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115-568: Acoma Pueblo ( / ˈ æ k ə m ə / AK -ə-mə , Western Keres : Áakʼu ) is a Native American pueblo approximately 60 miles (97 km) west of Albuquerque, New Mexico , in the United States. Four communities make up the village of Acoma Pueblo: Sky City (Old Acoma), Acomita, Anzac, and McCartys . These communities are located near the expansive Albuquerque metropolitan area , which includes several large cities and towns, including neighboring Laguna Pueblo . The Acoma Pueblo tribe

230-524: A cacique , or head of the Pueblo, and a war captain, who would serve until their deaths. Both individuals maintained strong religious connections to their work, representing the theocracy of Acoma governance. The Spanish imposed a group to oversee the Pueblo, but their power was not taken seriously by the Acoma. The Spanish group would work with external situations and comprised a governor, two lieutenant governors, and

345-592: A phonemic distinction in duration : all vowels can be long or short. Additionally, short vowels can also be voiceless. The vowel chart below contains the vowel phonemes and allophones from the information of the Keresan languages combined from The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo (1964), The Phonemes of Keresan (1946), and Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics (1987). Notes: All Keresan short vowels may be devoiced in certain positions. The phonemic status of these vowels

460-560: A CV(V) shape. The maximal syllable structure is CCVVC and the minimal syllable is CV. In native Keresan words, only a glottal stop /ʔ/ ⟨ʼ⟩ can close a syllable, but some loanwords from Spanish have syllables that end in a consonant, mostly a nasal (i.e. /m n/ but words containing these sequences are rare in the language. Due to extensive vowel devoicing, several Keresan words may be perceived as ending in consonants or even containing consonant clusters. The only sequence of consonants (i.e. consonant cluster ) that occurs in native Keresan words

575-470: A Master's thesis titled "The Ethnobotany of the Acoma and Laguna Indians," containing short sections on the Puebloans' history, culture and mythology as well as an extensive treatment of plant uses and names. Historical Acoma economic practices are described as socialistic or communal. Labor was shared and produce was distributed equally. Trading networks were extensive, spreading thousands of miles throughout

690-474: A band might be friends with one village and raid another. When war occurred, the Spanish would send troops; after a battle both sides would "sign a treaty" and go home. The traditional and sometimes treacherous relationships continued after the independence of Mexico in 1821. By 1835 Mexico had placed a bounty on Apache scalps (see scalping ), but certain villages still traded with some bands. When Juan José Compà ,

805-487: A band would leave without permission, to raid, return to their homeland to forage, or to simply get away. The U.S. military usually had forts nearby to keep the bands on the reservations by finding and returning those who left. The reservation policies of the U.S. caused conflict and war with the various Apache bands who left the reservations for almost another quarter century. War between the Apaches and Euro-Americans has led to

920-435: A broad stairway of about 200 steps, then a stretch of about 100 narrower steps and at the top they had to go up about three times as high as a man by means of holes in the rock, in which they put the points of their feet, holding on at the same time by their hands. There was a wall of large and small stones at the top, which they could roll down without showing themselves, so that no army could possibly be strong enough to capture

1035-759: A cannon through the streets, toppling adobe walls and burning most of the village, killing 800 people (decimating 20% of the 4,000 population) and imprisoning approximately 500 others. Almost all of the remaining inhabitants were enslaved or left the town. The pueblo surrendered at noon on January 24. Zaldívar lost only one of his men. The Spanish amputated the right feet of men over 25 years old, and by some accounts one or more toes of such enslaved men's right feet, and forced them into slavery for 20 years. They also took males aged 12–25 and females over 12 away from their parents, putting most of them in slavery for 20 years. The enslaved Acoma were given to government officials and various missions. Two other Indian men visiting Acoma at

1150-415: A civil and religious function. Acoma Pueblo has three rows of three-story, apartment-style buildings, which face south on top of the mesa. The buildings are constructed from adobe brick , with beams across the roof that were covered with poles, brush, and then plaster. The roof for one level would serve as the floor for another. Each level is connected to others by ladders, serving as a unique defensive aid;

1265-421: A connection with Wichita . Joseph Greenberg grouped Keres with Siouan , Yuchi , Caddoan , and Iroquoian in a superstock called Keresiouan. None of these proposals has been validated by subsequent linguistic research. In 2007, there was an estimate total of 10,670 speakers. Keresan has between 42 and 45 consonant sounds, and around 40 vowel sounds, adding up to a total of about 85 phonemes , depending on

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1380-472: A council. The Acoma also participated in the All Indian Pueblo Council, which started in 1598 and arose again in the 20th century. The Acoma control approximately 500,000 acres (200,000 ha) of their traditional land. Mesas, valleys, hills, and arroyos dot the landscape that averages about 7,000 feet (2,100 m) in altitude, with about 10 inches (250 mm) of rain each year. Since 1977,

1495-531: A cultural treasure. In 1970, it was placed on the National Register of Historic Places . In 2007, the mission church was designated a National Trust Historic Site , the only Native American site in that ranking as identified by the National Trust for Historic Preservation, a non-profit organization. During the 19th century, the Acoma people, while trying to uphold traditional life, also adopted aspects of

1610-490: A different Apache tribe each time. The member tribes are the Apache Tribe of Oklahoma, Fort McDowell Yavapai Nation, Fort Sill Apache Tribe, Jicarilla Apache Tribe, Mescalero Apache Tribe, San Carlos Apache Tribe, Tonto Apache Tribe, White Mountain Apache Tribe, Yavapai-Apache Nation, In 2021, "Lipan Apaches were present" at the summit. Apaches first encountered European and African people, when they met conquistadors from

1725-575: A dog and a horse and asked for other supplies. Villagrá refused to get off his horse and left to follow Oñate's party. However, Zutacapan convinced him to return to receive supplies. In questioning by Zutacapan, Villagrá said that 103 armed men were two days away from Acoma. Zutacapan then told Villagrá to leave Acoma. On December 1, 1598, Juan de Zaldívar , Oñate's nephew, reached Acoma with 20–30 men and peacefully traded with them and had to wait some days for their order of ground corn. On December 4, Zaldívar went with 16 armored men to Acoma to find out about

