IBM Research is the research and development division for IBM , an American multinational information technology company headquartered in Armonk, New York , with operations in over 170 countries. IBM Research is the largest industrial research organization in the world and has twelve labs on six continents.
136-402: IBM employees have garnered six Nobel Prizes , six Turing Awards , 20 inductees into the U.S. National Inventors Hall of Fame , 19 National Medals of Technology , five National Medals of Science and three Kavli Prizes . As of 2018, the company has generated more patents than any other business in each of 25 consecutive years, which is a record. The roots of today's IBM Research began with
272-479: A Category , based on the average rating of the contestants. For instance, it was decided that 'Category 1' status would apply to tournaments with an average Elo rating of participants falling within the range 2251–2275; similarly Category 2 would apply to the range 2276–2300 etc. The higher the tournament Category, the stronger the tournament. Another vital component involved the setting of meritorious norms for each Category of tournament. Players must meet or surpass
408-707: A cerebral haemorrhage . He was 63 years old. Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime. He composed the last over a year before he died, signing it at the Swedish–Norwegian Club in Paris on 27 November 1895. To widespread astonishment, Nobel's last will specified that his fortune be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the "greatest benefit on mankind" in physics , chemistry , physiology or medicine , literature , and peace . Nobel bequeathed 94% of his total assets, 31 million SEK (c. US$ 186 million, €150 million in 2008), to establish
544-459: A French newspaper. It was Alfred's brother Ludvig who had died; the obituary was eight years premature. The article disconcerted Nobel and made him apprehensive about how he would be remembered. This inspired him to change his will . Historians have been unable to verify this story and some dismiss the story as a myth. On 10 December 1896, Alfred Nobel died in his villa in San Remo, Italy , from
680-541: A GM or IM does not count for the purposes of this requirement if he had not had a GM or IM result in the five years prior to the tournament. In addition, no more than 50 percent plus one of the players can be from the same country for tournaments of 10 to 12 players, or no more than 50 percent plus two for larger tournaments. Seventy-four GM titles were awarded in 1951 through 1968. During that period, ten GM titles were awarded in 1965, but only one in 1966 and in 1968. The modern system for awarding FIDE titles evolved from
816-612: A Victorian poet. The first Physiology or Medicine Prize went to the German physiologist and microbiologist Emil von Behring . During the 1890s, von Behring developed an antitoxin to treat diphtheria , which until then had been causing thousands of deaths each year. The first Nobel Peace Prize went to the Swiss Jean Henri Dunant for his role in founding the International Red Cross Movement and initiating
952-402: A consequence of his patent claims, Nobel was eventually involved in a patent infringement lawsuit over cordite. Nobel amassed a fortune during his lifetime, with most of his wealth coming from his 355 inventions, of which dynamite is the most famous. There is a popular story about how, in 1888, Nobel was astonished to read his own obituary , titled "The Merchant of Death Is Dead", in
1088-486: A few hundred permanent research staff members, graduate students and post-doctoral fellows, representing about 45 nationalities. Collocated with the lab is a Client Center (formerly the Industry Solutions Lab ), an executive briefing facility demonstrating technology prototypes and solutions. The Zürich lab is world-renowned for its scientific achievements—most notably Nobel Prizes in physics in 1986 and 1987 for
1224-518: A foundation established by Alfred Nobel would reward those who serve humanity. The Nobel Prize was funded by Alfred Nobel's personal fortune. According to the official sources, Alfred Nobel bequeathed most of his fortune to the Nobel Foundation that now forms the economic base of the Nobel Prize. The Nobel Foundation was founded as a private organisation on 29 June 1900. Its function is to manage
1360-652: A grandmaster, and the term was also applied to a few other players. The Ostend tournament of 1907 was divided into two sections: the Championship Tournament and the Masters' Tournament. The Championship section was for players who had previously won an international tournament. Siegbert Tarrasch won the Championship section, over Carl Schlechter , Dawid Janowski , Frank Marshall , Amos Burn , and Mikhail Chigorin . These players were described as grandmasters for
1496-691: A prize if their impact is realised after the discoverers have died. Except for the Peace Prize, the Nobel Prizes are presented in Stockholm, Sweden, at the annual Prize Award Ceremony on 10 December, the anniversary of Nobel's death. The recipients' lectures are normally held in the days prior to the award ceremony. The Peace Prize and its recipients' lectures are presented at the annual Prize Award Ceremony in Oslo, Norway, usually on 10 December. The award ceremonies and
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#17328560844881632-452: A real world impact for business, academic and society. The Lab funds approximately 50 projects per year, which are co-led by principal investigators from MIT and IBM Research, with results published regularly at top peer-reviewed journals and conferences. Projects range from computer vision, natural language processing and reinforcement learning, to devising new ways to ensure that AI systems are fair, reliable and secure. IBM Research – Almaden
1768-614: A single organisation. The opening of the Melbourne lab in 2011 received an injection of $ 22 million in Australian Federal Government funding and an undisclosed amount provided by the State Government . The Melbourne Research lab was closed in 2021, approximately at the same time as the deal for tax breaks from the State Government ended. Approximately 80 full-time researchers were made redundant. IBM Research – Brazil
1904-546: A solid funding base for the prizes and the administrative activities. The Nobel Foundation is exempt from all taxes in Sweden (since 1946) and from investment taxes in the United States (since 1953). Since the 1980s, the foundation's investments have become more profitable and as of 31 December 2007, the assets controlled by the Nobel Foundation amounted to 3.628 billion Swedish kronor (c. US$ 560 million). According to
2040-803: Is 11,000,000 kr , amounting to approximately US$ 1,035,000 . A prize may not be shared among more than three individuals, although the Nobel Peace Prize can be awarded to organisations of more than three people. Nobel Prizes are not awarded posthumously , but if a person is awarded a prize and dies before receiving it, the prize is presented. The Nobel Prizes, beginning in 1901, and the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, beginning in 1969, have been awarded 609 times to 975 people and 25 organisations. Five individuals and two organisations have received more than one Nobel Prize. Alfred Nobel
2176-785: Is IBM Vice President of AI Technology and serves as the Director of the IBM Research Lab in Haifa, Israel. In its 30th year, the IBM Haifa Research Lab in Israel moved to a new home on the University of Haifa campus. The researchers at the Lab are involved in special projects with academic institutions across Israel, the United States, and Europe, and actively participate in numerous consortiums as part of
