97-585: Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (Bhīmrāo Rāmjī Āmbēḍkar; 14 April 1891 – 6 December 1956) was an Indian economist, jurist, social reformer and political leader who chaired the committee that drafted the Constitution of India based on the debates of the Constituent Assembly of India and the first draft of Sir Benegal Narsing Rau . Ambedkar served as Law and Justice minister in the first cabinet of Jawaharlal Nehru . He later converted to Buddhism and inspired
194-503: A dominion of the British Crown and became a sovereign, democratic republic with the constitution. Articles 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392, 393, and 394 of the constitution came into force on 26 November 1949, and the remaining articles became effective on 26 January 1950 which is celebrated every year in India as Republic Day . The constitution was drawn from
291-465: A governor or (in union territories) a lieutenant governor and a chief minister . Article 356 permits the president to dismiss a state government and assume direct authority if a situation arises in which state government cannot be conducted in accordance with constitution. This power, known as president's rule , was abused as state governments came to be dismissed on flimsy grounds for political reasons. After S. R. Bommai v. Union of India , such
388-641: A 1955 BBC interview, he accused Gandhi of writing in opposition of the caste system in English language papers while writing in support of it in Gujarati language papers. In his writings, Ambedkar also accused Jawaharlal Nehru of being "conscious of the fact that he is a Brahmin ". During this time, Ambedkar also fought against the khoti system prevalent in Konkan , where khots , or government revenue collectors, regularly exploited farmers and tenants. In 1937, Ambedkar tabled
485-670: A bill in the Bombay Legislative Assembly aimed at abolishing the khoti system by creating a direct relationship between government and farmers. Ambedkar served on the Defence Advisory Committee and the Viceroy's Executive Council as minister of labour . Before the Day of Deliverance events, Ambedkar stated that he was interested in participating: "I read Mr. Jinnah's statement and I felt ashamed to have allowed him to steal
582-638: A companion who was a good cook and had medical knowledge to care for him. She adopted the name Savita Ambedkar and cared for him the rest of his life. Savita Ambedkar, who was called also 'Mai', died on 29 May 2003, aged 93 in Mumbai. Ambedkar considered converting to Sikhism , which encouraged opposition to oppression and so appealed to leaders of scheduled castes. But after meeting with Sikh leaders, he concluded that he might get "second-rate" Sikh status. Instead, around 1950, he began devoting his attention to Buddhism and travelled to Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) to attend
679-428: A course of action is more difficult since the courts have asserted their right of review. The 73rd and 74th Amendment Acts introduced the system of panchayati raj in rural areas and Nagar Palikas in urban areas. Article 370 gave special status to the state of Jammu and Kashmir . Article 368 dictates the procedure for constitutional amendments . Amendments are additions, variations or repeal of any part of
776-518: A gold standard in modified form, and was opposed to the gold-exchange standard favoured by Keynes in his treatise Indian Currency and Finance (1909), claiming it was less stable. He favoured the stoppage of all further coinage of the rupee and the minting of a gold coin, which he believed would fix currency rates and prices. He also analysed revenue in his PhD dissertation The Evolution of Provincial Finance in British India . In this work, he analysed
873-548: A legal professional. In 1926, he successfully defended three non-Brahmin leaders who had accused the Brahmin community of ruining India and were then subsequently sued for libel. Dhananjay Keer notes, "The victory was resounding, both socially and individually, for the clients and the doctor". While practising law in the Bombay High Court , he tried to promote education to untouchables and uplift them. His first organised attempt
970-657: A long illness the same year. It had been her long-standing wish to go on a pilgrimage to Pandharpur , but Ambedkar had refused to let her go, telling her that he would create a new Pandharpur for her instead of Hinduism's Pandharpur which treated them as untouchables. At the Yeola Conversion Conference on 13 October in Nasik, Ambedkar announced his intention to convert to a different religion and exhorted his followers to leave Hinduism . He would repeat his message at many public meetings across India. In 1936, Ambedkar founded
1067-530: A march over me and rob me of the language and the sentiment which I, more than Mr. Jinnah, was entitled to use." He went on to suggest that the communities he worked with were twenty times more oppressed by Congress policies than were Indian Muslims; he clarified that he was criticizing Congress, and not all Hindus. Jinnah and Ambedkar jointly addressed the heavily attended Day of Deliverance event in Bhindi Bazaar , Bombay , where both expressed "fiery" criticisms of
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#17328586083641164-649: A meeting of the World Fellowship of Buddhists . While dedicating a new Buddhist vihara near Pune , Ambedkar announced he was writing a book on Buddhism, and that when it was finished, he would formally convert to Buddhism. He twice visited Burma in 1954; the second time to attend the third conference of the World Fellowship of Buddhists in Rangoon . In 1955, he founded the Bharatiya Bauddha Mahasabha, or
