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118-618: IBM's quantum processors are made up of superconducting transmon qubits , located in dilution refrigerators at the IBM Research headquarters at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center . Users interact with a quantum processor through the quantum circuit model of computation. Circuits can be created either graphically with the Quantum Composer, or programmatically with the Jupyter notebooks of

236-505: A public company via an initial public offering, listing the company on the Nasdaq Global Select Market under the ticker symbol GOOG. At that time Page, Brin and Schmidt agreed to work together at Google for 20 years, until the year 2024. The company offered 19,605,052 shares at a price of $ 85 per share. Shares were sold in an online auction format using a system built by Morgan Stanley and Credit Suisse , underwriters for

354-458: A quantum state | Ψ ⟩ = 1 2 ( | 000 ⟩ + | 111 ⟩ ) {\displaystyle |\Psi \rangle ={\frac {1}{\sqrt {2}}}\left(|000\rangle +|111\rangle \right)} , a 3-qubit GHZ state , which can be thought of as a variant of the Bell state , but with three qubits instead of two. It then measures

472-508: A $ 250,000 investment. Google received money from two other angel investors in 1998: Amazon.com founder Jeff Bezos , and entrepreneur Ram Shriram . Page and Brin had first approached Shriram, who was a venture capitalist, for funding and counsel, and Shriram invested $ 250,000 in Google in February 1998. Shriram knew Bezos because Amazon had acquired Junglee, at which Shriram was the president. It

590-421: A Josephson junction, where charge and phase are analogous to momentum and position respectively as analogous to a quantum harmonic oscillator . Note that in this context phase is the complex argument of the superconducting wave function (also known as the superconducting order parameter ), not the phase between the different states of the qubit. The flux qubit (also known as a persistent-current qubit) possesses

708-639: A Josephson to charging energy ratio on the order of magnitude 10 {\displaystyle 10} . For flux qubits, the energy levels correspond to different integer numbers of magnetic flux quanta trapped in a superconducting ring. Fluxonium qubits are a specific type of flux qubit whose Josephson junction is shunted by a linear inductor of E J ≫ E L {\displaystyle E_{J}\gg E_{L}} where E L = ( ℏ / 2 e ) 2 / L {\displaystyle E_{L}=(\hbar /2e)^{2}/L} . In practice,

826-497: A chief executive officer, which had been made verbally during investment negotiations. Eric was not initially enthusiastic about joining Google either, as the company's full potential had not yet been widely recognized at the time, and as he was occupied with his responsibilities at Novell where he was CEO. As part of him joining, Eric agreed to buy $ 1 million of Google preferred stocks as a way to show his commitment and to provide funds Google needed. On August 19, 2004, Google became

944-414: A chip composed of 53 superconducting qubits. Classical computation models rely on physical implementations consistent with the laws of classical mechanics . Classical descriptions are accurate only for specific systems consisting of a relatively large number of atoms. A more general description of nature is given by quantum mechanics . Quantum computation studies quantum phenomena applications beyond

1062-451: A citation to Li's earlier RankDex patent; Li later went on to create the Chinese search engine Baidu . Eventually, they changed the name to Google ; the name of the search engine was a misspelling of the word googol , a very large number written 10 (1 followed by 100 zeros), picked to signify that the search engine was intended to provide large quantities of information. Google

1180-426: A driving signal of frequency ω d {\displaystyle \omega _{d}} , a driven qubit Hamiltonian in a rotating wave approximation is where ω {\displaystyle \omega } is the qubit resonance and σ x , σ y {\displaystyle \sigma _{x},\sigma _{y}} are Pauli matrices . To implement

1298-412: A global phase which is physically inconsequential) by a procedure known as the X − Y {\displaystyle X-Y} decomposition. Setting ∫ 0 t g E x ( t ) d t = π {\displaystyle \int _{0}^{t_{g}}{\mathcal {E}}^{x}(t)dt=\pi } results in the transformation up to

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1416-461: A larger percentage of control over the company to themselves. Larry and Sergey however insisted on taking investments from both. Both venture companies finally agreed to investing jointly $ 12.5 million each due to their belief in Google's great potential and through the mediation of earlier angel investors Ron Conway and Ram Shriram who had contacts in the venture companies. In March 1999, the company moved its offices to Palo Alto, California , which

1534-476: A meeting with Page and Brin and his Granite co-founder Andy Bechtolsheim. The meeting was set for 8 a.m. at the front porch of David's home in Palo Alto and it had to be brief because Andy had another meeting at Cisco, where he now worked after the acquisition, at 9 a.m. Andy briefly tested a demo of the website, liked what he saw, and then went back to his car to grab the check. David Cheriton later also joined in with

1652-428: A memo throughout the company that argued bias and " Google's Ideological Echo Chamber " clouded their thinking about diversity and inclusion, and that it is also biological factors, not discrimination alone, that cause the average woman to be less interested than men in technical positions. Google CEO Sundar Pichai accused Damore of violating company policy by "advancing harmful gender stereotypes in our workplace", and he

1770-410: A monopoly on the market harming publishers, advertisers, and consumers. In 2022, Google began accepting requests for the removal of phone numbers, physical addresses and email addresses from its search results. It had previously accepted requests for removing confidential data only, such as Social Security numbers, bank account and credit card numbers, personal signatures, and medical records. Even with

