133-730: Randy Weaver U.S. government The Ruby Ridge standoff was the siege of a cabin occupied by the Weaver family in Boundary County, Idaho , in August 1992. On August 21, deputies of the United States Marshals Service (USMS) came to arrest Randy Weaver under a bench warrant for his failure to appear on federal firearms charges. During a surveillance operation, officer Art Roderick shot Weaver's dog when it ran at them and then pointed his rifle at Weaver's 14 year old son, Samuel, who
266-621: A .30-06 M1917 Enfield Rifle (striking and killing DUSM Degan). After the federal agents began firing, Samuel was killed by a shot to the back while retreating. Harris had fired the shot which killed DUSM Degan. The origin of the shot that killed Samuel was of critical concern in all investigations. At the time of the writing of the Ruby Ridge: Report (1996), the Senate Subcommittee on Terrorism, Technology and Government Information , chaired by Senator Arlen Specter , observed that
399-617: A U.S. citizen for at least seven years, and must live in the state that they represent. In addition to the 435 voting members, there are six non-voting members, consisting of five delegates and one resident commissioner . There is one delegate each from Washington, D.C. , Guam , the Virgin Islands , American Samoa , the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands , and a resident commissioner from Puerto Rico . Unlike
532-499: A "combat engineer." Following a flyover by a hired helicopter for Geraldo Rivera 's Now It Can Be Told television show on April 18, 1992, the USMS received media reports that Weaver had shot at the helicopter. That day in Idaho, U.S. Marshals were installing surveillance cameras overlooking the Weaver property. The field report for April 18, 1992, filed by Marshal W. Warren Mays, reported seeing
665-525: A U.S. Marshal. Harris said he checked Samuel and found him dead, and ran to the Weavers' cabin. After the firefight at the "Y", Hunt and Thomas went to a neighbor's house to call for assistance from the USMS Crisis Center. Norris, Cooper, and Roderick stayed with Degan's body at the "Y". Randy and Vicki went to the "Y" and retrieved Samuel's body. Randy, Vicki and Harris placed the body in a guest cabin near
798-469: A bullet found in that search matched DUSM Cooper's 9 mm Colt submachine gun and contained fibers that matched Samuel's shirt, conclusively proving DUSM Cooper shot Weaver in the back as he retreated. Harris's and the federal agents' accounts differ as to who fired first. In the 1993 trial over charges in Degan's death, prosecutors alleged that Harris had fired the first shot. Harris asserted self-defense and
931-707: A complex set of relationships between state and federal courts. Federal courts can sometimes hear cases arising under state law pursuant to diversity jurisdiction , state courts can decide certain matters involving federal law, and a handful of federal claims are primarily reserved by federal statute to the state courts. Both court systems have exclusive jurisdiction in some areas and concurrent jurisdiction in others. The U.S. Constitution safeguards judicial independence by providing that federal judges shall hold office "during good behavior"; in practice, this usually means they serve until they die, retire, or resign. A judge who commits an offense while in office may be impeached in
1064-523: A constitutional interpretation by the courts. One of the theoretical pillars of the U.S. Constitution is the idea of " checks and balances " among the powers and responsibilities of the three branches of American government: the executive, the legislative, and the judiciary. For example, while the legislative branch ( Congress ) has the power to create law, the executive branch under the president can veto any legislation—an act which, in turn, can be overridden by Congress. The president nominates judges to
1197-607: A few cases. The judicial power extends to cases arising under the Constitution, an Act of Congress ; a U.S. treaty ; cases affecting ambassadors , ministers and consuls of foreign countries in the U.S.; cases and controversies to which the federal government is a party; controversies between states (or their citizens) and foreign nations (or their citizens or subjects); and bankruptcy cases (collectively "federal-question jurisdiction"). The Eleventh Amendment removed from federal jurisdiction cases in which citizens of one state were
1330-577: A group to fight the " Zionist Organized Government ", referring to the U.S. government. In October 1989, the ATF claimed that Weaver sold the informant two sawed-off shotguns , with the overall length of the guns shorter than the limit set by federal law . In November 1989, Weaver accused the ATF informant of being a spy for the police; Weaver later wrote he had been warned by "Rico V." The informant's handler, Herb Byerly, ordered him to have no further contact with Weaver. Eventually, FBI informant Rico Valentino outed