1261-675: A member of Rajya Sabha , probably an appointed member. He tried to enter Lok Sabha again in the by-election of 1954 from Bhandara, but he placed third (the Congress Party won). By the time of the second general election in 1957, Ambedkar had died. Ambedkar also criticised Islamic practice in South Asia. While justifying the Partition of India , he condemned child marriage and the mistreatment of women in Muslim society. No words can adequately express
1358-661: A number of sources. Mindful of India's needs and conditions, its framers borrowed features of previous legislation such as the Government of India Act 1858 , the Indian Councils Acts of 1861 , 1892 and 1909 , the Government of India Acts 1919 and 1935 , and the Indian Independence Act 1947 . The latter, which led to the creation of Pakistan , divided the former Constituent Assembly in two. The Amendment act of 1935
1455-477: A preamble and 470 articles, which are grouped into 25 parts. With 12 schedules and five appendices, it has been amended 105 times ; the latest amendment became effective on 15 August 2021. The constitution's articles are grouped into the following parts: Schedules are lists in the constitution which categorise and tabulate bureaucratic activity and government policy. The executive, legislative, and judicial branches of government receive their power from
1552-488: A private tutor, as an accountant, and established an investment consulting business, but it failed when his clients learned that he was an untouchable. In 1918, he became professor of political economy in the Sydenham College of Commerce and Economics in Mumbai. Although he was successful with the students, other professors objected to his sharing a drinking-water jug with them. Ambedkar had been invited to testify before
1649-517: A separate electorate for untouchables, saying he feared that such an arrangement would divide the Hindu community. Gandhi protested by fasting while imprisoned in the Yerwada Central Jail of Poona . Following the fast, congressional politicians and activists such as Madan Mohan Malaviya and Palwankar Baloo organised joint meetings with Ambedkar and his supporters at Yerwada. On 25 September 1932,
1746-481: A single constitution, single citizenship , an integrated judiciary, a flexible constitution, a strong central government , appointment of state governors by the central government, All India Services (the IAS , IFS and IPS ), and emergency provisions . This unique combination makes it quasi-federal in form. Each state and union territory has its own government. Analogous to the president and prime minister, each has
1843-510: A struggle for the right to enter Hindu temples. He led a satyagraha in Mahad to fight for the right of the untouchable community to draw water from the main water tank of the town. In a conference in late 1927, Ambedkar publicly condemned the classic Hindu text, the Manusmriti (Laws of Manu), for ideologically justifying caste discrimination and "untouchability", and he ceremonially burned copies of
1940-479: A system akin to affirmative action . India's lawmakers hoped to eradicate the socio-economic inequalities and lack of opportunities for India's depressed classes through these measures. The Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949 by the Constituent Assembly. Ambedkar expressed his disapproval for the constitution in 1953 during a parliament session and said "People always keep on saying to me "Oh you are
2037-531: A wide range of civil liberties for individual citizens, including freedom of religion, the abolition of untouchability, and the outlawing of all forms of discrimination. Ambedkar was one of the ministers who argued for extensive economic and social rights for women, and won the Assembly's support for introducing a system of reservations of jobs in the civil services, schools and colleges for members of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes and Other Backward Class ,
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#17328586083642134-427: Is also a very important step for making the constitution for two new born countries. Each new assembly had sovereign power to draft and enact a new constitution for the separate states. The constitution was drafted by the Constituent Assembly , which was elected by elected members of the provincial assemblies . The 389-member assembly (reduced to 299 after the partition of India ) took almost three years to draft
2231-641: Is given to me does not really belong to me. It belongs partly to Sir B.N. Rau the Constitutional Advisor to the Constituent Assembly who prepared a rough draft of the Constitution for the consideration of Drafting Committee. A part of the credit must go to the members of the Drafting Committee who, as I have said, have sat for 141 days and without whose ingenuity to devise new formulae and capacity to tolerate and to accommodate different points of view,
2328-583: Is hand-written, with each page decorated by artists from Shantiniketan including Beohar Rammanohar Sinha and Nandalal Bose . Its calligrapher was Prem Behari Narain Raizada . The constitution was published in Dehradun and photolithographed by the Survey of India . Production of the original constitution took nearly five years. Two days later, on 26 January 1950, it became the law of India . The estimated cost of