1888-1093: A multitude of products and services beyond Google Search , many of which hold dominant market positions. These products address a wide range of use cases, including email ( Gmail ), navigation and mapping ( Waze , Maps and Earth ), cloud computing ( Cloud ), web navigation ( Chrome ), video sharing ( YouTube ), productivity ( Workspace ), operating systems ( Android ), cloud storage ( Drive ), language translation ( Translate ), photo storage ( Photos ), videotelephony ( Meet ), smart home ( Nest ), smartphones ( Pixel ), wearable technology ( Pixel Watch and Fitbit ), music streaming ( YouTube Music ), video on demand ( YouTube TV ), AI ( Google Assistant and Gemini ), machine learning APIs ( TensorFlow ), AI chips ( TPU ), and more. Discontinued Google products include gaming ( Stadia ), Glass , Google+ , Reader , Play Music , Nexus , Hangouts , and Inbox by Gmail . Google's other ventures outside of internet services and consumer electronics include quantum computing ( Sycamore ), self-driving cars ( Waymo , formerly

2006-404: A quantum circuit had its own set of challenges and must abide by DiVincenzo's criteria , conditions proposed by theoretical physicist David P DiVincenzo, which is set of criteria for the physical implementation of superconducting quantum computing, where the initial five criteria ensure that the quantum computer is in line with the postulates of quantum mechanics and the remaining two pertaining to

2124-474: A research project by Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were both PhD students at Stanford University in California. The project initially involved an unofficial "third founder", Scott Hassan , the original lead programmer who wrote much of the code for the original Google Search engine, but he left before Google was officially founded as a company; Hassan went on to pursue a career in robotics and founded

2242-444: A rotation about the X {\displaystyle X} axis, one can set E y ( t ) = 0 {\displaystyle {\mathcal {E}}^{y}(t)=0} and apply a microwave pulse at frequency ω d = ω {\displaystyle \omega _{d}=\omega } for time t g {\displaystyle t_{g}} . The resulting transformation

2360-574: A service which searches the text found in books in its database and shows limited previews or and the full book where allowed. Google expanded its search services to include shopping (launched originally as Froogle in 2002), finance (launched 2006), and flights (launched 2011). Google generates most of its revenues from advertising. This includes sales of apps, purchases made in-app, digital content products on Google and YouTube, Android and licensing and service fees, including fees received for Google Cloud offerings. Forty-six percent of this profit

2478-458: A simulator. Algorithms developed in the Quantum Composer are referred to as a "quantum score", in reference to the Quantum Composer resembling a musical sheet. The composer can also be used in scripting mode, where the user can write programs in the OpenQASM -language instead. Below is an example of a very small program, built for IBMs 5- qubit computer. The program instructs the computer to generate

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2596-435: A single step, providing a substantial shortcut to the conventional circuit model. One popular gating mechanism uses two qubits and a bus, each tuned to different energy level separations. Applying microwave excitation to the first qubit, with a frequency resonant with the second qubit, causes a σ x {\displaystyle \sigma _{x}} rotation of the second qubit. Rotation direction depends on

2714-473: A superconducting island (a small superconducting area with a controllable number of charge carriers). Indeed, the first experimentally realized qubit was the Cooper pair box, achieved in 1999. Transmons are a special type of qubit with a shunted capacitor specifically designed to mitigate noise . The transmon qubit model was based on the Cooper pair box (illustrated in the table above in row one column one). It

2832-595: A superconductor over a typical conductor, then, are twofold in that superconductors can, in theory, transmit signals nearly instantaneously and run infinitely with no energy loss. The prospect of actualizing superconducting quantum computers becomes all the more promising considering NASA 's recent development of the Cold Atom Lab in outer space where Bose-Einstein Condensates are more readily achieved and sustained (without rapid dissipation) for longer periods of time without

2950-408: A thick red line, and schematic wave function solutions are depicted by thin lines, lifted to their appropriate energy level for clarity. Note that particle mass corresponds to an inverse function of the circuit capacitance and that the shape of the potential is governed by regular inductors and Josephson junctions. Schematic wave solutions in the third row of the table show the complex amplitude of

3068-1005: A third in December affecting the entire suite of Google applications. All three outages were resolved within hours. In 2021, the Alphabet Workers Union was founded, composed mostly of Google employees. In January 2021, the Australian Government proposed legislation that would require Google and Facebook to pay media companies for the right to use their content. In response, Google threatened to close off access to its search engine in Australia. In March 2021, Google reportedly paid $ 20 million for Ubisoft ports on Google Stadia. Google spent "tens of millions of dollars" on getting major publishers such as Ubisoft and Take-Two to bring some of their biggest games to Stadia. In April 2021, The Wall Street Journal reported that Google ran

3186-453: A years-long program called "Project Bernanke" that used data from past advertising bids to gain an advantage over competing for ad services. This was revealed in documents concerning the antitrust lawsuit filed by ten US states against Google in December. In September 2021, the Australian government announced plans to curb Google's capability to sell targeted ads, claiming that the company has

3304-458: A ~5 GHz energy level separation. Qubit energy level separation is frequently adjusted by controlling a dedicated bias current line, providing a "knob" to fine tune the qubit parameters. A single qubit gate is achieved by rotation in the Bloch sphere . Rotations between different energy levels of a single qubit are induced by microwave pulses sent to an antenna or transmission line coupled to

3422-417: Is This is exactly the rotation operator R X ( θ ) {\displaystyle R_{X}(\theta )} by angle θ = ∫ 0 t g E x ( t ) d t {\displaystyle \theta =\int _{0}^{t_{g}}{\mathcal {E}}^{x}(t)dt} about the X {\displaystyle X} axis in

3540-568: Is cavity quantum electrodynamics . In cavity quantum electrodynamics, qubits are analogous to atoms interacting with an optical photon cavity with a difference of GHz (rather than the THz regime of electromagnetic radiation). Resonant excitation exchange among these artificial atoms is potentially useful for direct implementation of multi-qubit gates. Following the dark state manifold , the Khazali-Mølmer scheme performs complex multi-qubit operations in