1463-546: A helicopter near the Weaver property, but not that any shots were heard. In an interview with a Coeur D'Alene newspaper, Weaver denied that anyone had fired at the helicopter. When interviewed by the FBI, the helicopter pilot Richard Weiss said that Weaver had not fired on his helicopter. The Report of the RRTF to the OPR (1994) said, when the "indictment [of Weaver] was presented to the grand jury,
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#17328445683071596-678: A hillside on Ruby Creek opposite Caribou Ridge, northwest of nearby Naples . In 1984, Randy Weaver and his neighbor Terry Kinnison had a dispute over a $ 3,000 land deal. Kinnison lost the ensuing lawsuit and was ordered to pay Weaver an additional $ 2,100 in court costs and damages . Kinnison wrote letters to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), the Secret Service , and the county sheriff in which he alleged that Weaver had threatened to kill Pope John Paul II , President Ronald Reagan , and Idaho Governor John V. Evans . In January 1985,
1729-410: A household in the city was $ 24,509, and the median income for a family was $ 35,237. Males had a median income of $ 28,558 versus $ 16,776 for females. The per capita income for the city was $ 13,343. About 17.3 percent of families and 20.0 percent of the population were below the poverty line , including 28.6 percent of those under age 18 and 10.9 percent of those age 65 or over. Boundary County Airport
1862-434: A large weapons cache at his residence. Weaver denied these allegations, and the government filed no charges. On three or four occasions, the Weavers had attended Aryan Nations meetings at Hayden Lake , where there was a compound for government resisters and white supremacists / separatists . The investigation noted that Weaver associated with Frank Kumnick, who was known to associate with members of Aryan Nations. Weaver told
1995-477: A letter claiming that their enemies may have sent Reagan a threatening letter under a forged signature. No evidence of such a letter surfaced, but in 1992, the prosecutor cited the 1985 letter as an overt act of the Weaver family conspiracy against the federal government. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF) first became aware of Weaver in July 1986, when he was introduced to a confidential ATF informant at
2128-685: A letter informing them of the date change, but the notice was not sent directly to Weaver, only to Hofmeister. On February 7, Richins sent Weaver a letter indicating that he had the case file and needed to talk with Weaver. This letter erroneously said that Weaver's trial date was March 20. On February 8, Hofmeister again attempted to contact Weaver by letter informing him that the trial was to begin on February 20 and that Weaver needed to contact him immediately. Hofmeister also made several calls to individuals who knew Weaver, asking them to have Weaver call him. Hofmeister told U.S. District Court Judge Harold Lyman Ryan that he had been unable to reach Weaver before
2261-473: A meeting at the World Aryan Congress. The informant portrayed himself as a weapons dealer working with motorcycle gangs . Weaver had been invited to the meeting by Kumnick, the original target of the ATF investigation. It was Weaver's first time at this Congress. Over the next three years, Weaver and the informant met several times. In July 1989, Weaver invited the informant to his home to discuss forming
2394-533: A repeat of the losses of life at Ruby Ridge and to restore the public's confidence. Several documentaries and books were produced on the siege. The law enforcement's response at Ruby Ridge and during the Waco siege roughly six months later were both cited by Timothy McVeigh as his motivation to carry out the Oklahoma City bombing with Terry Nichols . Ruby Ridge is the southernmost of four ridges that extend east from
2527-470: A single elected term." Under the Presentment Clause of Article I, a bill that passes both chambers of Congress shall be presented to the president, who may sign the bill into law or veto the bill by returning it to the chamber where it originated. If the president neither signs nor vetoes a bill "within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him" it becomes a law without
2660-525: A toll to drive through what had been the tribe's aboriginal land. The money would be used to house and care for elderly tribal members. Most tribes in the United States are forbidden to declare war on the U.S. government because of treaties, but the Kootenai Tribe never signed a treaty. The dispute resulted in the concession by the United States government and a land grant of 10.5 acres (42,000 m ) that
2793-515: A variety of federal criminal charges, including first-degree murder for the death of Degan. In the successful defense, Weaver's attorney Gerry Spence accused the agencies that were involved of criminal wrongdoing, in particular the FBI, the USMS, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF), and the United States Attorney's Office (USAO) for Idaho. Harris and Weaver were acquitted of all
