8 mm film is a motion picture film format in which the film strip is eight millimetres (0.31 in) wide. It exists in two main versions – the original standard 8 mm film , also known as regular 8 mm, and Super 8 . Although both standard 8 mm and Super 8 are 8 mm wide, Super 8 has a larger image area because of its smaller and more widely spaced perforations.
114-580: The Zapruder film is a silent 8mm color motion picture sequence shot by Abraham Zapruder with a Bell & Howell home-movie camera, as United States President John F. Kennedy 's motorcade passed through Dealey Plaza in Dallas , Texas, on November 22, 1963. Unexpectedly, it captured the President's assassination . Although it is not the only film of the shooting, the Zapruder film has been described as being
228-414: A home movie format that was less expensive than 16 mm . Double 8 spools actually contain a 16 mm film with twice as many perforations along each edge as normal 16 mm film; on its first pass through the camera, the film is exposed only along half of its width. When the first pass is complete, the operator opens the camera and flips and swaps the spools (the design of the spool hole ensures that
342-501: A black student group at a Pennsylvania military college and the daughter of Congressman Henry S. Reuss of Wisconsin . The country was "jolted" by the revelations, which included assassinations of political activists, and the actions were denounced by members of the Congress, including House Majority Leader Hale Boggs . The phones of some members of the Congress, including Boggs, had allegedly been tapped. When President John F. Kennedy
456-735: A blind eye towards right-wing extremists while disseminating "conspiracy theories" on the origin of COVID-19 . The FBI is organized into functional branches and the Office of the Director, which contains most administrative offices. An executive assistant director manages each branch. Each branch is then divided into offices and divisions, each headed by an assistant director. The various divisions are further divided into sub-branches, led by deputy assistant directors. Within these sub-branches, there are various sections headed by section chiefs. Section chiefs are ranked analogous to special agents in charge. Four of
570-583: A civil rights leader, surgeon, and wealthy entrepreneur in Mississippi who had criticized FBI inaction in solving recent murders of George W. Lee , Emmett Till , and other blacks in the South. The FBI carried out controversial domestic surveillance in an operation it called the COINTELPRO , from "COunter-INTELligence PROgram". It was to investigate and disrupt the activities of dissident political organizations within
684-778: A combined 48 years with the BOI, DOI, and FBI. He was chiefly responsible for creating the Scientific Crime Detection Laboratory, or the FBI Laboratory , which officially opened in 1932, as part of his work to professionalize investigations by the government. Hoover was substantially involved in most major cases and projects that the FBI handled during his tenure. But as detailed below, his tenure as Bureau director proved to be highly controversial, especially in its later years. After Hoover's death, Congress passed legislation that limited
798-564: A dedicated FBI SWAT team dealing primarily with counter-terrorism scenarios. Unlike the special agents serving on local FBI SWAT teams, HRT does not conduct investigations. Instead, HRT focuses solely on additional tactical proficiency and capabilities. Also formed in 1984 was the Computer Analysis and Response Team , or CART. From the end of the 1980s to the early 1990s, the FBI reassigned more than 300 agents from foreign counter-intelligence duties to violent crime, and made violent crime
912-557: A dispute with Richard Jewell , who was a private security guard at the venue, along with some media organizations, in regard to the leaking of his name during the investigation; this had briefly led to his being wrongly suspected of the bombing. After Congress passed the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act (CALEA, 1994), the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA, 1996), and
1026-569: A few hours after the attack, and over the next several weeks more than 5,500 Issei men were taken into FBI custody. On February 19, 1942, President Franklin Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066 , authorizing the removal of Japanese Americans from the West Coast. FBI Director Hoover opposed the subsequent mass removal and confinement of Japanese Americans authorized under Executive Order 9066, but Roosevelt prevailed. The vast majority went along with
1140-436: A horizontal traffic mast would temporarily have obstructed Oswald's view of his target. In the authors' words, "The film, we realize, does not depict an assassination about to commence. It shows one that had already started." The evidence offered by Holland and Rush to support their theory was challenged in a series of 2007–08 articles by computer animator Dale K. Myers and assassination researcher Todd W. Vaughan, who defended
1254-408: A joint editorial piece published by The New York Times on November 22, 2007. Holland and Rush have pointed out that Zapruder temporarily stopped filming at around frame 132, when only police motorcycles were visible. When he continued filming, frame 133 already shows the presidential motorcade in view. Holland and Rush suggest that the pause could have had great significance for the interpretation of
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#17328524639911368-506: A modified Bolex (H16 or H8) camera. Similar to the Techniscope cameras of the 1960s, UltraPan 8 achieves wider aspect ratios generally reserved for camera systems with anamorphic lenses through manipulating film negative exposure instead of light capture. The area of film exposed per frame is 10.52 mm × 3.75 mm, having an aspect ratio of 2.8:1. There are effectively two UP8 frames for every one 16 mm frame. The design means there
1482-486: A perception that the United States was under threat from anarchists . The Departments of Justice and Labor had been keeping records on anarchists for years, but President Theodore Roosevelt wanted more power to monitor them. The Justice Department had been tasked with the regulation of interstate commerce since 1887, though it lacked the staff to do so. It had made little effort to relieve its staff shortage until