3658-504: Is (superconducting) flux quantum , and δ {\displaystyle \delta } is the phase difference across the junction. Notice that the term c o s δ {\displaystyle cos\delta } indicates nonlinearity of the Josephson junction. Charge energy is written as where C {\displaystyle C} is the junction's capacitance and e {\displaystyle e}

IBM Quantum Platform - Misplaced Pages Continue

3776-500: Is a branch of solid state physics and quantum computing that implements superconducting electronic circuits using superconducting qubits as artificial atoms, or quantum dots . For superconducting qubits, the two logic states are the ground state and the excited state , denoted | g ⟩  and  | e ⟩ {\displaystyle |g\rangle {\text{ and }}|e\rangle } respectively. Research in superconducting quantum computing

3894-441: Is built using semiconductor circuits with an LC circuit : a capacitor and an inductor. Superconducting capacitors and inductors are used to produce a resonant circuit that dissipates almost no energy, as heat can disrupt quantum information. The superconducting resonant circuits are a class of artificial atoms that can be used as qubits. Theoretical and physical implementations of quantum circuits are widely different. Implementing

4012-532: Is conducted by companies such as Google , IBM , IMEC , BBN Technologies , Rigetti , and Intel . Many recently developed QPUs ( quantum processing units , or quantum chips) use superconducting architecture. As of May 2016 , up to 9 fully controllable qubits are demonstrated in the 1D array , and up to 16 in 2D architecture. In October 2019, the Martinis group, partnered with Google , published an article demonstrating novel quantum supremacy , using

4130-403: Is critically important for qubit implementation. The use of this nonlinear element in the resonant superconducting circuit produces uneven spacings between the energy levels. A qubit is a generalization of a bit (a system with two possible states ) capable of occupying a quantum superposition of both states. A quantum gate, on the other hand, is a generalization of a logic gate describing

4248-441: Is electron charge. Of the three archetypes, phase qubits allow the most of Cooper pairs to tunnel through the junction, followed by flux qubits, and charge qubits allow the fewest. The phase qubit possesses a Josephson to charge energy ratio on the order of magnitude 10 6 {\displaystyle 10^{6}} . For phase qubits, energy levels correspond to different quantum charge oscillation amplitudes across

4366-432: Is home to several prominent Silicon Valley technology start-ups. The next year, Google began selling advertisements associated with search keywords against Page and Brin's initial opposition toward an advertising-funded search engine. To maintain an uncluttered page design, advertisements were solely text-based. In June 2000, it was announced that Google would become the default search engine provider for Yahoo! , one of

4484-582: Is magnetic flux quantum. In the table above, the three superconducting qubit archetypes are reviewed. In the first row, the qubit's electrical circuit diagram is presented. The second row depicts a quantum Hamiltonian derived from the circuit. Generally, the Hamiltonian is the sum of the system's kinetic and potential energy components (analogous to a particle in a potential well ). For the Hamiltonians denoted, ϕ {\displaystyle \phi }

4602-694: Is only allowed to take values greater than 2 π {\displaystyle 2\pi } and is alternatively defined as the time integral of voltage along inductance L {\displaystyle L} . H = ( 2 e ) 2 2 C J q 2 − I 0 Φ 0 2 π ϕ − E J cos ⁡ ϕ {\displaystyle H={\frac {(2e)^{2}}{2C_{J}}}q^{2}-I_{0}{\frac {\Phi _{0}}{2\pi }}\phi -E_{J}\cos \phi } Here Φ 0 {\displaystyle \Phi _{0}}

4720-401: Is qubit detuning, m 12 {\displaystyle m_{12}} is stray (unwanted) coupling between qubits, and ℏ {\displaystyle \hbar } is the reduced Planck constant . The time integral over A ( t ) {\displaystyle A(t)} determines the angle of rotation. Unwanted rotations from the first and third terms of

4838-600: Is resonance frequency of the second qubit, { I , σ x , σ y , σ z } {\displaystyle \{I,\sigma _{x},\sigma _{y},\sigma _{z}\}} are the Pauli matrices , J {\displaystyle J} is the coupling coefficient between the two qubits via the resonator, Δ 12 ≡ ω 1 − ω 2 {\displaystyle \Delta _{12}\equiv \omega _{1}-\omega _{2}}

IBM Quantum Platform - Misplaced Pages Continue

4956-822: Is the charging energy associated with both capacitance C {\displaystyle C} and Josephson junction capacitance C J {\displaystyle C_{J}} . H = q 2 2 C J + ( Φ 0 2 π ) 2 ϕ 2 2 L − E J cos ⁡ [ ϕ − Φ 2 π Φ 0 ] {\displaystyle H={\frac {q^{2}}{2C_{J}}}+\left({\frac {\Phi _{0}}{2\pi }}\right)^{2}{\frac {\phi ^{2}}{2L}}-E_{J}\cos \left[\phi -\Phi {\frac {2\pi }{\Phi _{0}}}\right]} Note that ϕ {\displaystyle \phi }

5074-416: Is the number of Cooper pairs to tunnel through the junction, N g = C V 0 / 2 e {\displaystyle N_{g}=CV_{0}/2e} is the charge on the capacitor in units of Cooper pairs number, E C = ( 2 e ) 2 / 2 ( C J + C ) {\displaystyle E_{C}=(2e)^{2}/2(C_{J}+C)}

5192-406: Is the superconducting wave function phase difference across the junction, C J {\displaystyle C_{J}} is the capacitance associated with the Josephson junction, and q {\displaystyle q} is the charge on the junction capacitance. For each potential depicted, only solid wave functions are used for computation. The qubit potential is indicated by