2312-473: Is also frequently included, as it is also administered by the Nobel Foundation . The Nobel Prizes are widely regarded as the most prestigious awards available in their respective fields. The prize ceremonies take place annually. Each recipient, known as a laureate , receives a green gold medal plated with 24 karat gold, a diploma , and a monetary award. As of 2023, the Nobel Prize monetary award
2448-414: Is announced immediately after the vote. A maximum of three laureates and two different works may be selected per award. Except for the Peace Prize, which can be awarded to institutions, the awards can only be given to individuals. The winners are announced by the awarding institutions during the first two weeks of October. Although posthumous nominations are not presently permitted, individuals who died in
2584-529: Is in Almaden Valley, San Jose , California . Its scientists perform basic and applied research in computer science , services, storage systems, physical sciences, and materials science and technology. Almaden occupies part of a site owned by IBM at 650 Harry Road on nearly 700 acres (2.8 km) of land in the Santa Teresa Hills above Silicon Valley . The site, built in 1985 for the research center,
2720-574: Is involved in many joint projects with universities throughout Europe, in research programs established by the European Union and the Swiss government, and in cooperation agreements with research institutes of industrial partners. One of the lab's most high-profile projects is called DOME , which is based on developing an IT roadmap for the Square Kilometer Array . The research projects pursued at
2856-781: Is located on the same campus in Rüschlikon. In addition to the IBM Research Division, the IBM Scientific Centers, which were active in various functions from 1964 to the early 1990s, were another remarkable research unit. In contrast to the central control of the Research Division from the headquarters in Armonk in the USA, the IBM Scientific Centers were structured in a decentralized manner. Each center functioned as an integral part of
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#17328560844882992-517: Is one of twelve research laboratories comprising IBM Research, its first in South America . It was established in 2011, with locations in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro . Research focuses on Industrial Technology and Science, Systems of Engagement and Insight, Social Data Analytics and Natural Resources Solutions. The new lab, IBM 's ninth at the time of opening and first in 12 years, underscores
3128-570: Is similar for all of the Nobel Prizes, the main difference being who can make nominations for each of them. Nomination forms are sent by the Nobel Committee to about 3,000 individuals, usually in September the year before the prizes are awarded. These individuals are generally prominent academics working in a relevant area. Regarding the Peace Prize, inquiries are also sent to governments, former Peace Prize laureates, and current or former members of
3264-588: Is sometimes called "International Grandmaster" (IGM), possibly to distinguish it from similar national titles, but the shortened form is far more common today. Titles were awarded by a resolution of the FIDE General Assembly and the Qualification Committee, with no formal written criteria. FIDE first awarded the Grandmaster title in 1950 to 27 players. These players were: Since FIDE did not award
3400-445: Is the social data analytics segment that comprises the analysis of data generated from social networking sites [such as Twitter or Facebook], which can be applied, for example, to financial analysis. The third strategic area is nanotechnology applied to the development of the smarter devices for the intermittent production industry. This technology can be applied to, for example, blood testing or recovering oil from existing fields. And
3536-1137: The reduced instruction set computer (RISC) architecture, relational databases , and Deep Blue ( grandmaster -level chess -playing computer). There are a number of computer scientists "who made IBM Research famous." These include Frances E. Allen , Marc Auslander , John Backus , Charles H. Bennett (computer scientist) , Erich Bloch , Grady Booch , Fred Brooks (known for his book The Mythical Man-Month ), Peter Brown, Larry Carter, Gregory Chaitin , John Cocke , Alan Cobham , Edgar F. Codd , Don Coppersmith , Wallace Eckert , Ronald Fagin , Horst Feistel , Jeanne Ferrante , Zvi Galil , Ralph E. Gomory , Jim Gray , Joseph Halpern , Kenneth E. Iverson , Frederick Jelinek , Reynold B. Johnson , Benoit Mandelbrot , Robert Mercer , C. Mohan , Kirsten Moselund , Michael O. Rabin , Arthur Samuel , Barbara Simons , Alfred Spector , Gardiner Tucker , Moshe Vardi , John Vlissides , Mark N. Wegman and Shmuel Winograd . IBM currently has 19 research facilities spread across 12 laboratories on six continents: Historic research centers for IBM also include IBM La Gaude ( Nice ),
3672-767: The Cambridge Scientific Center , the IBM New York Scientific Center , 330 North Wabash ( Chicago ), IBM Austin Research Laboratory, and IBM Laboratory Vienna . In 2017, IBM invested $ 240 million to create the MIT–IBM Watson AI Lab. Headquartered in Cambridge, MA, the Lab is a unique joint research venture in artificial intelligence established by IBM and MIT and brings together researchers in academia and industry to advance AI that has
3808-691: The Economic Sciences prize of 16.5 Million kronor is paid by the Sveriges Riksbank . Once the Nobel Foundation and its guidelines were in place, the Nobel Committees began collecting nominations for the inaugural prizes. Subsequently, they sent a list of preliminary candidates to the prize-awarding institutions. The Nobel Committee's Physics Prize shortlist cited Wilhelm Röntgen 's discovery of X-rays and Philipp Lenard 's work on cathode rays . The Academy of Sciences selected Röntgen for
3944-509: The Java Card OpenPlatform (JCOP), a smart card operating system . Most recently the lab was involved in the development of SuperMUC , a supercomputer that is cooled using hot water. The Zürich lab focus areas are future chip technologies; nanotechnology; data storage; quantum computing, brain-inspired computing; security and privacy; risk and compliance; business optimization and transformation; server systems. The Zürich laboratory
4080-592: The Jeopardy! television quiz show. The Watson technology is now being commercialized as part of a project with healthcare company Anthem Inc. Other notable developments include the Data Encryption Standard (DES), fast Fourier transform (FFT), Benoît Mandelbrot 's introduction of fractals , magnetic disk storage ( hard disks ), the MELD-Plus risk score, the one-transistor dynamic random-access memory (DRAM),
4216-845: The Quantum Experience . Advances in nanotechnology include IBM in atoms , where a scanning tunneling microscope was used to arrange 35 individual xenon atoms on a substrate of chilled crystal of nickel to spell out the three letter company acronym . It was the first time atoms had been precisely positioned on a flat surface. Major undertakings at IBM Research have included the invention of innovative materials and structures, high-performance microprocessors and computers , analytical methods and tools, algorithms , software architectures , methods for managing, searching and deriving meaning from data and in turning IBM's advanced services methodologies into reusable assets. IBM Research's numerous contributions to physical and computer sciences include
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4352-811: The Rohingya genocide and calls were made to strip her of her Nobel Peace Prize. The award of the 2004 Literature Prize to Elfriede Jelinek drew a protest from a member of the Swedish Academy, Knut Ahnlund . Ahnlund resigned, alleging that the selection of Jelinek had caused "irreparable damage to all progressive forces, it has also confused the general view of literature as an art". He alleged that Jelinek's works were "a mass of text shovelled together without artistic structure". The 2009 Literature Prize to Herta Müller also generated criticism. According to The Washington Post , many US literary critics and professors were ignorant of her work. This made those critics feel