1596-403: A printing error, and that that error did not exist in the original Warren Commission exhibits. In early 1967, Life released a statement saying that four frames of the original (frames 208–211) were accidentally destroyed, and the adjacent frames damaged, by a Life photo lab technician on November 23, 1963. Life released those missing frames from the first-generation copy it had received from
1710-538: A report whose conclusions called into question 30 years of FBI testimony. It found the analytic model used by the FBI for interpreting results was deeply flawed, and the conclusion, that bullet fragments could be matched to a box of ammunition, was so overstated that it was misleading under the rules of evidence. One year later, the FBI decided to stop conducting bullet lead analyses. After a 60 Minutes / The Washington Post investigation in November 2007, two years later,
1824-474: A senior-level FBI officer concurrently serves as the representative of the director of national intelligence . Despite its domestic focus, the FBI also maintains a significant international footprint, operating 60 Legal Attache (LEGAT) offices and 15 sub-offices in U.S. embassies and consulates across the globe. These foreign offices exist primarily for the purpose of coordination with foreign security services and do not usually conduct unilateral operations in
1938-512: A set of color 35mm slides made from the original. He tried negotiating with Life for the rights to print important individual frames in his book Six Seconds in Dallas . Life refused to approve the use of any of the frames, even after Thompson offered to give all profits from the book sales to Life. Following its publishing in 1967, Thompson's book featured some very detailed charcoal drawings of important individual frames, plus photo reproductions of
2052-404: A total of 26.6 seconds, exposing 486 frames of standard 8 mm Kodachrome II safety film , running at an average of 18.3 frames/second. After Secret Service agent Forrest Sorrels promised Zapruder that the film would only be used for an official investigation, the two men sought to develop the footage as soon as possible. As television station WFAA 's equipment was incompatible with
2166-430: Is covered in a 2003 David R. Wrone book entitled The Zapruder Film: Reframing JFK's Assassination . Wrone is a history professor who tracks the chain of evidence for the film. Every frame of the Zapruder film has been put together into a panoramic movie. Each object that appears during the film has its starting position equal to where it appears first in its frames. The objects' positions are updated during visibility in
2280-410: Is no waste of film emulsion for the targeted aspect ratio. Earlier versions of this general idea date from the 1950s and exactly the same design occurs in implementations of the 1960s and 1970s. The current implementation of the idea gains impetus from the relative ease with which digital delivery systems can handle what would otherwise have required, in the past, either a dedicated mechanical projector or
2394-518: Is not clear from the film itself as to when the first and second shots occurred. It is apparent that by frame 225 the President is reacting to his throat wound. However, no wound or blood is seen on either President Kennedy or Governor Connally prior to frame 313. The view that the Zapruder film captured the shooting from beginning to end was challenged by Max Holland , author of The Kennedy Assassination Tapes , and professional photographer Johann Rush in
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#17328524639912508-588: Is only one way out for you." with audio recordings of King's sexual indiscretions. In March 1971, the residential office of an FBI agent in Media, Pennsylvania was burgled by a group calling itself the Citizens' Commission to Investigate the FBI . Numerous files were taken and distributed to a range of newspapers, including The Harvard Crimson . The files detailed the FBI's extensive COINTELPRO program, which included investigations into lives of ordinary citizens—including
2622-540: Is still used today for all organized crime and any individuals who may fall under the Act's provisions. In 2003, a congressional committee called the FBI's organized crime informant program "one of the greatest failures in the history of federal law enforcement." The FBI allowed four innocent men to be convicted of the March 1965 gangland murder of Edward "Teddy" Deegan in order to protect Vincent Flemmi , an FBI informant. Three of
2736-701: Is the J. Edgar Hoover Building in Washington, D.C. The FBI has a list of the top 10 most wanted fugitives . The mission of the FBI is to "protect the American people and uphold the Constitution of the United States ". Currently, the FBI's top priorities are: In the fiscal year 2019, the Bureau's total budget was approximately $ 9.6 billion. In the Authorization and Budget Request to Congress for fiscal year 2021,
2850-579: The Attorney General and the Director of National Intelligence . A leading U.S. counterterrorism , counterintelligence , and criminal investigative organization, the FBI has jurisdiction over violations of more than 200 categories of federal crimes . Although many of the FBI's functions are unique, its activities in support of national security are comparable to those of the British MI5 and NCA ,
2964-629: The Communications Act of 1934 , which outlawed non-consensual phone tapping, but did allow bugging. In the 1939 case Nardone v. United States , the court ruled that due to the 1934 law, evidence the FBI obtained by phone tapping was inadmissible in court. After Katz v. United States (1967) overturned Olmstead , Congress passed the Omnibus Crime Control Act , allowing public authorities to tap telephones during investigations, as long as they obtained warrants beforehand. Beginning in
3078-675: The Economic Espionage Act (EEA, 1996), the FBI followed suit and underwent a technological upgrade in 1998, just as it did with its CART team in 1991. Computer Investigations and Infrastructure Threat Assessment Center (CITAC) and the National Infrastructure Protection Center (NIPC) were created to deal with the increase in Internet -related problems, such as computer viruses, worms, and other malicious programs that threatened U.S. operations. With these developments,
3192-648: The January 6, 2021 attack on democratic institutions in Washington D.C. later testified in support of the Proud boys , who were part of the plot. Revelations about the informant raised fresh questions about intelligence failures by the FBI before the riot. According to the Brennan Center , and Senate committees , the FBI's response to white supremacist violence was "woefully inadequate". The FBI has long been suspected to have turned