2425-523: Is no provision for a joint session of the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha to pass a constitutional amendment. During a parliamentary recess, the president cannot promulgate ordinances under his legislative powers under Article 123, Chapter III . Despite the supermajority requirement for amendments to pass, the Indian constitution is the world's most frequently-amended national governing document. The constitution
2522-500: Is nothing whatever in Islam that lends support to the abolition of this curse. But if slavery has gone, caste among Musalmans [Muslims] has remained. Upon India's independence on 15 August 1947, the new prime minister Jawaharlal Nehru invited Ambedkar to serve as the Dominion of India 's Law Minister ; two weeks later, he was appointed Chairman of the Drafting Committee of the Constitution for
2619-785: Is preserved in a helium -filled case at the Parliament Library Building in New Delhi . In 1928, the All Parties Conference convened a committee in Lucknow to prepare the Constitution of India, which was known as the Nehru Report . With the exception of scattered French and Portuguese exclaves, India was under the British rule from 1858 to 1947. From 1947 to 1950, the same legislation continued to be implemented as India
2716-611: Is so specific in spelling out government powers that many amendments address issues dealt with by statute in other democracies. In 2000, the Justice Manepalli Narayana Rao Venkatachaliah Commission was formed to examine a constitutional update. The commission submitted its report on 31 March 2002. However, the recommendations of this report have not been accepted by the consecutive governments. The government of India establishes term-based law commissions to recommend legal reforms, facilitating
2813-798: The 22 Vows for these converts, after the Three Jewels and Five Precepts. He then travelled to Kathmandu , Nepal to attend the Fourth World Buddhist Conference. His work on The Buddha or Karl Marx and "Revolution and counter-revolution in ancient India" remained incomplete. Since 1948, Ambedkar had diabetes . He remained in bed from June to October in 1954 due to medication side-effects and poor eyesight. His health worsened during 1955. Three days after completing his final manuscript The Buddha and His Dhamma , Ambedkar died in his sleep on 6 December 1956 at his home in Delhi. A Buddhist cremation
2910-605: The British East India Company , and his father served in the British Indian Army at the Mhow cantonment. Although they attended school, Ambedkar and other untouchable children were segregated and given little attention or help by teachers. They were not allowed to sit inside the class. When they needed to drink water, someone from a higher caste had to pour that water from a height as they were not allowed to touch either
3007-663: The Communal Award proposed earlier by the colonial government under Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald . The text used the term "Depressed Classes" to denote Untouchables among Hindus who were later called Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes under the India Act 1935, and the later Indian Constitution of 1950. In the Poona Pact, a unified electorate was in principle formed, but primary and secondary elections allowed Untouchables in practice to choose their own candidates. In 1935, Ambedkar
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3104-531: The Constituent Assembly of India by winning support from Congress legislators. Jagjivan Ram 's wife Indrani Jagjivan Ram wrote in her memoir that Ambedkar persuaded her husband to ask Mahatma Gandhi for his inclusion in Nehru's cabinet in independent India. Initially, Jagjivan Ram consulted Vallabhbhai Patel before asking Gandhi to recommend Ambedkar to Nehru for inclusion in cabinet, adding that Ambedkar had "given up his antagonism to Congress and Gandhiji". Ambedkar
3201-556: The Dalit Buddhist movement after renouncing Hinduism . After graduating from Elphinstone College , University of Bombay , Ambedkar studied economics at Columbia University and the London School of Economics , receiving doctorates in 1927 and 1923, respectively, and was among a handful of Indian students to have done so at either institution in the 1920s. He also trained in the law at Gray's Inn , London. In his early career, he
3298-662: The Government of India Act 1935 as the country's fundamental governing document, and the Dominion of India became the Republic of India . To ensure constitutional autochthony , its framers repealed prior acts of the British parliament in Article 395. India celebrates its constitution on 26 January as Republic Day . The constitution declares India a sovereign , socialist , secular , and democratic republic , assures its citizens justice , equality , and liberty , and endeavours to promote fraternity . The original 1950 constitution
3395-549: The Independent Labour Party , which contested the 1937 Bombay election to the Central Legislative Assembly for the 13 reserved and 4 general seats, and secured 11 and 3 seats respectively. Ambedkar published his book Annihilation of Caste on 15 May 1936. It strongly criticised Hindu orthodox religious leaders and the caste system in general, and included "a rebuke of Gandhi" on the subject. Later, in
3492-530: The Southborough Committee , which was preparing the Government of India Act 1919 . At this hearing, Ambedkar argued for creating separate electorates and reservations for untouchables and other religious communities. In 1920, he began the publication of the weekly Mooknayak (Leader of the Silent) in Mumbai with the help of Shahu of Kolhapur , that is, Shahu IV (1874–1922). Ambedkar went on to work as