4488-572: The Scanning Tunneling Microscope and high-temperature superconductivity , both of which were awarded the Nobel Prize . IBM Research was behind the inventions of the SABRE travel reservation system, the technology of laser eye surgery , magnetic storage, the relational database , UPC barcodes and Watson , the question-answering computing system that won a match against human champions on
4624-460: The World Federation for Chess Composition (see List of grandmasters for chess composition ). The International Correspondence Chess Federation (ICCF) awards the title of International Correspondence Chess Grandmaster (ICCGM). Both of these bodies are now independent of FIDE , but work in cooperation with it. "Super grandmaster" is an informal term to refer to the world's elite players. In
4760-598: The World Junior Championship , or the World Senior Championship , or a Continental Chess Championship, given that the player's peak FIDE rating is at least 2300. Current regulations can be found in the FIDE Handbook. FIDE titles including the grandmaster title are valid for life, but FIDE regulations allow a title to be revoked for "use of a FIDE title or rating to subvert the ethical principles of
4896-594: The magnetic stripe card , the relational database , the Universal Product Code (UPC) , the financial swap , the Fortran programming language, SABRE airline reservation system , DRAM , copper wiring in semiconductors , the smartphone , the portable computer , the Automated Teller Machine (ATM), the silicon-on-insulator (SOI) semiconductor manufacturing process, Watson artificial intelligence and
5032-601: The trustees . However, since 1995, all the members of the board have been chosen by the trustees, and the executive director and the deputy director appointed by the board itself. As well as the board, the Nobel Foundation is made up of the prize-awarding institutions (the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institute, the Swedish Academy, and the Norwegian Nobel Committee ),
5168-622: The "Dorazil" proposals, presented to the 1970 Siegen Chess Olympiad FIDE Congress. The proposals were put together by Wilfried Dorazil (then FIDE Vice-President) and fellow Committee members Grandmaster Svetozar Gligorić and Professor Arpad Elo . The recommendations of the Committee report were adopted in full. In essence, the proposals built on the work done by Professor Elo in devising his Elo rating system. The establishment of an updated list of players and their Elo rating enabled significantly strong international chess tournaments to be allocated
5304-536: The 1926 Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his purported discovery of a parasite that caused cancer. To avoid repeating this embarrassment, the awards increasingly recognised scientific discoveries that had withstood the test of time. According to Ralf Pettersson, former chairman of the Nobel Prize Committee for Physiology or Medicine, "the criterion 'the previous year' is interpreted by the Nobel Assembly as
5440-589: The 1945 opening of the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory at Columbia University . This was the first IBM laboratory devoted to pure science and later expanded into additional IBM Research locations in Westchester County, New York , starting in the 1950s, including the Thomas J. Watson Research Center in 1961. Notable company inventions include the floppy disk , the hard disk drive ,
5576-502: The 1965 Congress in Wiesbaden FIDE raised the standards required for international titles. The International Grandmaster title regulations were: To fulfill requirement 2b, the candidate must score one GM norm in a category 1a tournament or two norms within a three-year period in two Category 1b tournaments, or one Category 2a tournament and one Category 1b tournament. The categories of tournaments are: Since FIDE titles are for life,
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5712-420: The 1980s, when the prize money was 880,000 SEK per prize (c. 2.6 million SEK altogether, US$ 350,000 today). In 2009, the monetary award was 10 million SEK (US$ 1.4 million). In June 2012, it was lowered to 8 million SEK. If two laureates share the prize in a category, the award grant is divided equally between the recipients. If there are three, the awarding committee has the option of dividing
5848-507: The 2022 Chemistry Prize for click chemistry . Two organisations have received the Peace Prize multiple times. The International Committee of the Red Cross received it three times: in 1917 and 1944 for its work during the world wars; and in 1963 during the year of its centenary. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees has been awarded the Peace Prize twice for assisting refugees: in 1954 and 1981. The Curie family has received
5984-648: The EU Horizon 2020 programme. Today in 2020, the Lab describes itself as having the highest number of employees in Israel's hi-tech industry who hold advanced degrees in science, electrical engineering, mathematics, or related fields. Researchers participate in international conferences and are published in professional publications. In 2014, IBM Research announced the Cybersecurity Center of Excellence (CCoE) in Beer Sheva in collaboration with Ben-Gurion University of
6120-583: The FAV system, in recognition of the work done by International Judge Giovanni Ferrantes (Italy), Alexander (probably Conel Hugh O'Donel Alexander ), and Giancarlo Dal Verme (Italy). Under the 1957 regulations, the title of International Grandmaster of the FIDE was automatically awarded to: The regulations also allowed titles to be awarded by a FIDE Congress on recommendation by the Qualification Committee. Recommendations were based on performance in qualifying tournaments, with
6256-567: The Geneva Convention, and jointly given to French pacifist Frédéric Passy , founder of the Peace League and active with Dunant in the Alliance for Order and Civilization. In 1938 and 1939, Adolf Hitler 's Third Reich forbade three laureates from Germany ( Richard Kuhn , Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt , and Gerhard Domagk ) from accepting their prizes. They were all later able to receive
6392-466: The Grandmaster title posthumously, world-class players who died prior to 1950, including World Champions Steinitz , Lasker, Capablanca, and Alekhine, never received the title. A few strong still living players such as British India's Mir Sultan Khan , Germany's Paul Lipke and France's Eugene Znosko-Borovsky were not awarded titles. Sultan Khan was awarded the GM title posthumously in 2024. Title awards under
6528-702: The Haifa Research Lab (HRL) was founded as a small scientific center in 1972. Since then, it has grown into a major lab that leads the development of innovative technologies and solutions for the IBM corporation. The lab’s offices are situated in three locations across Israel: Haifa , Tel Aviv , and Beer Sheva . IBM Research – Haifa employs researchers in a range of areas. Research projects are being executed today in areas such as artificial intelligence, hybrid cloud, quantum computing, blockchain, IoT, quality, cybersecurity, and industry domains such as healthcare. Aya Soffer
6664-566: The IBM Zürich lab are organized into four scientific and technical departments: Science & Technology, Cloud and AI Systems Research, Cognitive Computing & Industry Solutions and Security Research. The lab is currently managed by Alessandro Curioni. On 17 May 2011, IBM and the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zurich opened the Binnig and Rohrer Nanotechnology Center , which