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#17328445683072926-434: Is a county-owned, public-use airport located 2 nautical miles (3.7 km) northeast of the central business district of Bonners Ferry. The railroad reached town in 1892; the then Great Northern Railroad as part of its transcontinental line over Maria's Pass, now BNSF . The Kootenai Valley Railway existed 1898-1915. In 1910 a second railroad was built through Bonners Ferry: Spokane International Railroad connecting
3059-559: Is an affiliate of the Fundamental Broadcasting Network . A prominent newspaper in Bonners Ferry is the weekly Bonners Ferry Herald , owned by Hagadone Publishing. Bonners Ferry High School has physical education programs such as wrestling, football, baseball, soccer, cheer, dance, golf, and basketball. There are teams fielded for Little league baseball, in association with nearby Sandpoint, Idaho . There
3192-449: Is composed of three distinct branches: legislative , executive , and judicial , whose powers are vested by the U.S. Constitution in the Congress , the president , and the federal courts , respectively. The powers and duties of these branches are further defined by acts of Congress, including the creation of executive departments and courts subordinate to the U.S. Supreme Court . In
3325-659: Is now the Kootenai Reservation . Bonners Ferry is 8 miles (13 km) from the site of the Ruby Ridge confrontation and siege in 1992, which occurred just outside Naples, Idaho. Bonners Ferry is located 27 miles (43.5 km) south of the Canada-United States border at 48°41′32″N 116°19′3″W / 48.69222°N 116.31750°W / 48.69222; -116.31750 (48.692110, −116.317626), at an altitude of 1,896 feet (578 m). According to
3458-422: Is shared between the federal government and state governments . The interpretation and execution of these principles, including what powers the federal government should have and how those powers can be exercised, have been debated ever since the adoption of the Constitution. Some make a case for expansive federal powers while others argue for a more limited role for the central government in relation to individuals,
3591-519: Is the largest city in and the county seat of Boundary County , Idaho , United States. The population was 2,543 at the 2010 census . The Porthill-Rykerts Border Crossing connects Bonners Ferry with Creston, British Columbia , Canada, on the Kootenay River . The Eastport–Kingsgate Border Crossing connects Bonners Ferry with Yahk, British Columbia , Canada, on the Moyie River . When gold
3724-452: The Department of Justice claimed that all indications are that the warrant would have been dropped. But instead, the U.S. Attorney's Office (USAO) called a grand jury on March 14. The USAO did not inform the grand jury of Richins's letter and the grand jury issued an indictment for failure to appear. When the Weaver case passed from the ATF to the USMS, no one informed the marshals that
3857-712: The Idaho State Police arrived at the scene. FBI Headquarters in Washington, DC , responded by sending the Hostage Rescue Team (HRT) from Quantico to Idaho. Special Agent in Charge (SAC) Eugene Glenn of the Salt Lake City FBI office was appointed Site Commander with responsibility for all active individuals from the FBI, ATF, and USMS. A stand-off ensued for eleven days, as several hundred federal agents surrounded
3990-558: The Libby Dam in 1975 lessened the threat of serious flooding. Today, much of Main Street dates from this initial period of solid, permanent construction. On September 20, 1974, the Kootenai Tribe , headed by chairwoman Amy Trice , declared war on the United States government. Their first act was to post soldiers on each end of the highway that runs through the town who would ask people to pay
4123-504: The Senate . The U.S. House of Representatives is made up of 435 voting members, each of whom represents a congressional district in a state from where they were elected. Apportionment of seats among the 50 states is determined by state populations, and it is updated after each decennial U.S. Census. Each member serves a two-year term. In order to be elected as a representative, an individual must be at least 25 years of age, must have been
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4256-514: The Supreme Court , combat piracies and felonies , declare war , raise and support armies , provide and maintain a navy , make rules for the regulation of land and naval forces, provide for, arm and discipline the militia , exercise exclusive legislation in the District of Columbia , regulate interstate commerce , and to make laws necessary to properly execute powers. Over the two centuries since