3306-471: The Oregon land fraud scandal at the turn of the 20th century. President Roosevelt instructed Attorney General Charles Bonaparte to organize an autonomous investigative service that would report only to the Attorney General . Bonaparte reached out to other agencies, including the U.S. Secret Service , for personnel, investigators in particular. On May 27, 1908, Congress forbade this use of Treasury employees by
3420-556: The U.S. Government Printing Office released 26 volumes of testimony and evidence compiled by the Warren Commission. Volume 18 of the commission's hearings reproduced 158 frames from the Zapruder film in black and white. Frames 208–211 were missing, a splice was visible in frames 207 and 212, frames 314 and 315 were switched around, and frame 284 was a repeat of 283. In response to an inquiry, then-FBI director J. Edgar Hoover wrote in 1965 that frames 314 and 315 had been swapped due to
3534-544: The 1920s during Prohibition to arrest bootleggers. In the 1927 case Olmstead v. United States , in which a bootlegger was caught through telephone tapping, the United States Supreme Court ruled that FBI wiretaps did not violate the Fourth Amendment as unlawful search and seizure, as long as the FBI did not break into a person's home to complete the tapping. After Prohibition's repeal, Congress passed
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3648-399: The 1940s and continuing into the 1970s, the bureau investigated cases of espionage against the United States and its allies. Eight Nazi agents who had planned sabotage operations against American targets were arrested, and six were executed ( Ex parte Quirin ) under their sentences. Also during this time, a joint US/UK code-breaking effort called "The Venona Project "—with which the FBI
3762-409: The 8 mm format, no provision was made for the addition of a sound track. Nevertheless, in the 1960s, projectors appeared on the market that were capable of recording and replaying sound from a magnetic stripe applied to the film after it had been processed. The only part of the film wide enough to accept such a magnetic stripe was the area between the edge and the perforations. A much narrower stripe
3876-587: The Broadway musical Assassins . 8 mm film There are also two other varieties of Super 8 – Single 8 mm and Straight-8 – that require different cameras but produce a final film with the same dimensions. The standard 8 mm (also known as regular 8 or double 8) film format was developed by the Eastman Kodak company during the Great Depression and released to the market in 1932 to create
3990-514: The Bureau agreed to identify, review, and release all pertinent cases, and notify prosecutors about cases in which faulty testimony was given. In 2012, the FBI formed the National Domestic Communications Assistance Center to develop technology for assisting law enforcement with technical knowledge regarding communication services, technologies, and electronic surveillance. An FBI informant, who participated in
4104-480: The FBI asked for $ 9,800,724,000. Of that money, $ 9,748,829,000 would be used for Salaries and Expenses (S&E) and $ 51,895,000 for Construction. The S&E program saw an increase of $ 199,673,000. In 1896, the National Bureau of Criminal Identification was founded, providing agencies across the country with information to identify known criminals. The 1901 assassination of President William McKinley created
4218-599: The FBI created the Top Hoodlum Program. The national office directed field offices to gather information on mobsters in their territories and to report it regularly to Washington for a centralized collection of intelligence on racketeers . After the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act , for RICO Act, took effect, the FBI began investigating the former Prohibition-organized groups, which had become fronts for crime in major cities and small towns. All
4332-628: The FBI increased its electronic surveillance in public safety and national security investigations, adapting to the telecommunications advancements that changed the nature of such problems. During the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center , FBI agent Leonard W. Hatton Jr. was killed during the rescue effort while helping the rescue personnel evacuate the occupants of the South Tower, and he stayed when it collapsed. Within months after
4446-485: The FBI work was done undercover and from within these organizations, using the provisions provided in the RICO Act. Gradually the agency dismantled many of the groups. Although Hoover initially denied the existence of a National Crime Syndicate in the United States, the Bureau later conducted operations against known organized crime syndicates and families, including those headed by Sam Giancana and John Gotti . The RICO Act
4560-558: The FBI's auto mechanics and janitors. For over 40 years, the FBI crime lab in Quantico had believed that lead alloys used in bullets had unique chemical signatures. It was analyzing the bullets with the goal of matching them chemically, not only to a single batch of ammunition coming out of a factory, but also to a single box of bullets. The National Academy of Sciences conducted an 18-month independent review of comparative bullet-lead analysis . In 2003, its National Research Council published
4674-635: The FBI, CIA, and the rest of the United States Intelligence Community . The book blamed the FBI's decentralized structure, which prevented effective communication and cooperation among different FBI offices. The book suggested that the FBI had not evolved into an effective counter-terrorism or counter-intelligence agency, due in large part to deeply ingrained agency cultural resistance to change. For example, FBI personnel practices continued to treat all staff other than special agents as support staff, classifying intelligence analysts alongside
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4788-495: The FBI, and the Origins of 9/11 . The Post reported, from Zegart's book, that government documents showed that both the CIA and the FBI had missed 23 potential chances to disrupt the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. The primary reasons for the failures included: agency cultures resistant to change and new ideas; inappropriate incentives for promotion; and a lack of cooperation between