3589-611: The Ambedkars survived them. Of his brothers and sisters, only Ambedkar passed his examinations and went to high school. His original surname was Sakpal but his father registered his name as Ambadawekar in school, meaning he comes from his native village ' Ambadawe ' in Ratnagiri district. His Marathi Brahmin teacher, Krishnaji Keshav Ambedkar, changed his surname from 'Ambadawekar' to his own surname 'Ambedkar' in school records. In 1897, Ambedkar's family moved to Mumbai where Ambedkar became
3686-804: The Buddhist Society of India. In 1956, he completed his final work, The Buddha and His Dhamma , which was published posthumously. After meetings with the Sri Lankan Buddhist monk Hammalawa Saddhatissa , Ambedkar organised a formal public ceremony for himself and his supporters in Nagpur on 14 October 1956. Accepting the Three Refuges and Five Precepts from a Buddhist monk in the traditional manner, Ambedkar completed his own conversion, along with his wife. He then proceeded to convert some 500,000 of his supporters who were gathered around him. He prescribed
3783-729: The Congress party, and according to one observer, suggested that Islam and Hinduism were irreconcilable. After the Lahore resolution (1940) of the Muslim League demanding Pakistan, Ambedkar wrote a 400-page tract titled Thoughts on Pakistan , which analysed the concept of "Pakistan" in all its aspects. Ambedkar argued that the Hindus should concede Pakistan to the Muslims. He proposed that the provincial boundaries of Punjab and Bengal should be redrawn to separate
3880-416: The Constituent Assembly was ₹ 6.3 crore . The constitution has had more than 100 amendments since it was enacted. The Indian constitution is the world's longest for a sovereign nation. At its enactment, it had 395 articles in 22 parts and 8 schedules. At about 145,000 words, it is the second-longest active constitution—after the Constitution of Alabama —in the world. The amended constitution has
3977-423: The Constitution. I must not omit to mention the members of the staff working under Mr. Mukherjee. For, I known how hard they worked and how long they have toiled sometimes even beyond midnight. I want to thank them all for their effort and their co-operation. While deliberating the revised draft constitution, the assembly moved, discussed and disposed off 2,473 amendments out of a total of 7,635. G. V. Mavlankar
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4074-533: The Indian economy. He stressed investment in agriculture as the primary industry of India. Ambedkar advocated national economic and social development, stressing education, public hygiene, community health, residential facilities as the basic amenities. His DSc thesis, The problem of the Rupee: Its Origin and Solution (1923) examines the causes for the Rupee's fall in value. In this dissertation, he argued in favour of
4171-471: The Muslim and non-Muslim majority parts. He thought the Muslims could have no objection to redrawing provincial boundaries. If they did, they did not quite "understand the nature of their own demand". Scholar Venkat Dhulipala states that Thoughts on Pakistan "rocked Indian politics for a decade". It determined the course of dialogue between the Muslim League and the Indian National Congress, paving
4268-457: The Republican Sena (tran: The "Republican Army"). Constitution of India The Constitution of India is the supreme legal document of India . The document lays down the framework that demarcates fundamental political code, structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions and sets out fundamental rights , directive principles , and the duties of citizens. It is
4365-459: The age of 22, Ambedkar was awarded a Baroda State Scholarship of £11.50 (Sterling) per month for three years under a scheme established by Sayajirao Gaekwad III ( Gaekwad of Baroda ) that was designed to provide opportunities for postgraduate education at Columbia University in New York City . Soon after arriving there he settled in rooms at Livingston Hall with Naval Bhathena, a Parsi who
4462-516: The agreement, known as the Poona Pact was signed between Ambedkar (on behalf of the depressed classes among Hindus) and Madan Mohan Malaviya (on behalf of the other Hindus). The agreement gave reserved seats for the depressed classes in the Provisional legislatures within the general electorate. Due to the pact the depressed class received 148 seats in the legislature instead of the 71, as allocated in
4559-432: The all-European Simon Commission in 1925. This commission had sparked great protests across India, and while its report was ignored by most Indians, Ambedkar himself wrote a separate set of recommendations for the future Constitution of India. By 1927, Ambedkar had decided to launch active movements against untouchability . He began with public movements and marches to open up public drinking water resources. He also began
4656-502: The ancient text. On 25 December 1927, he led thousands of followers to burn copies of Manusmriti. Thus annually 25 December is celebrated as Manusmriti Dahan Din (Manusmriti Burning Day) by Ambedkarites and Dalits . In 1930, Ambedkar launched the Kalaram Temple movement after three months of preparation. About 15,000 volunteers assembled at Kalaram Temple satygraha making one of the greatest processions of Nashik . The procession
4753-657: The assembly, which had over 30 representatives of the scheduled classes . Frank Anthony represented the Anglo-Indian community , and the Parsis were represented by H. P. Modi. Harendra Coomar Mookerjee , a Christian assembly vice-president, chaired the minorities committee and represented non-Anglo-Indian Christians. Ari Bahadur Gurung represented the Gorkha community. Judges, such as Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer , Benegal Narsing Rau , K. M. Munshi and Ganesh Mavlankar were members of