1840-575: A dot below (see table). Tone may or may not be represented in the orthography of Keresan. When represented, four diacritics may be used above the vowel. Unlike the system used for Navajo , diacritics for tone are not repeated in long vowels. Although Keresan is not normally written, there exists one dictionary of the language in which words are listed in any given order. In this dictionary of Western Keres, digraphs count as single letters, although ejective consonants are not listed separately; occurring after their non-ejective counterparts. The symbol for

1955-471: A gun salute. Zutacapan offered to meet Oñate formally in the religious kiva , which is traditionally used as the place to make sacred oaths and pledges. However, Oñate was scared of death and in suspicious ignorance of Acoma customs refused to enter via ladder from the roof into the dark kiva chambers. Purguapo was another Acoma man out of four chosen for Spaniard negotiations. Soon after Oñate's departure, Gaspar Pérez de Villagrá visited Acoma by himself with

2070-788: A kind of creolization to form the culture of New Mexico . Between 1629 and 1641 Father Juan Ramirez oversaw construction of the San Estevan Del Rey Mission Church . The Acoma were ordered to build the church, moving 20,000 short tons (18,000 t) of adobe, straw, sandstone, and mud to the mesa for the church walls. Ponderosa pine was brought in by community members from Mount Taylor , over 40 miles (64 km) away. The 6,000 square feet (560 m) church has an altar flanked by 60 feet (18 m)-high wood pillars. These are hand carved in red and white designs, representing Christian and Indigenous beliefs. The Acoma know their ancestors' hands built this structure, and they consider it

2185-514: A mineral which is used to create mesa windows. The complex is also fire resistant, unlike traditional pueblos, and is painted in light pinks and purples to match the landscape surrounding it. Traditional Acoma artwork is exhibited and demonstrated at the center, including ceramic chimneys crafted on the rooftop. Arts and crafts also bring income. Acoma Pueblo is open to the public by guided tour from March until October, though June and July have periods of closure for cultural activities. Photography of

2300-539: A plains route as well, perhaps concurrently, but to date the earliest evidence has been found in the mountainous Southwest. The Plains Apache have a significant Southern Plains cultural influence. When the Spanish arrived in the area, trade between the long-established Pueblo peoples and the Southern Athabaskan was well established. They reported the Pueblo exchanged maize and woven cotton goods for bison meat, and hides and materials for stone tools. Coronado observed

2415-512: A stereotypical focus on certain aspects of Apache cultures. These have often been distorted through misunderstanding of their cultures, as noted by anthropologist Keith Basso : Of the hundreds of peoples that lived and flourished in native North America, few have been so consistently misrepresented as the Apacheans of Arizona and New Mexico. Glorified by novelists, sensationalized by historians, and distorted beyond credulity by commercial film makers,

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2530-443: Is derived from ʔáák’u (singular; plural: ʔaak’u̓u̓m̓e̓e̓ʈʂʰa ). The name does not have any meaning in the modern Acoma language. Some tribal authorities connect it to the similar word háák’u , 'preparedness, place of preparedness', and suggest that this might be the origin of the name. The name does not mean 'sky city'. Other tribal elders assert that it means 'place that always was', while outsiders say it means 'people of

2645-712: Is a verb-final language, though word order is rather flexible. Apache The Apache ( / ə ˈ p æ tʃ i / ə- PATCH -ee ) are several Southern Athabaskan language –speaking peoples of the Southwest , the Southern Plains and Northern Mexico . They are linguistically related to the Navajo . They migrated from the Athabascan homelands in the north into the Southwest between 1000 and 1500 CE. Apache bands include

2760-497: Is a federally recognized tribal entity, whose historic land of Acoma Pueblo totaled roughly 5,000,000 acres (2,000,000 ha). Today, much of the Acoma community is primarily within the Acoma Indian Reservation . Acoma Pueblo is a National Historic Landmark . According to the 2010 United States Census, 4,989 people identified as Acoma. The Acoma have continuously occupied the area for over 2,000 years, making this one of

2875-411: Is a sacred language that must exist only in its spoken form. The language's religious connotation and years of persecution of Pueblo religion by European colonizers may also explain why no unified orthographic convention exists for Keresan. However, a practical spelling system has been developed for Laguna (Kʼawaika) and more recently for Acoma (Áakʼu) Keres, both of which are remarkably consistent. In

2990-834: Is a sequence of a fricative /ʃ ʂ/ and a stop or affricate. Clusters are restricted to beginnings of syllables (i.e. the syllable onset ). When the alveolo-palatal consonant /ʃ/ occurs as C 1 , it combines with alveolar and palatal C 2 , whereas the retroflex alveolar /ʂ/ precedes bilabial and velar C 2 s, which suggest a complementary distribution. Consonant clusters may occur both word-initially and word-medially. shd áurákụ 'frog, toad' sht érashtʼígá 'cricket' shtʼ idyàatịshị 'plot of land' shj v 'upward' shch úmúmá 'wasp' shchʼ ísạ 'six' srb úuná 'water jug' srp àat'i 'mockingbird' srpʼ eruru 'it's full' srg ásrgáukʼa 'quail' srk v́dútsị 'mound, hill' srkʼ abíhí 'female in-law' Traditional Keresan beliefs postulate that Keres

3105-649: Is based on a split-intransitive pattern, in which subjects are marked differently if they are perceived as actors than from when they are perceived as undergoers of the action being described. The morphology of Keresan is mostly prefixing , although suffixes and reduplication also occur. Keresan distinguishes nouns , verbs, numerals and particles as word classes. Nouns in Keresan do not normally distinguish case or number , but they can be inflected for possession , with distinct constructions for alienable and inalienable possession. Other than possession, Keresan nouns show no comprehensive noun classes . Keresan