4902-449: The FBI. While the FBI did accede to most of the recommendations, including oversight by the new director of National Intelligence , some former members of the 9/11 Commission publicly criticized the FBI in October 2005, claiming it was resisting any meaningful changes. On July 8, 2007, The Washington Post published excerpts from UCLA Professor Amy Zegart's book Spying Blind: The CIA,
5016-621: The JFK Act's meaning and directed it to be transferred on August 1, 1998, from its present-day location in NARA's film collection to the John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection maintained by NARA. As required by the US federal law for such a seizure under eminent domain , payment to Zapruder's heirs was attempted. Because the film is unique, its value was difficult to ascertain. Eventually, following arbitration with
5130-506: The Justice Department, citing fears that the new agency would serve as a secret police department. Again at Roosevelt's urging, Bonaparte moved to organize a formal Bureau of Investigation , which would then have its own staff of special agents . The Bureau of Investigation (BOI) was created on July 26, 1908. Attorney General Bonaparte, using Department of Justice expense funds, hired thirty-four people, including some veterans of
5244-447: The Line of Fire . Abraham Zapruder is sometimes presented as a forefather of all citizen journalists . In " Murder Most Foul ", a musical meditation on Kennedy's assassination and its effect on American counterculture , Bob Dylan sings "Zapruder's film I've seen that before / seen it 33 times maybe more". The video was projected onto Lee Harvey Oswald 's T-shirt in the 2004 revival of
5358-515: The NPIC worked on two different versions of the Zapruder film on Saturday and Sunday nights immediately following the assassination, which had occurred on Friday. The work was done by separate teams that had been compartmentalized and ordered not to speak of their work, causing the teams not to know about each other, even though the personnel from the two teams normally worked together on a daily basis. When Horne showed his findings and evidence to Brugioni,
5472-620: The National Archives. The Zapruder film was automatically designated an "assassination record" and therefore became the official property of the United States government. On April 24, 1997, the Assassination Records Review Board (ARRB), which the JFK Act created, announced a "Statement of Policy and Intent with Regard to the Zapruder Film". The ARRB re-affirmed that the Zapruder film was an "assassination record" within
5586-588: The New Zealand GCSB and the Russian FSB . Unlike the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), which has no law enforcement authority and is focused on intelligence collection abroad, the FBI is primarily a domestic agency, maintaining 56 field offices in major cities throughout the United States, and more than 400 resident agencies in smaller cities and areas across the nation. At an FBI field office,
5700-511: The Secret Service, to work for a new investigative agency. Its first "chief" (the title is now "director") was Stanley Finch . Bonaparte notified the Congress of these actions in December 1908. The bureau's first official task was visiting and making surveys of the houses of prostitution in preparation for enforcing the "White Slave Traffic Act" or Mann Act , passed on June 25, 1910. In 1932,
5814-490: The September 11, 2001, attacks. The 9/11 Commission 's final report on July 22, 2004, stated that the FBI and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) were both partially to blame for not pursuing intelligence reports that could have prevented the September 11 attacks. In its most damning assessment, the report concluded that the country had "not been well served" by either agency and listed numerous recommendations for changes within
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#17328524639915928-653: The United States, including both militant and non-violent organizations. Among its targets was the Southern Christian Leadership Conference , a leading civil rights organization whose clergy leadership included the Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. . The FBI frequently investigated King. In the mid-1960s, King began to criticize the Bureau for giving insufficient attention to the use of terrorism by white supremacists. Hoover responded by publicly calling King
6042-461: The Warren Commission judged the quality to be inadequate, and requested the original film. Life brought the original to Washington in February for the commission's viewing, and made color 35mm slide enlargements from the relevant frames of the original film for the FBI. From those slides, the FBI made a series of black-and-white prints, which were given to the commission for its use. In October 1964,
6156-464: The Zapruder family for the token sum of $ 1. Time Inc. wanted to donate the film to the U.S. government. The Zapruder family originally refused to consent. In 1978, the family transferred the film to the National Archives and Records Administration for appropriate preservation and safe-keeping, while still retaining ownership of the film and its copyright. Director Oliver Stone paid over $ 85,000 to
6270-570: The Zapruder family for use of the Zapruder film in his motion picture JFK (1991). On October 26, 1992, then-U.S. President George H. W. Bush signed into law the President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection Act (the "JFK Act"), which sought to preserve for historical and governmental purposes all records related to President Kennedy's assassination. The Act created the President John F. Kennedy Assassination Records Collection at
6384-518: The Zapruder film in black and white. Frames were also published in color in the December 6, 1963 special "John F. Kennedy Memorial Edition", and in issues dated October 2, 1964 (a special article on the film and the Warren Commission report), November 25, 1966, and November 24, 1967. Zapruder was one of at least 32 people in Dealey Plaza known to have made film or still photographs at or around
6498-455: The Zapruder frames, and they stay motionless once each object moves out of those frames. The Orville Nix film had the same technology applied to it. The Nix and Zapruder films were then combined into a direct simultaneous comparison movie. Between November 1963 and January 1964, the FBI examined a copy of the Zapruder film, noting that the camera recorded at an average of 18.3 frames per second. It