4850-427: The assembly, committees were proposed. Rau's draft was considered, debated and amended by the seven-member drafting committee, which was appointed on 29 August 1947 with B. R. Ambedkar as chair. A revised draft constitution was prepared by the committee and submitted to the assembly on 4 November 1947. Before adopting the constitution, the assembly held eleven sessions in 165 days. On 26 November 1949, it adopted
4947-486: The assembly. Female members included Sarojini Naidu , Hansa Mehta , Durgabai Deshmukh , Amrit Kaur and Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit . The first, two-day president of the assembly was Sachchidananda Sinha ; Rajendra Prasad was later elected president. It met for the first time on 9 December 1946. Sir B. N. Rau , a civil servant who became the first Indian judge in the International Court of Justice and
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#17328586083645044-456: The basic structure doctrine. The extent of land ownership and practice of a profession, in this case, were considered fundamental rights. The ruling was overturned with the ratification of the 24th Amendment in 1971. The judiciary is the final arbiter of the constitution. Its duty (mandated by the constitution) is to act as a watchdog, preventing any legislative or executive act from overstepping constitutional bounds. The judiciary protects
5141-531: The constitution and are bound by it. With the aid of its constitution, India is governed by a parliamentary system of government with the executive directly accountable to the legislature . The constitution is considered federal in nature, and unitary in spirit. It has features of a federation, including a codified , supreme constitution; a three-tier governmental structure (central, state and local); division of powers ; bicameralism ; and an independent judiciary . It also possesses unitary features such as
5238-406: The constitution by Parliament. An amendment bill must be passed by each house of Parliament by a two-thirds majority of its total membership when at least two-thirds are present and vote. Certain amendments pertaining to the constitution's federal nature must also be ratified by a majority of state legislatures. Unlike ordinary bills in accordance with Article 245 (except for money bills ), there
5335-498: The constitution holding eleven sessions over a 165-day period. In the constitution assembly, a member of the drafting committee, T. T. Krishnamachari said: Mr. President, Sir, I am one of those in the House who have listened to Dr. Ambedkar very carefully. I am aware of the amount of work and enthusiasm that he has brought to bear on the work of drafting this Constitution. At the same time, I do realise that that amount of attention that
5432-489: The constitution to the limit of its basic structure. The Supreme Court or a high court may declare the amendment null and void if this is violated, after a judicial review . This is typical of parliamentary governments, where the judiciary checks parliamentary power. In its 1967 Golak Nath v. State of Punjab decision, the Supreme Court ruled that the state of Punjab could not restrict any fundamental rights protected by
5529-469: The constitution, which was signed by 284 members. The day is celebrated as National Law Day, or Constitution Day . The day was chosen to spread the importance of the constitution and to spread thoughts and ideas of Ambedkar. The assembly's final session convened on 24 January 1950. Each member signed two copies of the constitution, one in Hindi and the other in English. The original constitution
5626-441: The constitution. According to the doctrine, the constitution's basic features (when "read as a whole") cannot be abridged or abolished. These "basic features" have not been fully defined, and whether a particular provision of the constitution is a "basic feature" is decided by the courts. The Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala decision laid down the constitution's basic structure: This implies that Parliament can only amend
5723-411: The first from his Mahar caste to do so. When he passed his English fourth standard examinations, the people of his community wanted to celebrate because they considered that he had reached "great heights" which he says was "hardly an occasion compared to the state of education in other communities". A public ceremony was evoked, to celebrate his success, by the community, and it was at this occasion that he
5820-444: The fundamental rights of the people (enshrined in the constitution) from infringement by any state body, and balances the conflicting exercise of power between the central government and a state (or states). The courts are expected to remain unaffected by pressure exerted by other branches of the state, citizens or interest groups. An independent judiciary has been held as a basic feature of the constitution, which cannot be changed by
5917-423: The future Republic of India . On 25 November 1949, Ambedkar in his concluding speech in constituent assembly said: "The credit that is given to me does not really belong to me. It belongs partly to Sir B.N. Rau the Constitutional Advisor to the Constituent Assembly who prepared a rough draft of the Constitution for the consideration of the Drafting Committee." Indian constitution guarantees and protections for