3220-556: Is by Juan de Oñate in 1598. The most widely accepted origin theory suggests Apache was borrowed and transliterated from the Zuni word ʔa·paču meaning "Navajos" (the plural of paču "Navajo"). J. P. Harrington reports that čišše·kʷe can also be used to refer to the Apache in general. Another theory suggests the term comes from Yavapai ʔpačə meaning "enemy". The Zuni and Yavapai sources are less certain because Oñate used

3335-603: Is controversial. Maring (1967) considers them to be phonemes of Áákʼu Keres, whereas other authors disagree. There are phonetic grounds for vowel devoicing based on the environment they occur, for instance word-finally, but there are also exceptions. Vowels in final position are nearly always voiceless and medial vowels occurring between voiced consonants, after nasals and ejectives are nearly always voiced. Acoma Keres has four lexical tones : high, low, falling and rising. Falling and rising tones only occur in long vowels and voiceless vowels bear no tones: Most Keresan syllables take

3450-679: Is now Mexico to be Apache. In addition, an Apache individual has different ways of identification with a group, such as a band or clan, as well as the larger tribe or language grouping, which can add to the difficulties in an outsider comprehending the distinctions. In 1900, the US government classified the members of the Apache tribe in the United States as Pinal Coyotero , Jicarilla , Mescalero , San Carlos , Tonto , and White Mountain Apache. The different groups were located in Arizona, New Mexico, and Oklahoma. In

3565-657: Is the most divergent dialect, and that Dilzhe'e is a remnant, intermediate member of a dialect continuum that previously spanned from the Western Apache language to the Navajo. John Upton Terrell classifies the Apache into western and eastern groups. In the western group, he includes Toboso, Cholome, Jocome, Sibolo or Cibola, Pelone, Manso, and Kiva or Kofa. He includes Chicame (the earlier term for Hispanized Chicano or New Mexicans of Spanish/ Hispanic and Apache descent) among them as having definite Apache connections or names which

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3680-583: The Acoma Massacre rebuilt their community between 1599 and 1620. The town remained uninhabited for several months, out of fear of more attacks, until it began to be rebuilt in December 1599. Oñate forced the Acoma and other local Indians to pay taxes in crops, cotton, and labor. Spanish rule also brought Catholic missionaries into the area. The Spanish renamed the pueblos with the names of saints and started to construct churches in them. They introduced new crops to

3795-542: The Ancestral Puebloans , Mogollon , and other ancient peoples. These influences are seen in the architecture, farming style, and artistry of the Acoma. In the 13th century, the Ancestral Puebloans abandoned their canyon homelands due to climate change and social upheaval. For more than two centuries, there were migrations in the area. The Acoma Pueblo emerged by the 13th century. However, the Acoma themselves say

3910-732: The Athabaskan language family. Other Athabaskan-speaking people in North America continue to reside in Alaska , western Canada , and the Northwest Pacific Coast . Anthropological evidence suggests that the Apache and Navajo peoples lived in these same northern locales before migrating to the Southwest sometime between AD 1200 and 1500. The Apaches' nomadic way of life complicates accurate dating, primarily because they constructed less substantial dwellings than other Southwestern groups. Since

4025-624: The Chiricahua , Jicarilla , Lipan , Mescalero , Mimbreño , Salinero , Plains , and Western Apache ( Aravaipa , Pinaleño , Coyotero , and Tonto ). Today, Apache tribes and reservations are headquartered in Arizona , New Mexico , Texas , and Oklahoma , while in Mexico the Apache are settled in Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila and areas of Tamaulipas . Each tribe is politically autonomous. Historically,

4140-551: The Creator deity . Mountains surrounding the community, the Sun above, and the Earth below help to balance and define the Acoma world. Traditional religious ceremonies may revolve around the weather, including seeking to ensure healthy rainfall. The Acoma also use kachinas in rituals. The Pueblos also had one or more kivas , which served as religious chambers. The leader of each Pueblo would serve as

4255-625: The Federal Emergency Management Agency . Historically, engagements in warfare were common for Acoma, like other Pueblos. Weapons used included clubs , stones, spears, and darts. The Acoma later would serve as auxiliaries for forces under Spain and Mexico, fighting against raids and protecting merchants on the Santa Fe Trail. After the 19th century, raiding tribes were less of a threat and Acoma military culture began to decline. The war captain position eventually would change to

4370-617: The Fort Apache Indian Reservation , San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation , Camp Verde Indian Reservation , and Tonto-Apache Reservation . The Chiricahua were divided into two groups after they were released from being prisoners of war. The majority moved to the Mescalero Reservation and formed, with the larger Mescalero political group, the Mescalero Apache Tribe of the Mescalero Reservation , along with

4485-607: The Kiowa . Other names for them include Ná'įįsha, Ná'ęsha, Na'isha, Na'ishandine, Na-i-shan-dina, Na-ishi, Na-e-ca, Ną'ishą́, Nadeicha, Nardichia, Nadíisha-déna, Na'dí'į́shą́ʼ, Nądí'įįshąą, and Naisha. Western Apache include Northern Tonto, Southern Tonto, Cibecue, White Mountain, and San Carlos groups. While these subgroups spoke the same language and had kinship ties, Western Apaches considered themselves as separate from each other, according to Goodwin. Other writers have used this term to refer to all non-Navajo Apachean peoples living west of

4600-782: The Lipan Apache . The other Chiricahua are enrolled in the Fort Sill Apache Tribe of Oklahoma , headquartered in Apache, Oklahoma . The Plains Apache are located in Oklahoma, headquartered around Anadarko , and are federally recognized as the Apache Tribe of Oklahoma . The nine Apache tribes formed a nonprofit organization, the Apache Alliance. Tribal leaders convene at the Apache Alliance Summits, meetings hosted by

4715-724: The Spanish Empire , and thus the term Apache has its roots in the Spanish language. The Spanish first used the term Apachu de Nabajo (Navajo) in the 1620s, referring to people in the Chama region east of the San Juan River . By the 1640s, they applied the term to Southern Athabaskan peoples from the Chama on the east to the San Juan on the west. The ultimate origin is uncertain and lost to Spanish history. The first known written record in Spanish