6612-645: The Zapruder heirs, the government purchased the film in 1999 for $ 16 million. At that time, the family retained copyright to the film. In December 1999, the Zapruder family donated the film's copyright to the Sixth Floor Museum , in the Texas School Book Depository building at Dealey Plaza , along with one of the first-generation copies made on November 22, 1963, and other copies of the film and frame enlargements once held by Life magazine, which had since been returned. The film's relevant history
6726-538: The area during the 1992 Los Angeles riots . HRT operators, for instance, spent 10 days conducting vehicle-mounted patrols throughout Los Angeles , before returning to Virginia. Between 1993 and 1996, the FBI increased its counter-terrorism role following the first 1993 World Trade Center bombing in New York City , the 1995 Oklahoma City bombing , and the arrest of the Unabomber in 1996. Technological innovation and
6840-408: The assassination, a copy of the film made several generations from the original was subpoenaed from Time Inc. in 1967 by New Orleans District Attorney Jim Garrison for use at Shaw's grand jury hearing. Garrison unsuccessfully subpoenaed the original film in 1968. The courtroom showings of Garrison's copy in 1969 were the first time it had been shown in public as a film. Garrison allowed copies of
6954-537: The assassination. One of the sources of controversy with the Warren Report is its difficulty in satisfactorily accounting for the sequencing of the assassination. A specific mystery concerns what happened to the one shot that missed, and how Lee Harvey Oswald came to miss at what was assumed to be close range. Holland and Rush argue that the break in the Zapruder film might conceal a first shot earlier than analysts have hitherto assumed, and point out that in this case,
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#17328524639917068-510: The attacks, FBI Director Robert Mueller , who had been sworn in a week before the attacks, called for a re-engineering of FBI structure and operations. He made countering every federal crime a top priority, including the prevention of terrorism, countering foreign intelligence operations, addressing cybersecurity threats, other high-tech crimes, protecting civil rights, combating public corruption, organized crime, white-collar crime, and major acts of violent crime. In February 2001, Robert Hanssen
7182-738: The bureau was renamed the United States Bureau of Investigation. The following year, 1933, the BOI was linked to the Bureau of Prohibition and rechristened the Division of Investigation (DOI); it became an independent service within the Department of Justice in 1935. In the same year, its name was officially changed from the Division of Investigation to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). J. Edgar Hoover served as FBI director from 1924 to 1972,
7296-419: The camera's sound recording head in a similar manner to Super 8. The only difference was that film manufacturers initially had to manufacture the film with a rebated area for the sound stripe. This was because the pressure plate ensuring good film registration was part of the camera and not the cartridge. The sound film had to be the same overall thickness as silent film which the camera could also accept. Although
7410-405: The camera's sound recording head. The camera would also accept non sound cartridges, but silent cameras could not accept sound cartridges. One major advantage of the Super 8 system was that as the camera pressure plate was a part of the cartridge, it could be moulded to the profile of the stripe(s) on the film. Projectors also appeared on the market which took advantage of the balance stripe next to
7524-428: The co-axial design of Super 8, the Single 8 cartridge featured one spool above the other. Single 8's film format being identical to Super 8 means that everything written above regarding projectors for Super 8 applies equally to Single 8. Cameras also appeared for the Single 8 system that were capable of directly recording to pre-striped film which was presented in an oversize Single-8 cartridge which provided access for
7638-598: The early 1990s but continued to manufacture the film, which was sold via independent film stores. Black-and-white 8 mm film is still manufactured in the Czech Republic, and several companies buy bulk quantities of 16 mm film to make regular 8 mm by re-perforating the stock, cutting it into 25 foot (7.6 m) lengths, and collecting it into special standard 8 mm spools, which they then sell. Re-perforation requires special equipment. Some specialists also produce Super 8 mm film from existing 16 mm or even 35 mm film stock. When Eastman Kodak first conceived
7752-405: The edge and the perforations. The image to sound distance was much shorter for the Super 8 system at just 18 frames. At first, the magnetic stripe had to be applied after the film was processed and recorded on a suitable projector. In the 1970s, cameras appeared which were able to record live sound directly onto pre-striped film. This film was loaded into oversize cartridges that provided access for
7866-427: The federal government, from the lowliest clerk to the more powerful position of White house aide." On May 27, 1953, Executive Order 10450 went into effect. The program was expanded further by this executive order by making all federal employment of homosexuals illegal. On July 8, 1953, the FBI forwarded to the U.S. Civil Service Commission information from the sex deviates program. Between 1977 and 1978, 300,000 pages in
7980-411: The film to be made and these low quality copies began circulating among assassination researchers and were known to many journalists as well. Zapruder's film was aired as part of a Los Angeles area television newscast on February 14, 1969. The first broadcast of the Zapruder film was on the late-night television show Underground News with Chuck Collins, originating on WSNS-TV, Ch 44, Chicago in 1970. It
8094-400: The film's original version. The Zapruder frames outside the section used in the commission's exhibits, frames 155–157 and 341, were also damaged and were spliced out of the original rendition of the film, but are present in the first-generation copies. In 1966, assassination researcher Josiah Thompson , while working for Life , was brought in to examine a first-generation copy of the film and
8208-415: The film. The version of the Zapruder film available to the public depicts the fatal head shot on only one frame of the film, frame 313. Brugioni was certain that the set of briefing boards available to the public in the National Archives is not the set that he and his team produced on November 23–24, 1963. The Sixth Floor Museum at Dealey Plaza denies that the Zapruder film has been altered, or that any of