6800-410: The IBM organization in its respective region or country. This organization also financed the center and ultimately determined its content and strategic direction. The task of an IBM Scientific Center was to contribute with its research, its expertise and its cooperation projects for the benefit of the respective country and thus to contribute to the reputation of IBM in this country or this region. While
6936-404: The Japanese universities to support their research programs under the Shared University Research (SUR) program. In 1987, IBM Japan Science Prize was created to recognize researchers, who are not over 45 years old, working at Japanese universities or public research institutes. It is awarded in physics , chemistry , computer science , and electronics . IBM Research – Haifa, previously known as
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#17328560844887072-424: The King and Queen of Norway. In total, about 250 guests attend. According to the statutes of the Nobel Foundation, each laureate is required to give a public lecture on a subject related to the topic of their prize. The Nobel lecture as a rhetorical genre took decades to reach its current format. These lectures normally occur during Nobel Week (the week leading up to the award ceremony and banquet, which begins with
7208-418: The Mint of Norway, located in Kongsberg, made the medals. The Nobel Prize medals are registered trademarks of the Nobel Foundation. Each medal features an image of Alfred Nobel in left profile on the obverse . The medals for physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, and literature have identical obverses, showing the image of Alfred Nobel and the years of his birth and death. Nobel's portrait also appears on
7344-444: The Negev. IBM Research – Zurich (previously called IBM Zurich Research Laboratory, ZRL) is the European branch of IBM Research. It was opened in 1956 and is located in Rüschlikon near Zürich , Switzerland. In 1956, IBM opened their first European research laboratory in Adliswil , Switzerland. The lab moved to its own campus in neighboring Rüschlikon in 1962. The Zürich lab is staffed by a multicultural and interdisciplinary team of
7480-435: The Nobel Peace Prize." Yasser Arafat , Shimon Peres , and Yitzhak Rabin received the Peace Prize in 1994 for their efforts in making peace between Israel and Palestine. Immediately after the award was announced, one of the five Norwegian Nobel Committee members denounced Arafat as a terrorist and resigned. Additional misgivings about Arafat were widely expressed in various newspapers. Another controversial Peace Prize
7616-403: The Nobel Prize Award Ceremony in Stockholm occurs when each Nobel laureate steps forward to receive the prize from the hands of the King of Sweden . In Oslo, the chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee presents the Nobel Peace Prize in the presence of the King of Norway and the Norwegian royal family . At first, King Oscar II did not approve of awarding grand prizes to foreigners. After
7752-407: The North announced that Kissinger was not a peace-maker but the opposite, responsible for widening the war. Those hostile to the North and what they considered its deceptive practices during negotiations were deprived of a chance to criticise Lê Đức Thọ, as he declined the award. The satirist and musician Tom Lehrer has remarked that "political satire became obsolete when Henry Kissinger was awarded
7888-411: The Norwegian Nobel Committee fled into exile. The remaining members escaped persecution from the Germans when the Nobel Foundation stated that the committee building in Oslo was Swedish property. Thus it was a safe haven from the German military, which was not at war with Sweden. These members kept the work of the committee going, but did not award any prizes. In 1944, the Nobel Foundation, together with
8024-405: The Norwegian Nobel Committee. The deadline for the return of the nomination forms is 31 January of the year of the award. The Nobel Committee nominates about 300 potential laureates from these forms and additional names. The nominees are not publicly named, nor are they told that they are being considered for the prize. All nomination records for a prize are sealed for 50 years from the awarding of
8160-543: The Physiology or Medicine Prize for his development of the prefrontal leucotomy . The previous year, Walter Freeman had developed a version of the procedure which was faster and easier to carry out. Due in part to the publicity surrounding the original procedure, Freeman's procedure was prescribed without due consideration or regard for modern medical ethics . Endorsed by such influential publications as The New England Journal of Medicine , leucotomy or "lobotomy" became so popular that about 5,000 lobotomies were performed in
8296-429: The Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1959; Kornberg's son Roger later received the Chemistry Prize in 2006. Arthur Schawlow received the 1981 Physics prize, and was married to the sister of 1964 Physics laureate Charles Townes . Two members of the Hodgkin family received Nobels in consecutive years: Sir Alan Lloyd Hodgkin shared in the Nobel for Physiology or Medicine in 1963, followed by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin ,
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#17328560844888432-457: The United States in the three years immediately following Moniz's receipt of the Prize. Grandmaster (chess) Grandmaster ( GM ) is a title awarded to chess players by the world chess organization FIDE . Apart from World Champion , Grandmaster is the highest title a chess player can attain. Once achieved, the title is held for life, though exceptionally the title can be revoked for cheating . The title of Grandmaster, along with
8568-411: The actual score that participants must achieve to attain a GM or IM result (nowadays referred to as a norm ). To qualify for the Grandmaster title, a player needed to achieve three such GM results within a rolling period of three years. Exceptionally, if a player's contributory games totalled 30 or more, then the title could be awarded on the basis of two such results. There were also circumstances where
8704-436: The associated banquets are typically major international events. The Prizes awarded in Sweden's ceremonies are held at the Stockholm Concert Hall , with the Nobel banquet following immediately at Stockholm City Hall . The Nobel Peace Prize ceremony has been held at the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905–1946), at the auditorium of the University of Oslo (1947–1989), and at Oslo City Hall (1990–present). The highlight of
8840-401: The award ceremony in Sweden, a banquet is held in the Blue Hall at the Stockholm City Hall , which is attended by the Swedish Royal Family and around 1,300 guests. The Nobel Peace Prize banquet is held in Norway at the Oslo Grand Hotel after the award ceremony. Apart from the laureate, guests include the president of the Storting , on occasion the Swedish prime minister, and, since 2006,
8976-434: The award, and others saying he had not secured the achievements to yet merit such an accolade. Obama's award, along with the previous Peace Prizes for Jimmy Carter and Al Gore , also prompted accusations of a liberal bias. Aung San Suu Kyi was awarded Peace Prize in 1993 however in 2015 when she came into power in Myanmar , she was criticized for being silent on human rights violation under her rule and especially over
9112-409: The decision to award Steinman the prize "was made in good faith", it would remain unchanged, and the prize would be awarded. Nobel's will provided for prizes to be awarded in recognition of discoveries made "during the preceding year". Early on, the awards usually recognised recent discoveries. However, some of those early discoveries were later discredited. For example, Johannes Fibiger was awarded