5310-1032: Is tunable via gate voltage . In 2022 researchers from IQM Quantum Computers, Aalto University , and VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland discovered a novel superconducting qubit known as the Unimon. A relatively simple qubit, the Unimon consists of a single Josephson junction shunted by a linear inductor (possessing an inductance not depending on current) inside a (superconducting) resonator . Unimons have increased anharmocity and display faster operation time resulting in lower susceptibility to noise errors. In addition to increased anharmocity, other advantages Unimon qubit include decreased susceptibility to flux noise and complete insensitivity to dc charge noise. H = E C ( N − N g ) 2 − E J cos ⁡ ϕ {\displaystyle H=E_{C}(N-N_{g})^{2}-E_{J}\cos \phi } In this case N {\displaystyle N}

5428-509: Is very similar in design to a transmon in that it originated based on the planar transmon model. An Xmon is essentially a tunable transmon. The major distinguishing difference between transmon and Xmon qubits is the Xmon qubits is grounded with one of its capacitor pads. Another variation of the transmon qubit is the Gatemon. Like the Xmon, the Gatemon is a tunable variation of the transmon. The Gatemon

5546-570: Is what allowed them to open up their original shop in Menlo Park, California . Craig Silverstein , a fellow PhD student at Stanford, was hired as the first employee. After some additional, small investments through the end of 1998 to early 1999, a new $ 25 million round of funding was announced on June 7, 1999, with major investors including the venture capital firms Kleiner Perkins and Sequoia Capital . Both firms were initially reticent about investing jointly in Google, as each wanted to retain

5664-561: The EU Court of Justice , based in Europe, would also find that Google held an illegal monopoly, in this case with regards to its shopping search, and could not avoid paying a €2.4 billion fine. The EU Court of Justice found that Google's treatment of rival shopping searches, which the court referred to as "discriminatory", was in violation of the Digital Markets Act . In October 2024, Google

5782-615: The Google Self-Driving Car Project ), smart cities ( Sidewalk Labs ), and transformer models ( Google DeepMind ). Google Search and YouTube are the two most-visited websites worldwide followed by Facebook and X (formerly known as Twitter). Google is also the largest search engine , mapping and navigation application , email provider , office suite , online video platform , photo and cloud storage provider, mobile operating system , web browser , machine learning framework, and AI virtual assistant provider in

5900-460: The Josephson Effect whereby the junction produces a supercurrent . An image of a single Josephson junction is shown to the right. The condensate wave function on the two sides of the junction are weakly correlated, meaning that they are allowed to have different superconducting phases. This distinction of nonlinearity contrasts continuous superconducting wire for which the wave function across

6018-410: The exposé , "How Google Protected Andy Rubin , the 'Father of Android'". The company subsequently announced that "48 employees have been fired over the last two years" for sexual misconduct. On November 1, 2018, more than 20,000 Google employees and contractors staged a global walk-out to protest the company's handling of sexual harassment complaints. CEO Sundar Pichai was reported to be in support of

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6136-436: The quantum harmonic oscillator cannot be used as a qubit as there is no way to address only two of its states, given that the spacing between every energy level and the next is exactly the same. The three primary superconducting qubit archetypes are the phase , charge and flux qubit. Many hybridizations of these archetypes exist including the fluxonium, transmon , Xmon, and quantronium. For any qubit implementation

6254-501: The terahertz gap (lack of equipment in the higher frequency band ). The superconductor energy gap implies a top limit of operation below ~1THz beyond which Cooper pairs break, so energy level separation cannot be too high. On the other hand, energy level separation cannot be too small due to cooling considerations: a temperature of 1 K implies energy fluctuations of 20 GHz. Temperatures of tens of millikelvins are achieved in dilution refrigerators and allow qubit operation at

6372-429: The transformation of one or more qubits once a gate is applied given their initial state. Physical implementation of qubits and gates is challenging for the same reason that quantum phenomena are difficult to observe in everyday life given the minute scale on which they occur. One approach to achieving quantum computers is by implementing superconductors whereby quantum effects are macroscopically observable, though at

6490-590: The AI race, Google's senior management issued a "code red" and a "directive that all of its most important products—those with more than a billion users—must incorporate generative AI within months". In early May 2023, Google announced its plans to build two additional data centers in Ohio. These centers, which will be built in Columbus and Lancaster, will power up the company's tools, including AI technology. The said data hub will add to

6608-633: The Bloch sphere. A rotation about the Y {\displaystyle Y} axis can be implemented in a similar way. Showing the two rotation operators is sufficient for satisfying universality as every single qubit unitary operator U {\displaystyle U} may be presented as U = R X ( θ 1 ) R Y ( θ 2 ) R X ( θ 3 ) {\displaystyle U=R_{X}(\theta _{1})R_{Y}(\theta _{2})R_{X}(\theta _{3})} (up to

6726-408: The Google content network, through a cost-per-click scheme. The sister service, Google AdSense, allows website owners to display these advertisements on their website and earn money every time ads are clicked. One of the criticisms of this program is the possibility of click fraud , which occurs when a person or automated script clicks on advertisements without being interested in the product, causing

6844-423: The Hamiltonian can be compensated for with single qubit operations. The remaining component, combined with single qubit rotations, forms a basis for the su(4) Lie algebra . Higher levels (outside of the computational subspace) of a pair of coupled superconducting circuits can be used to induce a geometric phase on one of the computational states of the qubits. This leads to an entangling conditional phase shift of

6962-465: The Quantum Lab. Circuits are created using Qiskit and can be compiled down to OpenQASM for execution on real quantum systems. The Quantum Composer is a graphic user interface (GUI) designed by IBM to allow users to construct various quantum algorithms or run other quantum experiments. Users may see the results of their quantum algorithms by either running it on a real quantum processor or by using