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#17328586083646014-528: The great and many evils of polygamy and concubinage, and especially as a source of misery to a Muslim woman. Take the caste system. Everybody infers that Islam must be free from slavery and caste. [...] [While slavery existed], much of its support was derived from Islam and Islamic countries. While the prescriptions by the Prophet regarding the just and humane treatment of slaves contained in the Koran are praiseworthy, there
6111-402: The legislature or the executive. Article 50 of the Constitution provides that the state must take measures to separate the judiciary from the executive in the public services. Judicial review was adopted by the constitution of India from judicial review in the United States . In the Indian constitution, judicial review is dealt with in Article 13 . The constitution is the supreme power of
6208-464: The longest written national constitution in the world. It imparts constitutional supremacy (not parliamentary supremacy , since it was created by a constituent assembly rather than Parliament ) and was adopted by its people with a declaration in its preamble . Parliament cannot override the constitution . It was adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 26 November 1949 and became effective on 26 January 1950. The constitution replaced
6305-662: The maintenance of resources for production by the state, and a just distribution of these resources to the population. He emphasised a free economy with a stable Rupee which India has adopted recently. He advocated birth control to develop the Indian economy, and this has been adopted by Indian government as national policy for family planning. He emphasised equal rights for women for economic development. A number of Ambedkar's ideas reflected deep interest in Austrian school of economics . The ideas of Ambedkar were close to those of Carl Menger , Ludwig von Mises , Friedrich Hayek , and William Graham Sumner . Ambedkar's theory of free banking
6402-400: The maker of the constitution". My answer is I was a hack. What I was asked to do, I did much against my will." Ambedkar added that, "I am quite prepared to say that I shall be the first person to burn it out. I do not want it. It does not suit anybody." Ambedkar was the first Indian to pursue a doctorate in economics abroad. He argued that industrialisation and agricultural growth could enhance
6499-552: The nation, and governs all laws. According to Article 13 : Due to the adoption of the Thirty-eighth Amendment , the Supreme Court was not allowed to preside over any laws adopted during a state of emergency which infringe fundamental rights under article 32 (the right to constitutional remedies). The Forty-second Amendment widened Article 31C and added Articles 368(4) and 368(5), stating that any law passed by Parliament could not be challenged in court. The Supreme Court ruled in Minerva Mills v. Union of India that judicial review
6596-435: The only untouchable enrolled at Elphinstone High School . In 1906, when he was about 15 years old, he married a nine-year-old girl, Ramabai. The match was arranged by the couple's parents, in accordance with prevailing custom at that time. In 1907, he passed his matriculation examination and in the following year he entered Elphinstone College , which was affiliated to the University of Bombay , becoming, according to him,
6693-494: The paper Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development before a seminar conducted by the anthropologist Alexander Goldenweiser . Ambedkar received his Ph.D. degree in economics at Columbia in 1927. In October 1916, he enrolled for the Bar course at Gray's Inn , and at the same time enrolled at the London School of Economics where he started working on a doctoral thesis. In June 1917, he returned to India because his scholarship from Baroda ended. His book collection
6790-690: The public good, and "economy" meaning the funds should be used so that the maximum value can be extracted from them. Ambedkar opposed income tax for low-income groups. He contributed in Land Revenue Tax and excise duty policies to stabilise the economy. He played an important role in land reform and the state economic development. According to him, the caste system, due to its division of labourers and hierarchical nature, impedes movement of labour (higher castes would not do lower-caste occupations) and movement of capital (assuming investors would invest first in their own caste occupation). His theory of State Socialism had three points: state ownership of agricultural land,
6887-402: The rank of Subedar , and Bhimabai Sakpal, daughter of Laxman Murbadkar. His family was of Marathi background from the town of Ambadawe ( Mandangad taluka ) in Ratnagiri district of modern-day Maharashtra . Ambedkar was born into a Mahar (dalit) caste, who were treated as untouchables and subjected to socio-economic discrimination. Ambedkar's ancestors had long worked for the army of
6984-476: The rule of law. In Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala , the Supreme Court ruled that an amendment cannot destroy what it seeks to modify; it cannot tinker with the constitution's basic structure or framework, which are immutable. Such an amendment will be declared invalid, although no part of the constitution is protected from amendment; the basic structure doctrine does not protect any one provision of