9248-420: The decisive factor that enabled the Nobel Prizes to be established". Another important task of the Nobel Foundation is to market the prizes internationally and to oversee informal administration related to the prizes. The foundation is not involved in the process of selecting the Nobel laureates . In many ways, the Nobel Foundation is similar to an investment company , in that it invests Nobel's money to create
9384-856: The development of photoresists and the quantum mirage effect. The following are some of the famous scientists who have worked in the past or are currently working in this laboratory: Rakesh Agrawal , Miklos Ajtai , Rama Akkiraju , John Backus , Raymond F. Boyce , Donald D. Chamberlin , Ashok K. Chandra , Edgar F. Codd , Mark Dean , Cynthia Dwork , Don Eigler , Ronald Fagin , Jim Gray , Laura M. Haas , Jean Paul Jacob , Joseph Halpern , Andreas J. Heinrich , Reynold B. Johnson , Maria Klawe , Jaishankar Menon , Dharmendra Modha , William E. Moerner , C. Mohan , Stuart Parkin , Nick Pippenger , Dan Russell , Patricia Selinger , Ted Selker , Barbara Simons , Malcolm Slaney , Arnold Spielberg , Ramakrishnan Srikant , Larry Stockmeyer , Moshe Vardi , Jennifer Widom , Shumin Zhai . IBM Research – Australia
9520-415: The diploma and medal. Even though Sweden was officially neutral during the Second World War, the prizes were awarded irregularly. In 1939, the Peace Prize was not awarded. No prize was awarded in any category from 1940 to 1942, due to the occupation of Norway by Germany . In the subsequent year, all prizes were awarded except those for literature and peace. During the occupation of Norway, three members of
9656-420: The finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. In accordance with Nobel's will , the primary task of the foundation is to manage the fortune Nobel left. Robert and Ludvig Nobel were involved in the oil business in Azerbaijan , and according to Swedish historian E. Bargengren, who accessed the Nobel family archive , it was this "decision to allow withdrawal of Alfred's money from Baku that became
9792-595: The five Nobel Prizes. Owing to skepticism surrounding the will, it was not approved by the Storting in Norway until 26 April 1897. The executors of the will, Ragnar Sohlman and Rudolf Lilljequist, formed the Nobel Foundation to take care of the fortune and to organise the awarding of prizes. Nobel's instructions named a Norwegian Nobel Committee to award the Peace Prize , the members of which were appointed shortly after
9928-528: The grant equally, or awarding one-half to one recipient and one-quarter to each of the others. It is common for recipients to donate prize money to benefit scientific, cultural, or humanitarian causes. Five people have received two Nobel Prizes. Marie Curie received the Physics Prize in 1903 for her work on radioactivity and the Chemistry Prize in 1911 for the isolation of pure radium , making her
10064-498: The greatest benefit to humankind, as established by the 1895 will of Swedish chemist, engineer, and industrialist Alfred Nobel , in the year before he died. Prizes were first awarded in 1901 by the Nobel Foundation . Nobel's will indicated that the awards should be granted in the fields of Physics , Chemistry , Physiology or Medicine , Literature , and Peace . A sixth prize for Economic Sciences , endowed by Sweden 's central bank, Sveriges Riksbank , and first presented in 1969,
10200-546: The growing importance of emerging markets and the globalization of innovation. In collaboration with Brazil's government, it will help IBM to develop technology systems around natural resource development and large-scale events such as the 2016 Summer Olympics . Engineer and associate lab director Ulisses Mello explains that IBM has four priority areas in Brazil: "The main area is related to natural resources management , involving oil and gas, mining and agricultural sectors. The second
10336-591: The holders. After the war, the gold was recovered from solution, and the medals re-cast. Nobel laureates receive a diploma directly from the hands of the King of Sweden, or in the case of the peace prize, the chairman of the Norwegian Nobel Committee. Each diploma is uniquely designed by the prize-awarding institutions for the laureates that receive them. The diploma contains a picture and text in Swedish which states
10472-474: The individual centers, as far as they were still alive in 1989, can be found in. A comprehensive description of the evolution, projects, and success stories of the IBM Heidelberg Scientific Center from its very beginning and to shortly before its end can be found in. The history of the IBM Scientific Centers began in 1964 with the founding of the first four centers in the USA (marked with * in
10608-497: The invention of the scanning tunneling microscope and the discovery of high-temperature superconductivity , respectively. Other key inventions include trellis modulation , which revolutionized data transmission over telephone lines; Token Ring , which became a standard for local area networks and a highly successful IBM product; the Secure Electronic Transaction (SET) standard used for highly secure payments; and
10744-506: The invention of the transistor and in 1972 for the theory of superconductivity . Frederick Sanger received the prize twice in Chemistry: in 1958 for determining the structure of the insulin molecule and in 1980 for inventing a method of determining base sequences in DNA. Karl Barry Sharpless was awarded the 2001 Chemistry Prize for his research into chirally catalysed oxidation reactions, and
10880-598: The last one is smarter cities." The IBM Research – Tokyo, which was called IBM Tokyo Research Laboratory (TRL) before January 2009, is one of IBM's twelve major worldwide research laboratories. It is a branch of IBM Research, and about 200 researchers work for TRL. Established in 1982 as the Japan Science Institute (JSI) in Tokyo , it was renamed to IBM Tokyo Research Laboratory in 1986, and moved to Yamato in 1992 and back to Tokyo in 2012. IBM Tokyo Research Laboratory
11016-482: The laureates arriving in Stockholm and normally ends with the Nobel banquet), but this is not mandatory. The laureate is only obliged to give the lecture within six months of receiving the prize, but some have happened even later. For example, US President Theodore Roosevelt received the Peace Prize in 1906 but gave his lecture in 1910, after his term in office. The lectures are organised by the same association which selected
11152-541: The laureates. Military cemeteries in every corner of the world are silent testimony to the failure of national leaders to sanctify human life. The Nobel Foundation announced on 30 May 2012 that it had awarded the contract for the production of the five (Swedish) Nobel Prize medals to Svenska Medalj AB. Between 1902 and 2010, the Nobel Prize medals were minted by Myntverket (the Swedish Mint), Sweden's oldest company, which ceased operations in 2011 after 107 years. In 2011,
11288-475: The lesser FIDE titles of International Master (IM) , FIDE Master (FM) , and Candidate Master (CM) , is open to all players regardless of gender. The great majority of grandmasters are men, but 42 women have been awarded the GM title as of 2024, out of a total of about 2000 grandmasters. There is also a Woman Grandmaster title with lower requirements awarded only to women. There are also Grandmaster titles for composers and solvers of chess problems , awarded by
11424-414: The list below) and has subsequently grown to 26 centers worldwide in 1989. Their story ended in the early 1990s. Nobel Prize The Nobel Prizes ( / n oʊ ˈ b ɛ l / noh- BEL ; Swedish : Nobelpriset [nʊˈbɛ̂lːˌpriːsɛt] ; Norwegian : Nobelprisen [nʊˈbɛ̀lːˌpriːsn̩] ) are five separate prizes awarded to those who, during the preceding year, have conferred