7080-521: The advertiser to pay money to Google unduly. Industry reports in 2006 claimed that approximately 14 to 20 percent of clicks were fraudulent or invalid. Google Search Console (rebranded from Google Webmaster Tools in May 2015) allows webmasters to check the sitemap, crawl rate, and for security issues of their websites, as well as optimize their website's visibility. Google had previously used virtual assistants and chatbots , such as Google Bard, prior to

7198-460: The already operational center near Columbus, bringing Google's total investment in Ohio to over $ 2 billion. In August 2024, Google would lose a lawsuit which started in 2020 in lower court, as it was found that the company had an illegal monopoly over Internet search. D.C. Circuit Court Judge Amit Mehta held that this monopoly was in violation of Section 2 of the Sherman Act . In September 2024,

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7316-550: The basis for analog quantum simulation of spin systems and the primitive for an expressive set of quantum gates, sometimes referred to as fermionic simulation (or fSim ) gates. In superconducting circuits, this interaction model has been implemented using flux-tunable qubits with flux-tunable coupling, allowing the demonstration of quantum supremacy. In addition, it can also be realized in fixed-frequency qubits with fixed-coupling using microwave drives. The fSim gate family encompasses arbitrary XY and ZZ two-qubit unitaries, including

7434-497: The code to implement Page's ideas. Page and Brin would also use their friend Susan Wojcicki 's garage as their office when the search engine was set up in 1998. Page and Brin originally nicknamed the new search engine "BackRub", because the system checked backlinks to estimate the importance of a site. Hassan as well as Alan Steremberg were cited by Page and Brin as being critical to the development of Google. Rajeev Motwani and Terry Winograd later co-authored with Page and Brin

7552-466: The company Willow Garage in 2006. While conventional search engines ranked results by counting how many times the search terms appeared on the page, they theorized about a better system that analyzed the relationships among websites. They called this algorithm PageRank ; it determined a website's relevance by the number of pages, and the importance of those pages that linked back to the original site. Page told his ideas to Hassan, who began writing

7670-455: The company was purchased for $ 400 million, yet the source of the information was not disclosed. A Google spokesperson declined to comment on the price. The purchase of DeepMind aids in Google's recent growth in the artificial intelligence and robotics community. In 2015, DeepMind's AlphaGo became the first computer program to defeat a top human pro at the game of Go. According to Interbrand's annual Best Global Brands report, Google has been

7788-595: The constraints of gravity . At each point of a superconducting electronic circuit (a network of electrical elements ), the condensate wave function describing charge flow is well-defined by some complex probability amplitude . In typical conductor electrical circuits, this same description is true for individual charge carriers except that the various wave functions are averaged in macroscopic analysis, making it impossible to observe quantum effects. The condensate wave function becomes useful in allowing design and measurement of macroscopic quantum effects. Similar to

7906-530: The deal. The sale of $ 1.67 billion gave Google a market capitalization of more than $ 23 billion. On November 13, 2006, Google acquired YouTube for $ 1.65 billion in Google stock, On July 20, 2007, Google bids $ 4.6 billion for the wireless-spectrum auction by the FCC. On March 11, 2008, Google acquired DoubleClick for $ 3.1 billion, transferring to Google valuable relationships that DoubleClick had with Web publishers and advertising agencies. By 2011, Google

8024-419: The development of micro-optics, monolithic integration, and system integration. In December 2022, Google debuted OSV-Scanner, a Go tool for finding security holes in open source software , which pulls from the largest open source vulnerability database of its kind to defend against supply chain attacks. In early 2023, following the success of ChatGPT and concerns that Google was falling behind in

8142-446: The discrete atomic energy levels in the Bohr model , only discrete numbers of magnetic flux quanta can penetrate a superconducting loop. In both cases, quantization results from complex amplitude continuity . Differing from microscopic implementations of quantum computers (such as atoms or photons ), parameters of superconducting circuits are designed by setting (classical) values to

8260-514: The early 2000s. One distinguishable attribute of superconducting quantum circuits is the use of Josephson junctions . Josephson junctions are an electrical element which does not exist in normal conductors . Recall that a junction is a weak connection between two leads of wire (in this case a superconductive wire) on either side of a thin layer of insulator material only a few atoms thick, usually implemented using shadow evaporation technique. The resulting Josephson junction device exhibits

8378-413: The electrical elements composing them such as by adjusting capacitance or inductance . To obtain a quantum mechanical description of an electrical circuit, a few steps are required. Firstly, all electrical elements must be described by the condensate wave function amplitude and phase rather than by closely related macroscopic current and voltage descriptions used for classical circuits. For instance,

8496-474: The energy stored in Josephson junctions when current passes through, and charging energy is the energy required for one Cooper pair to charge the junction's total capacitance. Josephson energy can be written as where I 0 {\displaystyle I_{0}} is the critical current parameter of the Josephson junction, Φ 0 = h 2 e {\displaystyle \textstyle \Phi _{0}={\frac {h}{2e}}}

8614-448: The first paper about the project, describing PageRank and the initial prototype of the Google search engine, published in 1998. Héctor García-Molina and Jeffrey Ullman were also cited as contributors to the project. PageRank was influenced by a similar page-ranking and site-scoring algorithm earlier used for RankDex , developed by Robin Li in 1996, with Larry Page's PageRank patent including

8732-536: The global phase − i {\displaystyle -i} and is known as the NOT gate . The ability to couple qubits is essential for implementing 2-qubit gates . Coupling two qubits can be achieved by connecting both to an intermediate electrical coupling circuit. The circuit may be either a fixed element (such as a capacitor) or be controllable (like the DC-SQUID ). In the first case, decoupling qubits during