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4830-578: The Tonkawa tribe in Oklahoma. Historically, they moved from what is now the Southwest into the Southern Plains before 1650. In 1719, French explorer Jean Baptiste Bénard de La Harpe encountered the Lipan Apache near what is now Latimer County, Oklahoma . Some Lipan people were moved further east, into present day Louisiana, largely through enslavement of women & children by Caddo tribes and French Settlers. Upon gaining their freedom, they settled in

4945-604: The United States went to war against Mexico in 1846, many Apache bands promised U.S. soldiers safe passage through their lands. When the U.S. claimed former territories of Mexico in 1846, Mangas Coloradas signed a peace treaty with the nation, respecting them as conquerors of the Mexicans' land. An uneasy peace with U.S. citizens held until the 1850s. An influx of gold miners into the Santa Rita Mountains led to conflict with

5060-538: The 1930s, the anthropologist Greenville Goodwin classified the Western Apache into five groups (based on his informants' views of dialect and cultural differences): White Mountain, Cibecue, San Carlos, North Tonto, and South Tonto. Since then, other anthropologists (e.g. Albert Schroeder ) consider Goodwin's classification inconsistent with pre-reservation cultural divisions. Willem de Reuse finds linguistic evidence supporting only three major groupings: White Mountain, San Carlos, and Dilzhe'e (Tonto). He believes San Carlos

5175-482: The 1980s. After that, the tribe provided most employment. However, high unemployment rates trouble the Pueblo. The uranium mines left radiation pollution, causing the tribal fishing lake to be drained and some health problems within the community. Tourism is a major source of income for the tribe. In 2008, Pueblo Acoma opened the Sky City Cultural Center and Haak'u Museum at the base of the mesa, replacing

5290-603: The Acoma Business Enterprise, which oversees most Acoma businesses. At Acoma, pottery remains one of the most notable artforms. Men create weavings and silver jewelry, as well. Acoma pottery dates back more than 1,000 years. Dense local clay, dug up at a nearby site, is essential to Acoma pottery. The clay is dried and strengthened by the addition of pulverized pottery shards . The pieces then are shaped, painted, and fired. Geometric patterns, thunderbirds , and rainbows are traditional designs, which are applied with

5405-414: The Acoma dependent on American-made goods, which suppressed traditional arts such as weaving and pottery. Today, the Acoma produce a variety of goods. They grow alfalfa , oats , wheat, chilies, corn, melon, squash, vegetables, and fruit, and they raise cattle. They have natural reserves of gas, geothermal , and coal resources. Uranium mines in the area provided work for the Acoma until their closings in

5520-515: The Acoma had clothing made of deerskin, buffalo hide, and woven cotton, as well as turquoise jewelry , domestic turkeys , bread, pine nuts , and maize . The village seemed to contain about 200 men. Acoma was next visited by the Spanish 40 years later in 1581 by Fray Agustín Rodríguez and Francisco Sánchez Chamuscado , with 12 soldiers, 3 other friars , and 13 others, including Indian servants. The Acoma at this time were reported to be somewhat defensive and fearful. This response may have been due to

5635-585: The Acoma had difficulty in preserving their cultural traditions in the 20th century. Protestant missionaries established schools in the area, and the Bureau of Indian Affairs forced Acoma children into boarding schools . By 1922, most children from the community were in boarding schools, where they were forced to use English and practice Christianity. Several generations became cut off from their culture and language, with harsh effects on their families and societies. About 300 two- and three-story adobe buildings stand on

5750-681: The Acoma have increased their domain through several land purchases. On the reservation, only tribal members may own land and almost all enrolled members live on the property. The cacique is still active in the community and is from the Antelope clan. The cacique appoints tribal council members, staff, and the governor. In 2011, Acoma Pueblo and the Pueblo of Santa Clara were victims of heavy flooding . New Mexico supplied more than $ 1 million to fund emergency preparedness and damage repair for victims, and governor Susana Martinez requested additional funding from

5865-582: The Acoma, including peaches, peppers, and wheat. A 1620 royal decree created Spanish civil offices in each pueblo, including Acoma, with an appointed governor to take command. In 1680, the Pueblo Revolt took place, with Acoma participating. The revolt brought refugees from other pueblos. Those who eventually left Acoma moved elsewhere to form Laguna Pueblo . The Acoma suffered high mortality from smallpox epidemics , as they had no immunity to such Eurasian infectious diseases . They also suffered raiding from

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5980-413: The Acoma. Traditional child rearing involved very little discipline . Couples were generally monogamous , and divorce was rare. A quick burial followed death, then four days and nights of vigil . Women wore cotton dresses and sandals or high moccasin boots. Men wore cotton kilts and leather sandals. Rabbit and deer skin was also used for clothing and robes. In the 17th century, horses were introduced to

6095-496: The Apache homelands have consisted of high mountains, sheltered and watered valleys, deep canyons, deserts, and the southern Great Plains , including areas in what is now Eastern Arizona, Northern Mexico ( Sonora and Chihuahua ) and New Mexico , West Texas , and Southern Colorado . These areas are collectively known as Apacheria . The Apache tribes fought the invading Spanish and Mexican peoples for centuries. The first Apache raids on Sonora appear to have taken place during

6210-529: The Apache peoples with the Dismal River culture , an archaeological culture known primarily from ceramics and house remains, dated 1675–1725, which has been excavated in Nebraska , eastern Colorado, and western Kansas . Although the first documentary sources mention the Apache, and historians have suggested some passages indicate a 16th-century entry from the north, archaeological data indicate they were present on

6325-427: The Apache, Comanche , and Ute . On occasion, the Acoma would side with the Spanish to fight against these nomadic tribes. Forced to formally adopt Catholicism, the Acoma proceeded to practice their traditional religion in secrecy, and combined elements of both in a syncretic blend. Intermarriage and interaction became common among the Acoma, other pueblos, and Hispanic villages. These communities would intermingle in