11560-492: The months between their nomination and the decision of the prize committee were originally eligible to receive the prize. This has occurred twice: the 1931 Literature Prize awarded to Erik Axel Karlfeldt , and the 1961 Peace Prize awarded to UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld . Since 1974, laureates must be thought alive at the time of the October announcement. There has been one laureate, William Vickrey , who in 1996 died after
11696-538: The most criticised Nobel Peace Prizes was the one awarded to Henry Kissinger and Lê Đức Thọ . This led to the resignation of two Norwegian Nobel Committee members. Kissinger and Thọ were awarded the prize for negotiating a ceasefire between North Vietnam and the United States in January 1973 during the Vietnam War . However, when the award was announced, both sides were still engaging in hostilities. Critics sympathetic to
11832-475: The most prizes, with four prizes awarded to five individual laureates. Marie Curie received the prizes in Physics (in 1903) and Chemistry (in 1911). Her husband, Pierre Curie , shared the 1903 Physics prize with her. Their daughter, Irène Joliot-Curie , received the Chemistry Prize in 1935 together with her husband Frédéric Joliot-Curie . In addition, the husband of Marie Curie's second daughter, Henry Labouisse ,
11968-422: The name of the laureate and normally a citation of why they received the prize. None of the Nobel Peace Prize laureates has ever had a citation on their diplomas. The laureates are given a sum of money when they receive their prizes, in the form of a document confirming the amount awarded. The amount of prize money depends upon how much money the Nobel Foundation can award each year. The purse has increased since
12104-420: The number of registered players rated over 2200 had increased even faster. Since that FIDE congress, discussion of the value of the grandmaster title has occasionally continued. Starting from 1977, FIDE awarded honorary Grandmaster titles to 32 players based on their past performances or other contributions to chess. The following players have been awarded honorary Grandmaster titles. Marić and Honfi were awarded
12240-664: The obverse of the Peace Prize medal and the medal for the Economics Prize, but with a slightly different design. For instance, the laureate's name is engraved on the rim of the Economics medal. The image on the reverse of a medal varies according to the institution awarding the prize. The reverse sides of the medals for chemistry and physics share the same design. All medals made before 1980 were struck in 23 carat gold. Since then, they have been struck in 18 carat green gold plated with 24 carat gold. The weight of each medal varies with
12376-519: The old regulations, although a provision was maintained that allowed older masters who had been overlooked to be awarded titles. The new regulations awarded the title of International Grandmaster of the FIDE to players meeting any of the following criteria: After FIDE issued the 1953 title regulations, it was recognized that they were somewhat haphazard, and work began to revise the regulations. The FIDE Congress in Vienna in 1957 adopted new regulations, called
12512-432: The only person to be awarded a Nobel Prize in two different sciences. Linus Pauling was awarded the 1954 Chemistry Prize for his research into the chemical bond and its application to the structure of complex substances. Pauling was also awarded the Peace Prize in 1962 for his activism against nuclear weapons, making him the only laureate of two unshared prizes. John Bardeen received the Physics Prize twice: in 1956 for
12648-577: The original regulations were subject to political concerns. Efim Bogoljubow , who had emigrated from the Soviet Union to Germany, was not entered in the first class of Grandmasters, even though he had played two matches for the World Championship with Alekhine. He received the title in 1951, by a vote of thirteen to eight with five abstentions. Yugoslavia supported his application, but all other Communist countries opposed it. In 1953, FIDE abolished
12784-412: The past this would refer to players with an Elo rating of over 2600, but as the average Elo rating of the top players has increased, it has typically come to refer to players with an Elo rating of over 2700. Super GMs, the number of whom has grown considerably over the years, have some name recognition in the world of sport and are typically the highest earners in chess. FIDE titles are only awarded at
12920-486: The poet Sully Prudhomme for the first Nobel Prize in Literature. A group including 42 Swedish writers, artists, and literary critics protested against this decision, having expected Leo Tolstoy to be awarded. Some, including Burton Feldman , have criticised this prize because they consider Prudhomme a mediocre poet. Feldman's explanation is that most of the academy members preferred Victorian literature and thus selected
13056-540: The prize (in Economics ) was announced but before it could be presented. On 3 October 2011, the laureates for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine were announced; however, the committee was not aware that one of the laureates, Ralph M. Steinman , had died three days earlier. The committee was debating about Steinman's prize, since the rule is that the prize is not awarded posthumously. The committee later decided that as
13192-420: The prize. The Nobel Committee then prepares a report reflecting the advice of experts in the relevant fields. This, along with the list of preliminary candidates, is submitted to the prize-awarding institutions. There are four awarding institutions for the six prizes awarded: The institutions meet to choose the laureate or laureates in each field by a majority vote. Their decision, which cannot be appealed,
13328-450: The prize. In the last decades of the 19th century, many chemists had made significant contributions. Thus, with the Chemistry Prize, the academy "was chiefly faced with merely deciding the order in which these scientists should be awarded the prize". The academy received 20 nominations, eleven of them for Jacobus van 't Hoff . Van 't Hoff was awarded the prize for his contributions in chemical thermodynamics . The Swedish Academy chose
13464-412: The prizes were too Eurocentric. The 2019 Literature Prize to Peter Handke received heavy criticisms from various authors, such as Salman Rushdie and Hari Kunzru , and was condemned by the governments of Bosnia and Herzegovina , Kosovo , and Turkey , due to his history of Bosnian genocide denialism and his support for Slobodan Milošević . In 1949, the neurologist António Egas Moniz received
13600-458: The products and services of IBM, and patent filings. TRL conducts research in microdevices, system software , security and privacy , analytics and optimization , human computer interaction , embedded systems , and services sciences. TRL collaborates with the Japanese universities , and support their research programs. IBM donates its equipment such as servers, storage systems, and so forth to
13736-466: The purposes of the tournament. The San Sebastián 1912 tournament won by Akiba Rubinstein was a designated grandmaster event. Rubinstein won with 12½ points out of 19. Tied for second with 12 points were Aron Nimzowitsch and Rudolf Spielmann . By some accounts, in the St. Petersburg 1914 chess tournament , the title Grandmaster was formally conferred by Russian Tsar Nicholas II , who had partially funded
13872-508: The quarterly FIDE Council meetings. Players who have qualified for the GM title but have not yet been awarded it are informally referred to as "GM-elect". Usage of grandmaster for an expert in some field is recorded from 1590. The first known use of the term grandmaster in connection with chess was in the 18 February 1838 issue of Bell's Life , in which a correspondent referred to William Lewis as "our past grandmaster". Subsequently, George Walker and others referred to Philidor as