8322-705: The format faded when Kodak introduced Kodachrome, as this was only available in the Double 8 mm format. The first single-run 8 mm film was offered in 1935 with a Bell & Howell movie camera Filmo 127-A called Straight Eight. Single-width 8 mm film revived in the United States by Bolsey-8 in 1956 and continued for some time outside the United States, with Germany Agfa Movex 8 [ de ] between 1937 and 1950s and Soviet Union KOMZ Ekran movie cameras and Svema offering reversal film in 1960s. Introduced in 2011 by Nicholas Kovats and implemented by Jean-Louis Seguin, this format uses Standard 8 film in
8436-455: The format, Eastman Kodak 's Dallas film processing facility developed the film and Jamieson Film Company produced three copies. Zapruder gave two of the copies to Sorrels and they were sent to Washington . The original film was retained by Zapruder, in addition to one of the copies. On the morning of November 23, CBS lost the bidding for the footage to Life magazine's $ 150,000 offer ($ 1,490,000 in 2024). CBS News correspondent Dan Rather
8550-406: The former had larger spindle holes. Therefore, it was not possible to mount a Super 8 spool on a Standard 8 projector, and vice versa. The Super 8 format was designed from the start to accommodate a sound track (one of the few film formats to do so). This track would occupy the area between the edge of the film and the image area. As in the double 8 system, a second stripe was sometimes added between
8664-660: The forming of the Hart - Schweiker investigation, which contributed to the Church Committee Investigation on Intelligence Activities by the United States, and resulted in the House Select Committee on Assassinations investigation. In April 1975, in settlement of a royalties suit between Time Inc. and Zapruder's heirs that arose from the ABC showing, Time Inc. sold the film's initial rendition and its copyright back to
8778-488: The four missing ones. Time Inc. filed a lawsuit against Thompson and his publishing company for copyright infringement . A U.S. District Court ruled in 1968 that the Time Inc. copyright of the Zapruder film was not violated by invoking the doctrine of fair use . The court held that "there is a public interest in having the fullest information available on the murder of President Kennedy, saying that Thompson "did serious work on
8892-545: The frames are missing from the film. Kodak engineer Ronald Zavada ran experiments with the film Abraham Zapruder used and concluded that the film is authentic. In 1994, the Zapruder film footage was deemed "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant" by the United States Library of Congress and was selected for permanent preservation in the National Film Registry . Some critics have stated that
9006-404: The host countries. The FBI can and does at times carry out secret activities overseas, just as the CIA has a limited domestic function . These activities generally require coordination across government agencies. The FBI was established in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation, the BOI or BI for short. Its name was changed to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in 1935. The FBI headquarters
9120-513: The latter re-examined a copy of the extant Zapruder film, provided by Horne. Brugioni then stated the Zapruder film in the National Archives today, and available to the public, specifically frame 313, is an altered version of the film he saw and worked with on November 23–24, the earlier of the two versions handled by the NPIC. Brugioni recalled seeing a "white cloud" of brain matter, three or four feet (91 or 122 cm) above Kennedy's head, and said that this "spray" lasted for more than one frame of
9234-706: The list belonged to Issei community leaders, as the FBI investigation built on an existing Naval Intelligence index that had focused on Japanese Americans in Hawaii and the West Coast, but many German and Italian nationals also found their way onto the FBI Index list. Robert Shivers, head of the Honolulu office, obtained permission from Hoover to start detaining those on the list on December 7, 1941, while bombs were still falling over Pearl Harbor . Mass arrests and searches of homes, in most cases conducted without warrants, began
9348-508: The men were sentenced to death (which was later reduced to life in prison), and the fourth defendant was sentenced to life in prison. Two of the four men died in prison after serving almost 30 years, and two others were released after serving 32 and 36 years. In July 2007, U.S. District Judge Nancy Gertner in Boston found that the Bureau had helped convict the four men using false witness accounts given by mobster Joseph Barboza . The U.S. Government
9462-400: The most "notorious liar" in the United States. In his 1991 memoir, Washington Post journalist Carl Rowan asserted that the FBI had sent at least one anonymous letter to King encouraging him to commit suicide. Historian Taylor Branch documents an anonymous November 1964 "suicide package" sent by the Bureau that combined a letter to the civil rights leader telling him "You are done. There
9576-440: The most complete, giving a relatively clear view from a somewhat elevated position on the side from which the president's fatal head wound is visible. It was an important piece of evidence before the Warren Commission hearings, and all subsequent investigations of the assassination. It is one of the most studied pieces of film in history, particularly footage of the final shot which helped spawn theories of whether Lee Harvey Oswald
9690-529: The number of frames in a given film area, which is what makes it cost less. Because of the two passes of the film, the format was sometimes called Double 8 . The frame size of regular 8 mm is 4.8 mm × 3.5 mm, and 1 meter of film contains 264 pictures. Normally, Double 8 is filmed at 16 or 18 frames per second. Common length film spools allowed filming of about 3 to 4 + 1 ⁄ 2 minutes at 12, 15, 16, and 18 frames per second. Kodak ceased sales of standard 8 mm film under its own brand in
9804-405: The operator does this properly) and the same film is subsequently exposed along its other edge, the edge left unexposed on the first pass. After the film is developed, the processor splits it down the middle, resulting in two lengths of 8 mm film, each with a single row of perforations along one edge. Each frame is half the width and half the height of a 16 mm frame, so there are four times