6440-485: The Apache. This period is sometimes called the Apache Wars . The United States' concept of a reservation had not been used by the Spanish, Mexicans or other Apache neighbors before. Reservations were often badly managed, and bands that had no kinship relationships were forced to live together. No fences existed to keep people in or out. It was common for a band to be allowed to leave for a short period of time. Other times

6555-706: The Gulf of Mexico and Rio Grande. In the mid-18th century, some Lipan settled in and near Spanish missions in Texas . Clashes with Comanche forced them into southern Texas and northern Mexico. Briefly in the late 1830s, the Lipan allied with the Republic of Texas ; however, after Texas gained statehood in 1846, the Americans waged a brutal campaign against the Lipan, destroying Lipan villages and trying to force them from Texas. Most were forced onto

6670-528: The Keres spelling system, each symbol represents a single phoneme. The letters ⟨c q z f⟩ and sometimes also ⟨v⟩ are not used. Digraphs represent both palatal consonants (written using a sequence of C and ⟨y⟩), and retroflex consonants, which are represented using a sequence of C and the letter ⟨r⟩. These graphemes used for writing Western Keres are shown between ⟨...⟩ below. Signs at Acoma Pueblo sometimes use special diacritics for ejective consonants that differ from

6785-704: The Mescalero Reservation and some went to Oklahoma. Mescaleros primarily live in Eastern New Mexico. A full list of documented plant uses by the Mescalero tribe can be found at http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/11/ (which also includes the Chiricahua; 198 documented plant uses) and http://naeb.brit.org/uses/tribes/12/ (83 documented uses). Plains Apache (Kiowa-Apache, Naisha, Naʼishandine) are headquartered in Southwest Oklahoma. Historically, they followed

6900-546: The Navajo, refer to themselves as the Diné . The fame of the tribes' tenacity and fighting skills, probably bolstered by dime novels , was widely known among Europeans. In early 20th century Parisian society, the word Apache was adopted into French, essentially meaning an outlaw. The term Apachean includes the related Navajo people . Many of the historical names of Apache groups that were recorded by non-Apache are difficult to match to modern-day tribes or their subgroups. Over

7015-452: The Plains and in the mountainous Southwest indicate that the people took multiple early migration routes. In general, the recently arrived Spanish colonists, who settled in villages, and Apache bands developed a pattern of interaction over a few centuries. Both raided and traded with each other. Records of the period seem to indicate that relationships depended on the specific villages and bands:

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7130-467: The Plains people wintering near the Pueblo in established camps. Later Spanish sovereignty over the area disrupted trade between the Pueblo and the diverging Apache and Navajo groups. The Apache quickly acquired horses, improving their mobility for quick raids on settlements. In addition, the Pueblo were forced to work Spanish mission lands and care for mission flocks; they had fewer surplus goods to trade with their neighbors. In 1540, Coronado reported that

7245-535: The Pueblo and surrounding land is restricted. Tours and camera permits are purchased at the Sky City Cultural Center. While photography is allowed with permit, video recordings, drawings, and sketching are prohibited. All photography is forbidden within the church. The Acoma Pueblo also has a casino and hotel - the Sky City Casino Hotel. The casino and hotel are alcohol-free and are maintained by

7360-456: The Pueblo by the Spanish. Education was overseen by kiva headmen, who taught about human behavior, spirit and body, astrology, ethics, child psychology, oratory , history, dance, and music. Since the 1970s, Acoma Pueblo has retained control over education services, which have been keys in maintaining traditional and contemporary lifestyles. They share a high school with Laguna Pueblo . Alcoholism, drug use, and other health issues are prominent on

7475-428: The Pueblo has sheltered the community for more than 1,200 years as they sought protection from the raids of the neighboring Navajo and Apache peoples. The first mention of Acoma was in 1539. Estevanico , a slave and was the first person of African descent to explore North America, was the first non-Indian to visit Acoma and reported it to Marcos de Niza , who related the information to the viceroy of New Spain after

7590-553: The Rio Grande (thus failing to distinguish the Chiricahua from the other Apacheans). Goodwin's formulation: "all those Apache peoples who have lived within the present boundaries of the state of Arizona during historic times with the exception of the Chiricahua, Warm Springs, and allied Apache, and a small band of Apaches known as the Apache Mansos, who lived in the vicinity of Tucson ." The Apache and Navajo speak related languages of

7705-517: The Sky City Pueblo was established in the 11th century, with brick buildings as early as 1144 on the mesa. Evidence for their antiquity is the unique lack of adobe in their construction. This early founding date makes Acoma Pueblo one of the earliest continuously inhabited communities in the United States. The Pueblo is situated on a 365-foot (111 m) mesa , about 60 miles (97 km) west of Albuquerque, New Mexico. The isolation and location of

7820-519: The Southern Athabaskan, adapted many of their neighbors' technology and practices into their own cultures. Thus sites where early Southern Athabaskans may have lived are difficult to locate and even more difficult to firmly identify as culturally Southern Athabaskan. Recent advances have been made in the regard in the far southern portion of the American Southwest. There are several hypotheses about Apache migrations. One posits that they moved into

7935-457: The Southwest from the Great Plains. In the mid-16th century, these mobile groups lived in tents, hunted bison and other game, and used dogs to pull travois loaded with their possessions. Substantial numbers of the people and a wide range were recorded by the Spanish in the 16th century. In April 1541, while traveling on the plains east of the Pueblo region, Francisco Coronado referred to

8050-469: The Spaniards, including Zaldívar. Five men escaped, although one died from jumping over the citadel, leaving four to escape with the remaining camp. On December 20, 1598, Oñate learned of Zaldívar's death and, after receiving encouraging advice from the friars , planned an attack in revenge, as well to teach a lesson to other pueblos. Acomas requested help from other tribes to defend against the Spanish. Among