14008-431: The regulations. The subcommittee recommended that the automatic award of titles be abolished, criticized the methods used for awarding titles based on qualifying performances, and called for a change in the makeup of the Qualification Committee. Several delegates supported the subcommittee recommendations, including GM Miguel Najdorf who felt that existing regulations were leading to an inflation of international titles. At
14144-438: The relevant score to demonstrate that they had performed at Grandmaster (GM) or International Master (IM) level. Scores were expressed as percentages of a perfect maximum score and decreased as the tournament Category increased, thereby reflecting the strength of a player's opposition and the relative difficulty of the task. Tournament organisers could then apply the percentages to their own tournament format and declare in advance
14280-521: The required score depending on the percentage of Grandmasters and International Masters in the tournament. Concerns were raised that the 1957 regulations were too lax. At the FIDE Congress in 1961, GM Milan Vidmar said that the regulations "made it possible to award international titles to players without sufficient merit". At the 1964 Congress in Tel Aviv , a subcommittee was formed to propose changes to
14416-402: The research laboratories of the IBM Research Division had to be very restrictive with regard to scientific cooperation projects with non-IBM institutions for patent reasons and other reasons, technical-scientific and application-oriented cooperation projects with universities and other public research institutions were an important part of IBM's mission for the scientific centers. Because of this,
14552-423: The spectrum of activities of such a center was often very broad. For example, some research groups could deal with topics that can be assigned to basic or product-oriented research, while others dealt with application-oriented research topics, for example satellite-based soil classification. Descriptions of the thematic focus and research projects as well as a selection of references to the scientific publications of
14688-546: The statutes, the foundation consists of a board of five Swedish or Norwegian citizens, with its seat in Stockholm. The chairman of the board is appointed by the Swedish King in Council , with the other four members appointed by the trustees of the prize-awarding institutions . An Executive director is chosen from among the board members , a deputy director is appointed by the King in Council, and two deputies are appointed by
14824-513: The system could be adapted to fit team events and other competitions. The full proposals included many other rules and regulations, covering such topics as: To become a grandmaster, a player must achieve both of the following: The Grandmaster title is also automatically conferred, without needing to fulfill the above criteria, when reaching the final 16 in the World Cup , winning the Women's World Cup ,
14960-477: The term grandmaster was sometimes informally applied to world class players. The Fédération Internationale des Échecs (FIDE, or International Chess Federation) was formed in Paris in 1924, but at that time did not award formal titles. In 1927, the Soviet Union's Chess Federation established the title of Grandmaster of the Soviet Union, in the form of the German loan word "Großmeister". At the time Soviet players were not competing outside their own country. This title
15096-547: The three members in exile, made sure that nominations were submitted for the Peace Prize and that the prize could be awarded once again. In 1968, Sweden's central bank Sveriges Riksbank celebrated its 300th anniversary by donating a large sum of money to the Nobel Foundation to be used to set up a prize in honour of Alfred Nobel. The following year, the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel
15232-628: The title or rating system" or if a player is found to have violated the anti-cheating regulations in a tournament on which the title application was based. Exact regulations can be found in the FIDE Handbook . A report prepared by Bartłomiej Macieja for the Association of Chess Professionals mentions discussion at the FIDE congress of 2008 regarding a perceived decrease in value of the grandmaster title. The number of grandmasters had increased greatly between 1972 and 2008, but according to Macieja,
15368-414: The total annual cost was approximately 120 million kronor , with 50 million kronor as the prize money. Further costs to pay institutions and persons engaged in giving the prizes were 27.4 million kronor. The events during the Nobel week in Stockholm and Oslo cost 20.2 million kronor. The administration, Nobel symposium , and similar items had costs of 22.4 million kronor. The cost of
15504-514: The tournament. The Tsar reportedly awarded the title to the five finalists: Emanuel Lasker , José Raúl Capablanca , Alexander Alekhine , Siegbert Tarrasch , and Frank Marshall . Chess historian Edward Winter has questioned this, stating that the earliest known sources that support this story are an article by Robert Lewis Taylor in the June 15, 1940, issue of The New Yorker and Marshall's autobiography My 50 Years of Chess (1942). Before 1950,
15640-461: The trustees of these institutions, and auditors . The capital of the Nobel Foundation today is invested 50% in shares , 20% bonds and 30% other investments (e.g. hedge funds or real estate ). The distribution can vary by 10 percent. At the beginning of 2008, 64% of the funds were invested mainly in American and European stocks, 20% in bonds, plus 12% in real estate and hedge funds. In 2011,
15776-714: The value of gold, but averages about 175 grams (0.386 lb) for each medal. The diameter is 66 millimetres (2.6 in) and the thickness varies between 5.2 millimetres (0.20 in) and 2.4 millimetres (0.094 in). Because of the high value of their gold content and tendency to be on public display, Nobel medals are subject to medal theft. During World War II, the medals of German scientists Max von Laue and James Franck were sent to Copenhagen for safekeeping. When Germany invaded Denmark, Hungarian chemist (and Nobel laureate himself) George de Hevesy dissolved them in aqua regia (nitro-hydrochloric acid), to prevent confiscation by Nazi Germany and to prevent legal problems for
15912-423: The visually handicapped, IBM Home Page Reader in 1997 and IBM aiBrowser ( ja:aiBrowser ) in 2007. TRL moved back to Tokyo in 2012, this time at IBM Toyosu Facility . TRL researchers are responsible for numerous breakthroughs in sciences and engineering. The researchers have presented multiple papers at international conferences, and published numerous papers in international journals. They have also contributed to
16048-476: The wife of his first cousin, who won solo for Chemistry in 1964. Jan Tinbergen , who was awarded the first Economics Prize in 1969, was the brother of Nikolaas Tinbergen , who received the 1973 Physiology or Medicine Prize. Gunnar Myrdal , who was awarded the Economics Prize in 1974, was the husband of Alva Myrdal , Peace Prize laureate in 1982. Economics laureates Paul Samuelson (1970) and Kenneth Arrow (1972; shared) were brothers-in-law. Frits Zernike , who
16184-690: The will was approved in April 1897. Soon thereafter, the other prize-awarding organisations were designated. These were the Karolinska Institute on 7 June, the Swedish Academy on 9 June, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences on 11 June. The Nobel Foundation reached an agreement on guidelines for how the prizes should be awarded; and, in 1900, the Nobel Foundation's newly created statutes were promulgated by King Oscar II . According to his will and testament read in Stockholm on 30 December 1896,