8850-471: The grounds the company had abused a monopoly position in the search and search advertising markets. In December 2019, former PayPal chief operating officer Bill Ready became Google's new commerce chief. Ready's role will not be directly involved with Google Pay . In April 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic , Google announced several cost-cutting measures. Such measures included slowing down hiring for

8968-612: The half flux sweet spot, which can exceed 1 millisecond. Another crucial advantage of the fluxonium qubit biased at the sweet spot is the large anharmonicity, which allows fast local microwave control and mitigates spectral crowding problems, leading to better scalability. The charge qubit, also known as the Cooper pair box , possesses a Josephson to charging energy ratio on the order of magnitude < 1 {\displaystyle <1} . For charge qubits, different energy levels correspond to an integer number of Cooper pairs on

9086-576: The iSWAP, the CZ, and the SWAP gates (see Quantum logic gate ). Google Google LLC ( / ˈ ɡ uː ɡ əl / GOO -gəl ) is an American-based multinational corporation and technology company focusing on online advertising , search engine technology, cloud computing , computer software , quantum computing , e-commerce , consumer electronics , and artificial intelligence (AI). It has been referred to as "the most powerful company in

9204-727: The information they desire through the use of keywords and operators . According to comScore market research from November 2009, Google Search is the dominant search engine in the United States market, with a market share of 65.6%. In May 2017, Google enabled a new "Personal" tab in Google Search, letting users search for content in their Google accounts' various services, including email messages from Gmail and photos from Google Photos. Google launched its Google News service in 2002, an automated service which summarizes news articles from various websites. Google also hosts Google Books ,

9322-569: The junction must be continuous . Current flow through the junction occurs by quantum tunneling , seeming to instantaneously "tunnel" from one side of the junction to the other. This tunneling phenomenon is unique to quantum systems. Thus, quantum tunneling is used to create nonlinear inductance, essential for qubit design as it allows a design of anharmonic oscillators for which energy levels are discretized (or quantized ) with nonuniform spacing between energy levels, denoted Δ E {\displaystyle \Delta E} . In contrast,

9440-481: The launch of a new company, called Calico , on September 19, 2013, to be led by Apple Inc. chairman Arthur Levinson . In the official public statement, Page explained that the "health and well-being" company would focus on "the challenge of ageing and associated diseases". On January 26, 2014, Google announced it had agreed to acquire DeepMind Technologies , a privately held artificial intelligence company from London . Technology news website Recode reported that

9558-457: The length of quantum computation possible before processor decoherence . Another method of coupling two or more qubits is by way of a quantum bus , by pairing qubits to this intermediate. A quantum bus is often implemented as a microwave cavity modeled by a quantum harmonic oscillator. Coupled qubits may be brought in and out of resonance with the bus and with each other, eliminating the nearest-neighbor limitation. Formalism describing coupling

9676-402: The linear inductor is usually implemented by a Josephson junction array that is composed of a large number (can be often N > 100 {\displaystyle N>100} ) of large-sized Josephson junctions connected in a series. Under this condition, the Hamiltonian of a fluxonium can be written as: One important property of the fluxonium qubit is the longer qubit lifetime at

9794-420: The logical quantum states { | 0 ⟩ , | 1 ⟩ } {\displaystyle \{|0\rangle ,|1\rangle \}} are mapped to different states of the physical system (typically to discrete energy levels or their quantum superpositions ). Each of the three archetypes possess a distinct range of Josephson energy to charging energy ratio. Josephson energy refers to

9912-560: The most popular websites at the time, replacing Inktomi . In 2003, after outgrowing two other locations, the company leased an office complex from Silicon Graphics , at 1600 Amphitheatre Parkway in Mountain View, California . The complex became known as the Googleplex , a play on the word googolplex , the number one followed by a googol of zeroes. Three years later, Google bought the property from SGI for $ 319 million. By that time,

10030-684: The name "Google" had found its way into everyday language, causing the verb " google " to be added to the Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary and the Oxford English Dictionary , denoted as: "to use the Google search engine to obtain information on the Internet". The first use of the verb on television appeared in an October 2002 episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer . Additionally, in 2001 Google's investors felt

10148-538: The need to have a strong internal management, and they agreed to hire Eric Schmidt as the chairman and CEO of Google. Eric was proposed by John Doerr from Kleiner Perkins. He had been trying to find a CEO that Sergey and Larry would accept for several months, but they rejected several candidates because they wanted to retain control over the company. Michael Moritz from Sequoia Capital at one point even menaced requesting Google to immediately pay back Sequoia's $ 12.5m investment if they did not fulfill their promise to hire

10266-429: The new policy, Google may remove information from only certain but not all search queries. It would not remove content that is "broadly useful", such as news articles, or already part of the public record. In May 2022, Google announced that the company had acquired California based, MicroLED display technology development and manufacturing Start-up Raxium. Raxium is set to join Google's Devices and Services team to aid in

10384-452: The phase variable. Specifically, if a qubit's phase is measured while the qubit occupies a particular state, there is a non-zero probability of measuring a specific value only where the depicted wave function oscillates. All three rows are essentially different presentations of the same physical system. The GHz energy gap between energy levels of a superconducting qubit is designed to be compatible with available electronic equipment, due to

10502-555: The price of extremely low operation temperatures . Unlike typical conductors, superconductors possess a critical temperature at which resistivity plummets to nearly zero and conductivity is drastically increased. In superconductors, the basic charge carriers are pairs of electrons (known as Cooper pairs ), rather than single fermions as found in typical conductors. Cooper pairs are loosely bound and have an energy state lower than that of Fermi Energy . Electrons forming Cooper pairs possess equal and opposite momentum and spin so that

10620-563: The protests. Later in 2019, some workers accused the company of retaliating against internal activists. On March 19, 2019, Google announced that it would enter the video game market, launching a cloud gaming platform called Google Stadia . On June 3, 2019, the United States Department of Justice reported that it would investigate Google for antitrust violations. This led to the filing of an antitrust lawsuit in October 2020, on