9918-531: The order, disappointing the reporter. In a 2015 interview on Opie with Jim Norton , Rather stated that the story was a myth. Frame 313 of the film captures the fatal shot to the President's head. After claiming to have a nightmare in which he saw a sign in Times Square , New York City, with the phrase "See the President's head explode!", Zapruder insisted that frame 313 be excluded from publication. The November 29, 1963 issue of Life published about 30 frames of
10032-1121: The perforations by recording and replaying stereo sound. Projectors appeared in the late 1970s that featured the ability to play films with an optical soundtrack. The image-sound separation for the optical format was 22 frames. These were never popular in the English speaking world and are consequently very rare in those countries, but they did enjoy some popularity in the Far East and Europe mainly because optical prints were cheaper. Sound prints in Super 8 were plentiful and considering that they were very expensive by modern-day standards, sold in appreciable quantities. A two-reel print (running approximately 17 minutes) cost around $ 50 with feature films costing at least $ 150-plus. A few prints were also released with stereo sound. In Europe, optical prints were also popular and were appreciated for their often superior sound quality. In theory, magnetic prints should have been superior, but Super 8 magnetic prints were often poorly recorded after
10146-512: The picture was processed, due to high-speed, mass production techniques. An optical track, on the other hand, could be printed at the same time as the image and in equivalent quality. Another version of Super 8 film, Single-8 , was produced by Fuji in Japan . Introduced in 1965 as an alternative to the Kodak Super 8 format, it had the same final film dimensions but with a different cassette. Unlike
10260-544: The prevailing belief that Zapruder's film captured the entire shooting sequence. The authenticity of the image in frame 313 was challenged by Douglas Horne, Senior Analyst for the Assassination Records Review Board and Dino Brugioni of the CIA 's National Photographic Interpretation Center (NPIC). Brugioni was considered the world's foremost imagery intelligence analyst until his death in 2015. Horne discovered
10374-517: The program by issuing a memo establishing a "uniform policy for the handling of the increasing number of reports and allegations concerning present and past employees of the United States Government who assertedly [sic] are sex deviates." The program was expanded to include non-government jobs. According to Athan Theoharis , "In 1951 he [Hoover] had unilaterally instituted a Sex Deviates program to purge alleged homosexuals from any position in
10488-426: The rebated stock was more expensive to manufacture, a balance stripe on the opposite side of the film was rendered unnecessary and offset the cost. Fuji later developed a thinner film that did not require rebating, but the balance stripe was required because the thickness of the sound stripe was almost the same as the film base. A number of camera companies offered single-width 8 mm film in magazines or spools, but
10602-548: The scope and influence of the white supremacist group Ku Klux Klan , a group with which the FBI was evidenced to be working in the Viola Liuzzo lynching case. Earlier, through the work of Edwin Atherton , the BOI claimed to have successfully apprehended an entire army of Mexican neo-revolutionaries under the leadership of General Enrique Estrada in the mid-1920s, east of San Diego, California. Hoover began using wiretapping in
10716-415: The sex deviates program, collected between 1930 and the mid-1970s, were destroyed by FBI officials. During the 1950s and 1960s, FBI officials became increasingly concerned about the influence of civil rights leaders, whom they believed either had communist ties or were unduly influenced by communists or " fellow travelers ". In 1956, for example, Hoover sent an open letter denouncing Dr. T. R. M. Howard ,
10830-680: The sixth national priority. With cuts to other well-established departments, and because terrorism was no longer considered a threat after the end of the Cold War , the FBI assisted local and state police forces in tracking fugitives who had crossed state lines, which is a federal offense. The FBI Laboratory helped develop DNA testing, continuing its pioneering role in identification that began with its fingerprinting system in 1924. On May 1, 1992, FBI SWAT and HRT personnel in Los Angeles County, California aided local officials in securing peace within
10944-597: The skills of FBI Laboratory analysts helped ensure that the three cases were successfully prosecuted. However, Justice Department investigations into the FBI's roles in the Ruby Ridge and Waco incidents were found to have been obstructed by agents within the Bureau. During the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia , the FBI was criticized for its investigation of the Centennial Olympic Park bombing . It has settled
11058-423: The subject and has a theory entitled to public consideration" and that "the copying by defendants was fair and reasonable." In 1967, Life hired New Jersey film lab Manhattan Effects to make a 16 mm film copy of the Zapruder film's original version. Pleased with the results, they asked for a 35 mm internegative to be made. Mo Weitzman made several internegatives in 1968, giving the best to Life and retaining
11172-483: The subsequent exclusion orders, but in a handful of cases where Japanese Americans refused to obey the new military regulations, FBI agents handled their arrests. The Bureau continued surveillance on Japanese Americans throughout the war, conducting background checks on applicants for resettlement outside camp, and entering the camps, usually without the permission of War Relocation Authority officials, and grooming informants to monitor dissidents and "troublemakers". After
11286-552: The tenure of future FBI directors to ten years. Early homicide investigations of the new agency included the Osage Indian murders . During the "War on Crime" of the 1930s, FBI agents apprehended or killed a number of notorious criminals who committed kidnappings, bank robberies, and murders throughout the nation, including John Dillinger , "Baby Face" Nelson , Kate "Ma" Barker , Alvin "Creepy" Karpis , and George "Machine Gun" Kelly . Other activities of its early decades focused on