16320-412: The year when the full impact of the discovery has become evident." The interval between the award and the accomplishment it recognises varies from discipline to discipline. The Literature Prize is typically awarded to recognise a cumulative lifetime body of work rather than a single achievement. The Peace Prize can also be awarded for a lifetime body of work. For example, 2008 laureate Martti Ahtisaari
16456-502: Was a research and development laboratory established by IBM Research in 2009 in Melbourne . It was involved in social media , interactive content, healthcare analytics and services research, multimedia analytics, and genomics. The lab was headed by several directors over its 10 years lifespan, including Vice President, Joanna Batstone and Professor Iven Mareels. It was to be the company’s first laboratory combining research and development in
16592-509: Was abolished in 1931, after having been awarded to Boris Verlinsky , who won the 1929 Soviet Championship . The title was brought back in 1935, and awarded to Mikhail Botvinnik , who thus became the first "official" Grandmaster of the USSR. Verlinsky did not get his title back. In 1950 FIDE created the titles of Grandmaster (GM), International Master (IM) and Woman Master (WM, later known as Woman International Master or WIM). The grandmaster title
16728-604: Was awarded for his work to resolve international conflicts. However, they can also be awarded for specific recent events. For instance, Kofi Annan was awarded the 2001 Peace Prize just four years after becoming the Secretary-General of the United Nations. Similarly Yasser Arafat , Yitzhak Rabin , and Shimon Peres received the 1994 award, about a year after they successfully concluded the Oslo Accords . A controversy
16864-417: Was awarded for the first time. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences became responsible for selecting laureates. The first laureates for the Economics Prize were Jan Tinbergen and Ragnar Frisch "for having developed and applied dynamic models for the analysis of economic processes". The board of the Nobel Foundation decided that after this addition, it would allow no further new prizes. The award process
17000-549: Was awarded the 1953 Physics Prize, was the great-uncle of 1999 Physics laureate Gerard 't Hooft . In 2019, married couple Abhijit Banerjee and Esther Duflo were awarded the Economics Prize. Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard was awarded the Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1995, and her nephew Benjamin List received the Chemistry Prize in 2021. Sune Bergström was awarded the Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1982, and his son Svante Pääbo
17136-629: Was awarded the same prize in 2022. Edwin McMillan , who shared the Prize in Chemistry in 1951, was the uncle of John Clauser , who was awarded the Prize in Physics in 2022. Among other criticisms, the Nobel Committees have been accused of having a political agenda, and of omitting more deserving candidates. They have also been accused of Eurocentrism , especially for the Literature Prize. Among
17272-422: Was awarded to Manne Siegbahn in 1924, followed by his son, Kai Siegbahn , in 1981. Hans von Euler-Chelpin , who received the Chemistry Prize in 1929, was the father of Ulf von Euler , who was awarded the Physiology or Medicine Prize in 1970. C. V. Raman was awarded the Physics Prize in 1930 and was the uncle of Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar , who was awarded the same prize in 1983. Arthur Kornberg received
17408-549: Was born on 21 October 1833 in Stockholm , Sweden, into a family of engineers. He was a chemist , engineer , and inventor . In 1894, Nobel purchased the Bofors iron and steel mill, which he made into a major armaments manufacturer . Nobel also invented ballistite . This invention was a precursor to many smokeless military explosives, especially the British smokeless powder cordite . As
17544-498: Was caused by awarding the 2009 Nobel Peace Prize to Barack Obama during his first year as US president. Awards for physics, chemistry, and medicine are typically awarded once the achievement has been widely accepted. Sometimes, this takes decades – for example, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar shared the 1983 Physics Prize for his 1930s work on stellar structure and evolution. Not all scientists live long enough for their work to be recognised. Some discoveries can never be considered for
17680-506: Was chosen because of its close proximity to Stanford University , UC Santa Cruz , UC Berkeley and other collaborative academic institutions. Today, the research division is still the largest tenant of the site, but the majority of occupants work for other divisions of IBM. IBM opened its first West Coast research center, the San Jose Research Laboratory in 1952, managed by Reynold B. Johnson . Among its first developments
17816-635: Was developed at TRL. It was used to translate IBM manuals. TRL was shifted from downtown Tokyo to the suburbs to share a building with IBM Yamato Facility in Yamato , Kanagawa Prefecture in 1993. In 1993, world record was accomplished for generation of continuous coherent Ultraviolet rays. In 1996, Java JIT compiler was developed at TRL, and it was released for major IBM platforms. Numerous other technological breakthroughs were made at TRL. The team led by Chieko Asakawa ( ja:浅川智恵子 ), IBM Fellow since 2009, provided basic technology for IBM's software programs for
17952-589: Was established in 1982 as the Japan Science Institute (JSI) in Sanbanchō, Tokyo . It was IBM's first research laboratory in Asia. Hisashi Kobayashi was appointed the founding director of TRL in 1982; he served as director until 1986. JSI was renamed to the IBM Tokyo Research Laboratory in 1986. In 1988, English-to-Japanese machine translation system called "System for Human-Assisted Language Translation" (SHALT)
18088-406: Was that awarded to Barack Obama in 2009 . Nominations had closed only eleven days after Obama took office as President of the United States , but the actual evaluation occurred over the next eight months. Obama himself stated that he did not feel deserving of the award, or worthy of the company in which it would place him. Past Peace Prize laureates were divided, some saying that Obama deserved
18224-590: Was the IBM 350 , the first commercial moving head hard disk drive. Launched in 1956, this saw use in the IBM 305 RAMAC computer system. Subdivisions included the Advanced Systems Development Division. Directors of the center include hard disc drive developer Jack Harker . Prompted by a need for additional space, the center moved to its present Almaden location in 1986. Scientists at IBM Almaden have contributed to several scientific discoveries such as
18360-527: Was the director of UNICEF when he accepted the Nobel Peace Prize in 1965 on that organisation's behalf. Although no family matches the Curie family's record, there have been several with two laureates. The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to the husband-and-wife team of Gerty Cori and Carl Ferdinand Cori in 1947, and to the husband-and-wife team of May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser in 2014 (along with John O'Keefe ). The Physics Prize in 1906
18496-423: Was won by J. J. Thomson for showing that electrons are particles, and in 1937 by his son, George Paget Thomson , for showing that they also have the properties of waves . William Henry Bragg and his son, William Lawrence Bragg , shared the Physics Prize in 1915 for inventing X-ray crystallography . Niels Bohr was awarded the Physics Prize in 1922, as was his son, Aage Bohr , in 1975. The Physics Prize
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