8165-518: The Spanish associated with the Apache. In a detailed study of New Mexico Catholic Church records, David M. Brugge identifies 15 tribal names that the Spanish used to refer to the Apache. These were drawn from records of about 1,000 baptisms from 1704 to 1862. The list below is based on Foster and McCollough (2001), Opler (1983b, 1983c, 2001), and de Reuse (1983). The term Apache refers to six major Apache-speaking groups: Chiricahua, Jicarilla, Lipan, Mescalero, Plains, and Western Apache. Historically,

8280-466: The analysis and the language variety. Based on the classification in the World Atlas of Language Structures , Keres is a language with a large consonant inventory. The great number of consonants relates to the three-way distinction between voiceless , aspirated and ejective consonants (e.g. /t tʰ tʼ/), and to the larger than average number of fricatives (i.e. /s sʼ ʂ ʂʼ ʃ ʃʼ h/) and affricates ,

8395-504: The area by April 1598). The Acoma warrior Zutacapan heard of this plan and warned the mesa and organized a defense. However, a pueblo elder, Chumpo, dissuaded war, partly to prevent deaths and partly based on Zutancalpo's (Zutacapan's son) mentioning of the widespread belief that the Spaniards were immortal. Thus, when Oñate visited on October 27, 1598, Acoma met him peacefully, with no resistance to Oñate's demand of surrender and obedience reported. Oñate demonstrated his military power by firing

8510-587: The cattle. They have dogs which they load to carry their tents, poles, and belongings. The Spanish described Plains dogs as very white, with black spots, and "not much larger than water spaniels." Plains dogs were slightly smaller than those used for hauling loads by modern Inuit and northern First Nations people in Canada. Recent experiments show these dogs may have pulled loads up to 50 pounds (20 kg) on long trips, at rates as high as two or three miles per hour (3 to 5 km/h). The Plains migration theory associates

8625-466: The celebration. More than 2,000 pilgrims attend the San Esteban Festival. The celebration begins at San Esteban Del Rey Mission, and a carved pine effigy of Saint Stephen is removed from the altar and carried into the main plaza with people chanting, shooting rifles, and ringing steeple bells. The procession then proceeds past the cemetery, down narrow streets, and to the plaza. Upon arriving at

8740-741: The centuries, many Spanish, French and English-speaking authors did not differentiate between Apache and other semi-nomadic non-Apache peoples who might pass through the same area. Most commonly, Europeans learned to identify the tribes by translating their exonym , what another group whom the Europeans encountered first called the Apache peoples. Europeans often did not learn what the peoples called themselves, their autonyms . While anthropologists agree on some traditional major subgrouping of Apaches, they have often used different criteria to name finer divisions, and these do not always match modern Apache groupings. Some scholars do not consider groups residing in what

8855-412: The community religious leader, or cacique . The cacique would observe the Sun and use it as a guide for scheduling ceremonies, some which were kept secret. Many Acoma are Catholic , but blend aspects of Catholicism and their traditional religion. Many old rituals are still performed. In September, the Acoma honor their patron saint , Saint Stephen . For feast day , the mesa is opened to the public for

8970-450: The consonants of the proto -Keresan (or pre-Keresan) from Miller & Davis (1963) based on a comparison of Acoma, Santa Ana, and Santo Domingo, as well as other features of the dialects compiled from The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo (1964), Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics (1987), and The Phonemes of Keresan (1946), and the Grammar of Laguna Keres (2005). Keresan vowels have

9085-438: The corn. Zutacapan met them and directed them to the homes with the corn. Zaldívar's people then divided into groups to collect the corn. The traditional oral Acoma narrative tells that a group attacked some Acoma women, leading Acoma warriors to retaliate. The Spanish documents do not report an attack on the women and say that the division of the men was a reaction to Zutacapan's plan to kill Zaldívar's party. The Acoma killed 12 of

9200-413: The day. Acoma Pueblo has no electricity, running water, or sewage disposal. Reservation lands surround the mesa, totaling 600 square miles (1,600 km). Tribal members live both on the reservation and outside it. Contemporary Acoma culture remains relatively closed. According to the 2000 United States census, 4,989 people identify themselves as Acoma. Acoma government was maintained by two individuals:

9315-416: The early 21st century, substantial progress has been made in dating and distinguishing their dwellings and other forms of material culture. They left behind a more austere set of tools and material goods than other Southwestern cultures. The Athabaskan-speaking group probably moved into areas that were concurrently occupied or recently abandoned by other cultures. Other Athabaskan speakers, perhaps including

9430-408: The end of his expedition. Acoma was called the independent Kingdom of Hacus. He called the Acoma people encaconados, which meant that they had turquoise hanging from their ears and noses. Lieutenant Hernando de Alvarado of conquistador Francisco Vázquez de Coronado's expedition described the Pueblo (which they called Acuco ) in 1540 as "a very strange place built upon solid rock" and "one of

9545-454: The farming village in the north valley near San Jose River , which was two leagues from the mesa. He saw evidence of intertribal trade with "mountain Querechos" . Acoma oral history does not confirm this trade but only tells of common messengers to and from the mesa and Acomita, McCartys Village , and Seama . Juan de Oñate intended to colonize New Mexico starting from 1595 (he formally held

9660-408: The first chief and Cuchillo Negro the second chief of the whole Tchihende or Mimbreño people) conducted a series of retaliatory raids against the Mexicans. By 1856, authorities in horse-rich Durango would claim that Indian raids (mostly Comanche and Apache) in their state had taken nearly 6,000 lives, abducted 748 people, and forced the abandonment of 358 settlements over the previous 20 years. When

9775-443: The glottal stop ⟨ʼ⟩, for long vowels (e.g. ⟨aa ee ii⟩ etc.) are not treated as separate letters. Letters〈f q x z〉are not used to write Keres, whereas the letters ⟨ɨ o v⟩ are only used in some dialects. Keresan is a split-ergative language in which verbs denoting states (i.e. stative verbs ) behave differently from those indexing actions, especially in terms of the person affixes they take. This system of argument marking