7081-719: The socio-religious movement started by B. R. Ambedkar. Yashwant served as the 2nd President of the Buddhist Society of India (1957–1977) and a member of the Maharashtra Legislative Council (1960–1966). Ambedkar's elder grandson, Prakash Yashwant Ambedkar , is the chief-adviser of the Buddhist Society of India, leads the Vanchit Bahujan Aghadi and has served in both houses of the Indian Parliament . Ambedkar's younger grandson, Anandraj Ambedkar leads
7178-516: The task of framing the Constitution could not have come to so successful a conclusion. Much greater share of the credit must go to Mr. S. N. Mukherjee , the Chief Draftsman of the Constitution. His ability to put the most intricate proposals in the simplest and clearest legal form can rarely be equalled, nor his capacity for hard work. He has been an acquisition to the Assembly. Without his help this Assembly would have taken many more years to finalise
7275-457: The various systems used by the British colonial government to manage finances in India. His views on finance were that governments should ensure their expenditures have "faithfulness, wisdom and economy." "Faithfulness" meaning governments should use money as nearly as possible to the original intentions of spending the money in the first place. "Wisdom" meaning it should be used as well as possible for
7372-667: The water or the vessel that contained it. This task was usually performed for the young Ambedkar by the school peon , and if the peon was not available then he had to go without water; he described the situation later in his writings as "No peon, No Water" . He was required to sit on a gunny sack which he had to take home with him. Ramji Sakpal retired in 1894 and the family moved to Satara two years later. Shortly after their move, Ambedkar's mother died. The children were cared for by their paternal aunt and lived in difficult circumstances. Three sons – Balaram, Anandrao and Bhimrao – and two daughters – Manjula and Tulasa – of
7469-639: The way for the Partition of India . In his work Who Were the Shudras? , Ambedkar tried to explain the formation of untouchables. He saw Shudras and Ati Shudras who form the lowest caste in the ritual hierarchy of the caste system , as separate from Untouchables. Ambedkar oversaw the transformation of his political party into the Scheduled Castes Federation . It did not fare well in the 1946 provincial elections, but in Bengal, it managed to elect Ambedkar to
7566-492: The whole of India could not be said to possess knowledge and experience of all various conditions prevailing in different Provinces under it. It, therefore, necessarily becomes an authority less competent to deal with matters of provincial administration than the Provisional Governments.' Ambedkar's views on agricultural land was that too much of it was idle, or that it was not being utilized properly. He believed there
7663-534: Was president of the United Nations Security Council , was appointed as the assembly's constitutional adviser in 1946. Responsible for the constitution's general structure, Rau prepared its initial draft in February 1948. The draft of B.N. Rau consisted of 243 articles and 13 schedules which came to 395 articles and 8 schedules after discussions, debates and amendments. At 14 August 1947 meeting of
7760-516: Was a dominion of United Kingdom for these three years, as each princely state was convinced by Sardar Patel and V. P. Menon to sign the articles of integration with India, and the British Government continued to be responsible for the external security of the country. Thus, the constitution of India repealed the Indian Independence Act 1947 and Government of India Act 1935 when it became effective on 26 January 1950. India ceased to be
7857-468: Was a void to that extent. One or two people were far away from Delhi and perhaps reasons of health did not permit them to attend. So it happened ultimately that the burden of drafting this constitution fell on Dr. Ambedkar and I have no doubt that we are grateful to him for having achieved this task in a manner which is undoubtedly commendable. B. R. Ambedkar in his concluding speech in constituent assembly on 25 November 1949 stated that: The credit that
7954-479: Was an "ideal proportion" of production factors that would allow agricultural land to be used most productively. To this end, he saw the large portion of people who lived on agriculture at the time as a major problem. Therefore, he advocated industrialization of the economy to allow these agricultural labourers to be of more use elsewhere. Ambedkar was of the view that there is a need to shift surplus labour from agricultural channels to non-agricultural channels. Ambedkar
8051-499: Was an economist, professor, and lawyer. His later life was marked by his political activities; he became involved in campaigning and negotiations for partition , publishing journals, advocating political rights and social freedom for Dalits , and contributing to the establishment of the state of India. In 1956, he converted to Buddhism , initiating mass conversions of Dalits. In 1990, the Bharat Ratna , India's highest civilian award,
8148-535: Was appointed principal of the Government Law College, Bombay , a position he held for two years. He also served as the chairman of Governing body of Ramjas College , University of Delhi , after the death of its Founder Shri Rai Kedarnath. Settling in Bombay (today called Mumbai), Ambedkar oversaw the construction of a house, and stocked his personal library with more than 50,000 books. His wife Ramabai died after
8245-582: Was awarded from University of London , and the same year he was called to the Bar by Gray's Inn. As Ambedkar was educated by the Princely State of Baroda , he was bound to serve it. He was appointed Military Secretary to the Gaikwad but had to quit in a short time. He described the incident in his autobiography, Waiting for a Visa . Thereafter, he tried to find ways to make a living for his growing family. He worked as