11400-440: The test copies. Weitzman set up his own optical house and motion-picture postproduction facility later that year. Hired in 1969, employee and assassination buff Robert Groden used one of Weitzman's copies and an optical printer to make versions of the Zapruder film with close-ups and minimize the shakiness of Zapruder's camera. Before the 1969 trial of Clay Shaw , a businessman from New Orleans , for conspiracy in connection with
11514-685: The time of the shooting. The Zapruder film frames that were used by the Warren Commission were published in black and white as Commission Exhibit 885 in volume XVIII of the Hearings and Exhibits. Copies of the complete film are available on the Internet. One of the first-generation Secret Service copies was loaned to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in Washington, D.C., which made a second-generation copy. After studies of that copy were made in January 1964,
11628-555: The transfer to another film format for which projectors were already available. Federal Bureau of Investigation The Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) is the domestic intelligence and security service of the United States and its principal federal law enforcement agency . An agency of the United States Department of Justice , the FBI is a member of the U.S. Intelligence Community and reports to both
11742-533: The violence and shock of this home movie led to a new way of representing violence in 1970s American cinema , both in mainstream films, and particularly in indie and underground horror movies . The film has been featured in films and other media, such as the Oliver Stone film JFK . A closeup from the portion of the film showing the fatal shot to Kennedy's head is also shown in the Clint Eastwood film In
11856-565: The war, the FBI was assigned to protect returning Japanese Americans from attacks by hostile white communities. According to Douglas M. Charles, the FBI's "sex deviates" program began on April 10, 1950, when J. Edgar Hoover forwarded to the White House, to the U.S. Civil Service Commission, and to branches of the armed services a list of 393 alleged federal employees who had allegedly been arrested in Washington, D.C., since 1947, on charges of "sexual irregularities". On June 20, 1951, Hoover expanded
11970-482: Was caught selling information to the Russian government. It was later learned that Hanssen, who had reached a high position within the FBI, had been selling intelligence since as early as 1979. He pleaded guilty to espionage and received a life sentence in 2002, but the incident led many to question the security practices employed by the FBI. There was also a claim that Hanssen might have contributed information that led to
12084-508: Was given to director Howie Samuelsohn by Penn Jones and later aired in syndication to Philadelphia, Detroit, Kansas City, and St. Louis. On March 6, 1975, on the ABC late-night television show Good Night America , hosted by Geraldo Rivera , assassination researchers Robert Groden and Dick Gregory presented the first-ever US network television showing of the Zapruder film. The public's response and outrage to that television showing quickly led to
12198-445: Was heavily involved—broke Soviet diplomatic and intelligence communications codes, allowing the US and British governments to read Soviet communications. This effort confirmed the existence of Americans working in the United States for Soviet intelligence. Hoover was administering this project, but he failed to notify the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) of it until 1952. Another notable case
12312-421: Was never an optical system. A few sound prints appeared for use in Double 8 projectors. In 1965, Super-8 film was released and was quickly adopted by many amateur film-makers. It featured a better quality image and was easier to use mainly due to a cartridge-loading system that did not require reloading and rethreading halfway through. To easily differentiate Super 8 film from Standard 8, projector spools for
12426-635: Was ordered to pay $ 100 million in damages to the four defendants. In 1982, the FBI formed an elite unit to help with problems that might arise at the 1984 Summer Olympics to be held in Los Angeles, particularly terrorism and major-crime. This was a result of the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich, Germany , when terrorists murdered the Israeli athletes . Named the Hostage Rescue Team , or HRT, it acts as
12540-458: Was shot and killed, the jurisdiction fell to the local police departments until President Lyndon B. Johnson directed the FBI to take over the investigation. To ensure clarity about the responsibility for investigation of homicides of federal officials, Congress passed a law in 1965 that included investigations of such deaths of federal officials, especially by homicide, within FBI jurisdiction. In response to organized crime, on August 25, 1953,
12654-470: Was sometimes added to the opposite edge so that the film piled up evenly on the spool, but was never used for sound. The sound to picture separation was the same dimensionally as 16 mm film, and as that format is 28 frames, that meant that the Double-8 system was 56 frames. The proximity of the sound stripe to the perforations caused some problems in keeping the film in close contact with the sound head. There
12768-455: Was the arrest of Soviet spy Rudolf Abel in 1957. The discovery of Soviet spies operating in the US motivated Hoover to pursue his longstanding concern with the threat he perceived from the American Left . In 1939, the Bureau began compiling a custodial detention list with the names of those who would be taken into custody in the event of war with Axis nations. The majority of the names on
12882-553: Was the first to report on the footage on national television after seeing it. The inaccuracies in his description contributed to many conspiracy theories about the assassination. In his 2001 book Tell Me a Story , CBS producer Don Hewitt said that he told Rather to go to Zapruder's home to "sock him in the jaw", take the film, copy it, then return it and let the network's lawyers deal with the consequences. According to Hewitt, he realized his mistake after ending their telephone conversation and immediately called Rather back to countermand
12996-578: Was the lone assassin. In 1994, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". Abraham Zapruder stood on a concrete pedestal along Elm Street in Dealey Plaza holding a Model 414 PD Bell & Howell Zoomatic Director Series Camera. He filmed from the time the presidential limousine turned onto Elm Street for
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