10738-403: The qubit with a frequency resonant with the energy separation between levels. Individual qubits may be addressed by a dedicated transmission line or by a shared one if the other qubits are off resonance . The axis of rotation is set by quadrature amplitude modulation of microwave pulse, while pulse length determines the angle of rotation . More formally (following the notation of ) for

10856-448: The range of micrometers, with sub-micrometer resolution, allowing for the convenient design of a Hamiltonian system with well-established integrated circuit technology. Manufacturing superconducting qubits follows a process involving lithography , depositing of metal, etching , and controlled oxidation as described in. Manufacturers continue to improve the lifetime of superconducting qubits and have made significant improvements since

10974-599: The region's specific needs and training local talent. The partnership between Google and Saudi Arabia includes collaboration with key stakeholders, such as the Public Investment Fund (PIF), to develop AI applications that will benefit sectors like healthcare, finance, oil and gas, and logistics. The initiative focuses on creating localized AI technologies, with an emphasis on integrating Arabic language capabilities and enabling widespread cloud adoption. Google indexes billions of web pages to allow users to search for

11092-402: The relaying of this information over a network. We map the ground and excited states of these atoms to the 0 and 1 state as these are discrete and distinct energy values and therefore it is in line with the postulates of quantum mechanics. In such a construction however an electron can jump to multiple other energy states and not be confined to our excited state; therefore, it is imperative that

11210-1224: The relevant qubit states. This effect has been implemented by flux-tuning the qubit spectra and by using selective microwave driving. Off-resonant driving can be used to induce differential ac-Stark shift, allowing the implementation of all-microwave controlled-phase gates. The Heisenberg model of interactions, written as H ^ X X Z / ℏ = ∑ i , j J X Y ( σ ^ x i σ ^ x j + σ ^ y i σ ^ y j ) + J Z Z σ ^ z i σ ^ z j {\displaystyle {\hat {\mathcal {H}}}_{\mathrm {XXZ} }/\hbar =\sum _{i,j}J_{\mathrm {XY} }({\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{x}}^{i}{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{x}}^{j}+{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{y}}^{i}{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{y}}^{j})+J_{\mathrm {ZZ} }{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{z}}^{i}{\hat {\sigma }}_{\text{z}}^{j}} , serves as

11328-680: The remainder of 2020, except for a small number of strategic areas, recalibrating the focus and pace of investments in areas like data centers and machines, and non-business essential marketing and travel. Most employees were also working from home due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the success of it even led to Google announcing that they would be permanently converting some of their jobs to work from home The 2020 Google services outages disrupted Google services: one in August that affected Google Drive among others, another in November affecting YouTube , and

11446-580: The same quantum energy level (or quantum state ) and do not obey the Pauli exclusion principle . Classically, Bose-Einstein Condensate can be conceptualized as multiple particles occupying the same position in space and having equal momentum . Because interactive forces between bosons are minimized, Bose-Einstein Condensates effectively act as a superconductor. Thus, superconductors are implemented in quantum computing because they possess both near infinite conductivity and near zero resistance . The advantages of

11564-436: The scope of classical approximation, with the purpose of performing quantum information processing and communication. Various models of quantum computation exist, but the most popular models incorporate concepts of qubits and quantum gates (or gate-based superconducting quantum computing). Superconductors are implemented due to the fact that at low temperatures they have infinite conductivity and zero resistance. Each qubit

11682-461: The search context and the user history. In 2007, Google launched " AdSense for Mobile ", taking advantage of the emerging mobile advertising market. Google Analytics allows website owners to track where and how people use their website, for example by examining click rates for all the links on a page. Google advertisements can be placed on third-party websites in a two-part program. Google Ads allows advertisers to display their advertisements in

11800-565: The second most valuable brand in the world (behind Apple Inc.) in 2013, 2014, 2015, and 2016, with a valuation of $ 133 billion. On August 10, 2015, Google announced plans to reorganize its various interests as a conglomerate named Alphabet Inc. Google became Alphabet's largest subsidiary and the umbrella company for Alphabet's Internet interests. Upon completion of the restructuring, Sundar Pichai became CEO of Google, replacing Larry Page, who became CEO of Alphabet. On August 8, 2017, Google fired employee James Damore after he distributed

11918-417: The square of the wave function amplitude at any arbitrary point in space corresponds to the probability of finding a charge carrier there. Therefore, the squared amplitude corresponds to a classical charge distribution. The second requirement to obtain a quantum mechanical description of an electrical circuit is that generalized Kirchhoff's circuit laws are applied at every node of the circuit network to obtain

12036-440: The state of the first qubit, allowing a controlled phase gate construction. Following the notation of, the drive Hamiltonian describing the excited system through the first qubit driving line is formally written where A ( t ) {\displaystyle A(t)} is the shape of the microwave pulse in time, ω ~ 2 {\displaystyle {\tilde {\omega }}_{2}}

12154-532: The state, forcing it to collapse to one of the two possible outcomes, | 000 ⟩ {\displaystyle |000\rangle } or | 111 ⟩ {\displaystyle |111\rangle } . Every instruction in the QASM language is the application of a quantum gate , initialization of the chips registers to zero or measurement of these registers. Superconducting quantum computing Superconducting quantum computing

12272-413: The system be limited to be affected only by photons with energy difference required to jump from the ground state to the excited state. However, this leaves one major issue, we require uneven spacing between our energy levels to prevent photons with the same energy from causing transitions between neighboring pairs of states. Josephson junctions are superconducting elements with a nonlinear inductance, which