9890-723: The historical record. Staples included blue corn drink, pudding , corn mush , corn balls, wheat cake, peach-bark drink, paper bread, flour bread, wild berries, and prickly pear fruit. After contact with the Spanish, goats, horses, sheep and donkeys were raised. In contemporary Acoma, other foods are also popular, such as apple pastries, corn tamales , green-chili stew with lamb, fresh corn, and wheat pudding with brown sugar. Irrigation techniques such as dams and terraces were used for agriculture. Farming tools were made of wood and stone. Harvested corn would be ground with hands and mortar . A list of Acoma Pueblo ethnobotany shows 68 documented plant uses. In 1932, George R. Swank published

10005-552: The knowledge of the Spanish enslavement of other Indians to work in silver mines in the area. However, eventually the Rodríguez and Chamuscado party convinced them to trade goods for food. The Spaniard reports say the pueblo had about 500 houses of either three or four stories high. In 1582, Acoma was visited again by Antonio de Espejo for three months. The Acoma were reported to be wearing mantas . Espejo also noted irrigation in Acomita ,

10120-422: The ladders are the only way to enter the buildings, as the traditional design has no windows or doors. The lower levels of the buildings were used for storage. Baking ovens are outside the buildings, with water being collected from two natural cisterns . Acoma also has seven rectangular kivas and a village plaza, which serves as the spiritual center for the village. About 20 matrilineal clans were recognized by

10235-653: The late 17th century. In 19th-century confrontations during the American Indian Wars , the U.S. Army found the Apache to be fierce warriors and skillful strategists. Federally recognized Apache tribes are: The Jicarilla are headquartered in Dulce, New Mexico , while the Mescalero are headquartered in Mescalero, New Mexico . The Western Apache, located in Arizona, is divided into several reservations, which crosscut cultural divisions. The Western Apache reservations include

10350-416: The latter also showing the three-way distinction found in stops . The large number of vowels derives from a distinction made between long and short vowels (e.g. /e eː/), as well as from the presence of tones and voicelessness. Thus, a single vowel quality may occur with seven distinct realizations: /é è e̥ éː èː êː ěː/, all of which are used to distinguish words in the language. The chart below contains

10465-603: The leader of the Copper Mines Mimbreño Apaches , was killed for bounty money in 1837, Mangas Coloradas (Red Sleeves) or Dasoda-hae (He just sits there) became the principal chief and war leader; also in 1837 Soldado Fiero (a.k.a. Fuerte), leader of the Warm Springs Mimbreño Apaches , was killed by Mexican soldiers near Janos, and his son Cuchillo Negro (Black Knife) became the principal chief and war leader. They (being now Mangas Coloradas

10580-414: The leaders were Gicombo, Popempol, Chumpo, Calpo, Buzcoico, Ezmicaio, and Bempol (a recruited Apache war leader). On January 21, 1599, Vicente de Zaldívar (Juan de Zaldívar's brother) reached Acoma with 70 soldiers. The Acoma Massacre started the next day and lasted for three days. On January 23, men were able to climb the southern mesa unnoticed by Acoma guards and breach the pueblo. The Spanish dragged

10695-418: The mesa, with exterior ladders used to access the upper levels where residents live. Access to the mesa is by a road blasted into the rock face during the 1950s, navigable by car and bus. Footpaths down the mesa can still be used. Approximately 30 or so people live permanently on the mesa, with the population increasing on the weekends, as family members come to visit, and tourists, some 55,000 annually, visit for

10810-524: The modern Western Apache area was uninhabited, although some scholars have argued that he simply did not see the American Indians. Other Spanish explorers first mention "Querechos" living west of the Rio Grande in the 1580s. To some historians, this implies the Apaches moved into their current Southwestern homelands in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. Other historians note that Coronado reported that Pueblo women and children had often been evacuated by

10925-482: The oldest continuously inhabited communities in the United States (along with Taos and Hopi pueblos). Acoma tribal traditions estimate that they have lived in the village for more than two thousand years. The English name Acoma was borrowed from Spanish Ácoma (1583) or Acóma (1598). The Spanish name was borrowed from the Acoma word ʔáák’u̓u̓m̓é meaning 'person from Acoma Pueblo'. ʔáák’u̓u̓m̓é itself

11040-538: The once-rejected Spanish culture and religion. By the 1880s, railroads brought increased numbers of settlers and ended the pueblos' isolation. In the 1920s, the All Indian Pueblo Council gathered for the first time in more than 300 years. Responding to congressional interest in appropriating Pueblo lands, the U.S. Congress passed the Pueblo Lands Act in 1924. Despite successes in retaining their land,

11155-418: The original, which was destroyed by fire in 2000. The center and museum seek to sustain and preserve Acoma culture. Films about Acoma history are shown and a café serves traditional foods. The architecture was inspired by pueblo design and indigenous architectural traditions, with wide doorways in the middle, which in traditional homes make the bringing of supplies easier. The windowpanes contain flecks of mica ,

11270-615: The people and to the unique architecture of the southwestern native tribes. The Acoma are called ʔáák’u ( IPA: [ʔɑ́ːk'ù] in Western Keresan , Hakukya in Zuni , and Haak’oh in Navajo . The Acoma language is classified in the western division of the Keresan languages . In contemporary Acoma Pueblo culture, most people speak both Acoma and English, elders speak an endangered indigenous variant of New Mexican Spanish . Pueblo people are believed to have descended from

11385-566: The people as "dog nomads ." He wrote: After seventeen days of travel, I came upon a 'rancheria' of the Indians who follow these cattle (bison). These natives are called Querechos. They do not cultivate the land, but eat raw meat and drink the blood of the cattle they kill. They dress in the skins of the cattle, with which all the people in this land clothe themselves, and they have very well-constructed tents, made with tanned and greased cowhides, in which they live and which they take along as they follow

11500-470: The plains long before this first reported contact. A competing theory posits their migration south, through the Rocky Mountains , ultimately reaching the American Southwest by the 14th century or perhaps earlier. An archaeological material culture assemblage identified in this mountainous zone as ancestral Apache has been referred to as the "Cerro Rojo complex". This theory does not preclude arrival via