8342-595: Was built on Menger's work and also on Gopal Krishna Gokhale 's treatise on finance and money. Ambedkar's view about distinguishing differential quality of money was influenced by Menger's idea of sale-ability of money which is found in Menger's article 'On the Origin of Money'. Ambedkar's recommendations for free banking were ignored by both Royal Commission and Indian government. In his book, "The Evolution of Provincial Finance in British India", Ambedkar wrote "a Central Government for
8439-451: Was dispatched on a different ship from the one he was on, and that ship was torpedoed and sunk by a German submarine. He got permission to return to London to submit his thesis within four years. He returned at the first opportunity, and completed a master's degree in 1921. His thesis was on "The problem of the rupee: Its origin and its solution". In 1923, he completed a D.Sc. in Economics which
8536-399: Was headed by a military band and a batch of scouts; women and men walked with discipline, order and determination to see the god for the first time. When they reached the gates, the gates were closed by Brahmin authorities. In 1932, the British colonial government announced the formation of a separate electorate for "Depressed Classes" in the Communal Award . Mahatma Gandhi fiercely opposed
8633-488: Was his establishment of the central institution Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha , intended to promote education and socio-economic improvement, as well as the welfare of " outcastes ", at the time referred to as depressed classes. For the defence of Dalit rights, he started many periodicals like Mook Nayak , Bahishkrit Bharat , and Equality Janta . He was appointed to the Bombay Presidency Committee to work with
8730-507: Was necessary for the purpose of drafting a constitution so important to us at this moment has not been given to it by the Drafting Committee. The House is perhaps aware that of the seven members nominated by you, one had resigned from the House and was replaced. One died and was not replaced. One was away in America and his place was not filled up and another person was engaged in State affairs, and there
8827-457: Was organised at Dadar Chowpatty beach on 7 December, attended by half a million grieving people. A conversion program was organised on 16 December 1956, so that cremation attendees were also converted to Buddhism at the same place. Ambedkar was survived by his second wife Savita Ambedkar (known as Maisaheb Ambedkar), who died in 2003, and his son Yashwant Ambedkar (known as Bhaiyasaheb Ambedkar), who died in 1977. Savita and Yashwant carried on
8924-462: Was posthumously conferred on Ambedkar. The salutation Jai Bhim ( lit. "Hail Bhim") used by followers honours him. He is also referred to by the honorific Babasaheb ( BAH -bə SAH -hayb ), meaning "Respected Father". Ambedkar was born on 14 April 1891 in the town and military cantonment of Mhow (now officially known as Dr Ambedkar Nagar, Madhya Pradesh ). He was the 14th and last child of Ramji Maloji Sakpal , an army officer who held
9021-522: Was presented with a biography of the Buddha by Dada Keluskar, the author and a family friend. By 1912, he obtained his degree in economics and political science from Bombay University, and prepared to take up employment with the Baroda state government. His wife had just moved his young family and started work when he had to quickly return to Mumbai to see his ailing father, who died on 2 February 1913. In 1913, at
9118-471: Was the first Speaker of the Lok Sabha (the lower house of Parliament) after India turned into a republic. B. R. Ambedkar , Sanjay Phakey, Jawaharlal Nehru , C. Rajagopalachari , Rajendra Prasad , Vallabhbhai Patel , Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi , Ganesh Vasudev Mavalankar , Sandipkumar Patel, Abul Kalam Azad , Shyama Prasad Mukherjee , Nalini Ranjan Ghosh , and Balwantrai Mehta were key figures in
9215-479: Was to be a lifelong friend. He passed his M.A. exam in June 1915, majoring in economics, and other subjects of Sociology, History, Philosophy and Anthropology. He presented a thesis, Ancient Indian Commerce . Ambedkar was influenced by John Dewey and his work on democracy. In 1916, he completed his second master's thesis, National Dividend of India – A Historic and Analytical Study , for a second M.A. On 9 May, he presented
9312-601: Was trained as an economist, and was a professional economist until 1921, when he became a political leader. He wrote three books on economics: Ambedkar's first wife Ramabai died in 1935 after a long illness. After completing the draft of India's constitution in the late 1940s, he suffered from lack of sleep, had neuropathic pain in his legs, and was taking insulin and homoeopathic medicines . He went to Bombay for treatment, and there met Sharada Kabir , whom he married on 15 April 1948, at his home in New Delhi. Doctors recommended
9409-546: Was ultimately included as the law minister of India in the First Nehru ministry after Gandhi recommended his name to Nehru. On 27 September 1951, Ambedkar resigned from Nehru's cabinet ministry after Hindu code bill was defeated in parliament. Ambedkar contested in the Bombay North first Indian General Election of 1952, but lost to his former assistant and Congress Party candidate Narayan Sadoba Kajrolkar . Ambedkar became
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