12390-500: The system's equations of motion . Finally, these equations of motion must be reformulated to Lagrangian mechanics such that a quantum Hamiltonian is derived describing the total energy of the system. Superconducting quantum computing devices are typically designed in the radio-frequency spectrum , cooled in dilution refrigerators below 15  mK and addressed with conventional electronic instruments, e.g. frequency synthesizers and spectrum analyzers . Typical dimensions fall on

12508-637: The time the gate is switched off is achieved by tuning qubits out of resonance one from another, making the energy gaps between their computational states different. This approach is inherently limited to nearest-neighbor coupling since a physical electrical circuit must be laid out between connected qubits. Notably, D-Wave Systems ' nearest-neighbor coupling achieves a highly connected unit cell of 8 qubits in Chimera graph configuration. Quantum algorithms typically require coupling between arbitrary qubits. Consequently, multiple swap operations are necessary, limiting

12626-460: The total spin of the Cooper pair is an integer spin. Hence, Cooper pairs are bosons . Two such superconductors which have been used in superconducting qubit models are niobium and tantalum , both d-band superconductors. Once cooled to nearly absolute zero , a collection of bosons collapse into their lowest energy quantum state (the ground state ) to form a state of matter known as Bose–Einstein condensate . Unlike fermions, bosons may occupy

12744-535: The world as measured by market share. On the list of most valuable brands, Google is ranked second by Forbes and fourth by Interbrand. It has received significant criticism involving issues such as privacy concerns , tax avoidance , censorship , search neutrality , antitrust and abuse of its monopoly position. On August 5, 2024, D.C. Circuit Court Judge Amit P. Mehta ruled that Google held an illegal monopoly over Internet search. Google began in January 1996 as

12862-753: The world" and is one of the world's most valuable brands due to its market dominance , data collection , and technological advantages in the field of AI. Google's parent company, Alphabet Inc. , is one of the five Big Tech companies, alongside Amazon , Apple , Meta , and Microsoft . Google was founded on September 4, 1998, by American computer scientists Larry Page and Sergey Brin while they were PhD students at Stanford University in California . Together, they own about 14% of its publicly listed shares and control 56% of its stockholder voting power through super-voting stock . The company went public via an initial public offering (IPO) in 2004. In 2015, Google

12980-538: Was Shriram who told Bezos about Google. Bezos asked Shriram to meet Google's founders and they met six months after Shriram had made his investment when Bezos and his wife were on a vacation trip to the Bay Area. Google's initial funding round had already formally closed but Bezos' status as CEO of Amazon was enough to persuade Page and Brin to extend the round and accept his investment. Between these initial investors, friends, and family Google raised around $ 1,000,000, which

13098-419: Was also the first qubit to demonstrate quantum supremacy . The increased ratio of Josephson to charge energy mitigates noise. Two transmons can be coupled using a coupling capacitor . For this 2-qubit system the Hamiltonian is written where J {\displaystyle J} is current density and σ {\displaystyle \sigma } is surface charge density . The Xmon

13216-558: Was fined by Russia with 2.5 decillion dollars for allegedly blocking pro-Kremlin propaganda. In November 2024, Google announced the establishment of a new artificial intelligence (AI) hub in Saudi Arabia, aiming to support the Kingdom's economic growth and technological development as part of its Vision 2030 initiative. This AI hub is projected to contribute up to $ 71 billion to Saudi Arabia's economy by advancing AI-driven solutions tailored to

13334-422: Was fired on the same day. Between 2018 and 2019, tensions between the company's leadership and its workers escalated as staff protested company decisions on internal sexual harassment, Dragonfly , a censored Chinese search engine, and Project Maven , a military drone artificial intelligence, which had been seen as areas of revenue growth for the company. On October 25, 2018, The New York Times published

13452-409: Was from clicks (cost per clicks), amounting to US$ 109,652 million in 2017. This includes three principal methods, namely AdMob , AdSense (such as AdSense for Content, AdSense for Search, etc.) and DoubleClick AdExchange. In addition to its own algorithms for understanding search requests, Google uses technology from its acquisition of DoubleClick , to project user interest and target advertising to

13570-489: Was handling approximately 3 billion searches per day. To handle this workload, Google built 11 data centers around the world with several thousand servers in each. These data centers allowed Google to handle the ever-changing workload more efficiently. In May 2011, the number of monthly unique visitors to Google surpassed one billion for the first time. In May 2012, Google acquired Motorola Mobility for $ 12.5 billion, in its largest acquisition to date. This purchase

13688-535: Was initially funded by an August 1998 investment of $ 100,000 from Andy Bechtolsheim , co-founder of Sun Microsystems . This initial investment served as a motivation to incorporate the company to be able to use the funds. Page and Brin initially approached David Cheriton for advice because he had a nearby office in Stanford, and they knew he had startup experience, having recently sold the company he co-founded, Granite Systems, to Cisco for $ 220 million. David arranged

13806-624: Was made in part to help Google gain Motorola's considerable patent portfolio on mobile phones and wireless technologies, to help protect Google in its ongoing patent disputes with other companies, mainly Apple and Microsoft , and to allow it to continue to freely offer Android. In June 2013, Google acquired Waze for $ 966 million. While Waze would remain an independent entity, its social features, such as its crowdsourced location platform, were reportedly valuable integrations between Waze and Google Maps , Google's own mapping service. Google announced

13924-456: Was reorganized as a wholly owned subsidiary of Alphabet Inc. Google is Alphabet's largest subsidiary and is a holding company for Alphabet's internet properties and interests. Sundar Pichai was appointed CEO of Google on October 24, 2015, replacing Larry Page, who became the CEO of Alphabet. On December 3, 2019, Pichai also became the CEO of Alphabet. The company has since rapidly grown to offer

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