11615-557: The plaza, the effigy is placed in a shrine lined with woven blankets and guarded by two Acoma men. A celebration follows with dancing and feasting. During the festival, vendors sell goods, such as traditional pottery and cuisine. Before contact with the Spanish, Acoma people primarily ate corn, beans, and squash. Mut-tze-nee was a popular thin corn bread . They also raised turkeys, tobacco, and sunflowers. The Acoma hunted antelope, deer, and rabbits. Wild seeds, berries, nuts, and other foods were gathered. After 1700, new foods were noted in

11730-559: The popular image of 'the Apache'—a brutish, terrifying semi-human bent upon wanton death and destruction—is almost entirely a product of irresponsible caricature and exaggeration. Indeed, there can be little doubt that the Apache has been transformed from a native American into an American legend, the fanciful and fallacious creation of a non-Indian citizenry whose inability to recognize the massive treachery of ethnic and cultural stereotypes has been matched only by its willingness to sustain and inflate them. In 1875, United States military forced

11845-561: The region. During fixed times in the summer and fall, trading fairs were held. The largest fair was held in Taos by the Comanche. Nomadic traders would exchange slaves, buckskins, buffalo hide, jerky , and horses. Pueblo people would trade for copper and shell ornaments, macaw feathers, and turquoise . Since 1821, the Acoma traded via the Santa Fe Trail . The arrival of railroads in the 1880s made

11960-484: The removal of an estimated 1,500 Yavapai and Dilzhe'e Apache (better known as Tonto Apache ) from the Rio Verde Indian Reserve and its several thousand acres of treaty lands promised to them by the United States government. At the orders of Indian Commissioner L. E. Dudley, U.S. Army troops made the people, young and old, walk through winter-flooded rivers, mountain passes and narrow canyon trails to get to

12075-536: The reservation and Indian Health Service hospitals and native healers cooperate to battle health problems. Alcohol is banned on the Pueblo. The community is served by the Acoma-Canoncito-Laguna (ACL) Hospital run by the Indian Health Services and located in Acoma. Today, 19 clans still remain active. Traditional Acoma religion stresses harmony between life and nature. The Sun is a representative of

12190-611: The same area, present day St. Martin (Prairie Marron) & Lafayette Parishes (Bayou Tortue), along the Vermilion (aka "Red") River. Two groups, Tcic n’ti óané (Trees Tall Standing People) & Gocłic Łit’xuné (People of the Red Mud) merged to form the Canneci Tinné , who continue to occupy this territory. They were mentioned in 1718 records as being near the newly established town of San Antonio, Texas . They expanded into Texas and south

12305-436: The spike of a yucca . A potter lightly strikes the side of the pot upon completion and holds it to his or her ear; if the pot does not ring, it will crack during firing. If this is found, the piece is destroyed and ground into shards for future use. Western Keres language Keres is now considered a language isolate . In the past, Edward Sapir grouped it together with a Hokan –Siouan stock. Morris Swadesh suggested

12420-399: The strongest places we have seen." Upon visiting the Pueblo, the expedition "repented having gone up to the place." Further from Alvarado's report: These people were robbers, feared by the whole country round about. The village was very strong, because it was up on a rock out of reach, having steep sides in every direction... There was only one entrance by a stairway built by hand... There was

12535-606: The symbols above, as shown in the table: Vowel sounds are represented straightforwardly in the existing spellings for Keresan. Each vowel sound is written using a unique letter or digraph (for long vowels and diphthongs ). However, there are two competing representations for the vowel /ɨ/. Some versions simply use the IPA ⟨ɨ⟩ whereas others use the letter ⟨v⟩ (the sound /v/ as in veal does not occur in Keresan). Voiceless vowels have also been represented in two ways; either underlined or with

12650-432: The term before he had encountered any Zuni or Yavapai. A less likely origin may be from Spanish mapache , meaning "raccoon". Modern Apache people use the Spanish term to refer to themselves and tribal functions, and so does the US government. However, Apache language speakers also refer to themselves and their people in the Apache term Indé meaning "person" or "people". A related Southern Athabascan–speaking tribe,

12765-651: The term has also been applied to the Comanches , Mojaves , Hualapais , and Yavapais , none of whom speak Apache languages. The Jicarilla primarily live in Northern New Mexico and Southern Colorado. The term jicarilla comes from the Spanish word for "little gourd." Lipan (Ypandes) primarily live in New Mexico today on the Mescalero Apache Reservation . Other Lipan Apache descendants merged with

12880-399: The time had their right hands cut off and were sent back to their respective Pueblos as a warning of the consequences for resisting the Spanish. On the north side of the mesa, a row of houses still retains marks from the fire started by a cannon during this Acoma War. (Oñate was later exiled from New Mexico for mismanagement, false reporting, and cruelty by Philip III of Spain .) Survivors of

12995-511: The time his party attacked their dwellings, and that he saw some dwellings had been recently abandoned as he moved up the Rio Grande. This might indicate the semi-nomadic Southern Athabaskan had advance warning about his hostile approach and evaded encounter with the Spanish. Archaeologists are finding ample evidence of an early proto-Apache presence in the Southwestern mountain zone in the 15th century and perhaps earlier. The Apache presence on both

13110-486: The village. On the top they had room to sow and store a large amount of corn, and cisterns to collect snow and water. It is believed Coronado's expedition were the first Europeans to encounter the Acoma (Estevan was a native Moroccan). Alvarado reported that first the Acoma refused entry even after persuasions, but after Alvarado showed threats of an attack, the Acoma guards welcomed the Spaniards peacefully, noting that they and their horses were tired. The encounter shows that

13225-416: The white rock'. Acoma has been spelled in various other ways in historical documents, including ákuma, ákomage, Acus, Acux, Aacus, Hacús, Vacus, Vsacus, Yacco, Acco, Acuca, Acogiya, Acuco, Coco, Suco, Akome, Acuo, Ako, and A’ku-me. The Spanish mission name was San Esteban de Acoma . Pueblo is the Spanish word for 'village' or 'small town' and 'people'. In general usage, it is applied both to

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