was elected an International Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1893 and an International Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1895. In 1907 he was made a Member of the Order of Merit by King Edward VII , At the King's death, Bryce arranged his Washington Memorial Service. At the time of Bryce's memorial service at Westminster Abbey , his wife, Elizabeth, received condolences from King George V , who "regarded Lord Bryce as an old friend and trusted counsellor to whom I could always turn." Queen Victoria had said that Bryce

18318-520: Was established as early as 1924 by Gabriel Noradounghian. It was initially known as the Bureau of Armenian Refugees or the Office of Armenian Refugees and was led by Archag Tchobanian, with Lévon Pachalian serving as secretary-general. In conjunction with the Delegation of the Republic of Armenia, the former Armenian National Delegation assumed responsibility for managing Armenian refugees from 1924 to 1925. This role

18460-428: Was forced to give part of Bessarabia to Russia, and gained Northern Dobruja . Serbia and Montenegro were also granted full independence but lost territory, with Austria-Hungary occupying the Sanjak of Novi Pazar along with Bosnia and Herzegovina . Britain took possession of Cyprus . Of the territory that remained within the Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria was made a semi-independent principality, Eastern Rumelia became

18602-508: Was held to bind Germany, Britain and the United States together. For him, the United States, the British Empire and Germany were "natural friends". Bryce was admitted to the Bar and practised law in London for a few years but was soon called back to Oxford to become Regius Professor of Civil Law , a position he held from 1870 to 1893. From 1870 to 1875 he was also Professor of Jurisprudence at Owens College, Manchester . His reputation as

18744-676: Was made Under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs under William Ewart Gladstone but had to leave office after the Liberals were defeated in the general election later that year. In 1892 he joined Gladstone's last cabinet as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster and was sworn of the Privy Council at the same time. In 1894 Bryce was appointed President of the Board of Trade in the new cabinet of Lord Rosebery , but had to leave this office, along with

18886-425: Was not his competitor for American sympathies during the First World War , even though Bernstorff helped to keep the United States from declaring war until 1917. Most of the questions with which he had to deal related to the relations between the United States and Canada, and in this connection he paid several visits to Canada to confer with the Governor General and his ministers. At the close of his embassy he told

19028-438: Was not to upset Germany's status on the international platform. He did not wish to disrupt the League of the Three Emperors by choosing between Russia and Austria as an ally. To maintain peace in Europe, Bismarck sought to convince other European diplomats that dividing up the Balkans would foster greater stability. During the process, Russia began to feel cheated despite eventually gaining independence for Bulgaria. Problems in

19170-404: Was present at the conference in conjunction with the delegation sent by the Democratic Republic of Armenia. They were, for the most part, in direct competition with one another, and the presence of this delegation, led by Avetis Aharonian , who did not possess the influence of Boghos Nubar, irritated the latter. The vision of Armenia presented at the conference by Boghos Nubar was characterized by

19312-401: Was raised to the peerage as Viscount Bryce , of Dechmount in the County of Lanark . Thus he became a member of the House of Lords , the powers of which had been curtailed by the Parliament Act 1911 . Along with other English scholars, who had ties of close association with German learning, he was reluctant in the last days of July 1914 to contemplate the possibility of war with Germany, but

19454-403: Was subsequently confirmed by presidential decree in 1930. As Anouche Kunth  [ fr ] notes, this enables these two delegations to maintain their presence within the national administrative landscape. According to her analysis, the dissolution of the Armenian National Delegation occurred in the wake of the general instruction of December 29, 1924, which removed Armenian nationality from

19596-518: Was the first person to speak on the subject in the House of Lords, in July 1915. Later, with the assistance of the historian Arnold J. Toynbee , he produced a documentary record of the massacres that was published as a Blue Book by the British government in 1916. In 1921 Bryce wrote that the Armenian genocide had also claimed half of the population of the Assyrians in the Ottoman Empire and that similar cruelties had been perpetrated upon them. According to Moton Keller: Bryce believed in Liberalism,

19738-403: Was the goal of Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Count Gyula Andrássy . After the Bulgarian April Uprising in 1876 and the Russian victory in the Russo-Turkish War in 1877–1878 , Russia had liberated almost all of the Ottoman European possessions. The Ottomans recognised Montenegro , Romania and Serbia as independent, and the territories of all three of them were expanded. Russia created

19880-527: Was the president of the Alpine Club . From his Caucasian journey, he brought back a deep distrust of Ottoman rule in Asia Minor and a distinct sympathy for the Armenian people . In 1882, Bryce established the National Liberal Club , whose members, in its first three decades, included fellow founder Prime Minister Gladstone , George Bernard Shaw , David Lloyd George , H. H. Asquith and many other prominent Liberal candidates and MP's such as Winston Churchill and Bertrand Russell . In April 1882 Bryce

20022-419: Was then forwarded to André Mandelstam  [ fr ] , a diplomat attached to the Russian Embassy in Constantinople, and subsequently brought to the attention of Russian diplomatic circles. The memorandum presented several proposals for consideration: France, the United Kingdom, Russia, and Germany from January 1913 were engaged in diplomatic negotiations. The parties involved had disparate interests in

20164-431: Was to have direct consequences on the future of European geopolitics. Ottoman brutality in the Serbian–Ottoman War and the violent suppression of the Herzegovina Uprising fomented political pressure within Russia, which saw itself as the protector of the Serbs, to act against the Ottoman Empire. David MacKenzie wrote that "sympathy for the Serbian Christians existed in Court circles, among nationalist diplomats, and in

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