4389-490: The U.S. Senate , all members of the U.S. House must be elected and cannot be appointed. In the case of a vacancy, the seat must be filled through a special election, as required under Article 1 of the U.S. Constitution. In contrast, the Senate is made up of two senators from each state, regardless of population. There are currently 100 senators (2 from each of the 50 states), who each serve six-year terms. Approximately one-third of
4522-526: The U.S. Tax Court , are specialized courts handling only certain kinds of cases, known as subject matter jurisdiction . The Bankruptcy Courts are supervised by the district courts, and, as such, are not considered part of the Article III judiciary. As such, their judges do not have lifetime tenure, nor are they Constitutionally exempt from diminution of their remuneration. The Tax Court is an Article I Court, not an Article III Court. The district courts are
4655-587: The United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 2.61 square miles (6.76 km ), of which 2.44 square miles (6.32 km ) is land and 0.17 square miles (0.44 km ) is water. Bonners Ferry has a humid continental climate ( Köppen Dfb / Dsb ) with cold, snowy winters and dry summers with hot days and cool nights. It is almost warm enough to be classed as a Mediterranean climate or oceanic climate , and snow depths above 10 inches (0.25 m) occur on 23.6 days on average. As of
4788-493: The United States District Courts , which are the general trial courts for federal law, and for certain controversies between litigants who are not deemed citizens of the same state, known as diversity jurisdiction . There are three levels of federal courts with general jurisdiction, which are courts that handle both criminal and civil suits between individuals. Other courts, such as the bankruptcy courts and
4921-839: The United States Postal Service (USPS), NASA , the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). In addition, there are government-owned corporations , including the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and the National Railroad Passenger Corporation . The Judiciary, under Article III of
5054-684: The White House staff, the National Security Council , the Office of Management and Budget , the Council of Economic Advisers , the Council on Environmental Quality , the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative , the Office of National Drug Control Policy , and the Office of Science and Technology Policy . Outside of the EOP and the executive departments are a number of independent agencies . These include
5187-543: The census of 2000, there were 2,515 people, 1,027 households, and 650 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,186.9 inhabitants per square mile (458.3/km ). There were 1,120 housing units at an average density of 528.5 per square mile (204.1/km ). The racial makeup of the city was 95.67 percent White , 0.04 percent African American , 1.59 percent Native American , 0.52 percent Asian , 1.31 percent from other races , and 0.87 percent from 2 or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.29 percent of
5320-570: The census of 2010, there were 2,543 people, 1,117 households, and 631 families residing in the city. The population density was 1,042.2 inhabitants per square mile (402.4/km ). There were 1,254 housing units at an average density of 513.9 per square mile (198.4/km ). The racial makeup of the city was 94.3 percent White , 0.2 percent African American , 2.0 percent Native American , 0.6 percent Asian , 0.2 percent Pacific Islander , 0.5 percent from other races , and 2.2 percent from 2 or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.7 percent of
5453-502: The federal division of power, the federal government shares sovereignty with each of the 50 states in their respective territories. U.S. law recognizes Indigenous tribes as possessing sovereign powers , while being subject to federal jurisdiction. The full name of the republic is the "United States of America". No other name appears in the Constitution , and this is the name that appears on money, in treaties, and in legal cases to which
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5586-621: The head of government (the chief executive). The Constitution directs the president to " take care that the laws be faithfully executed " and requires the president to swear or affirm to "preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States." Legal scholars William P. Marshall and Saikrishna B. Prakash write of the Clause: "the President may neither breach federal law nor order their subordinates to do so, for defiance cannot be considered faithful execution. The Constitution also incorporates
5719-554: The 20th century, the town became the center of a lumbering and farming community. The valley land was drained, levees were constructed and farms were cleared on the benches. The rich Kootenai Valley became known as the "Nile of the North," while the Bonners Ferry Lumber Company grew to be one of the world's largest lumber mills . The downtown took shape as brick buildings were constructed, replacing those on stilts. Completion of
5852-499: The ATF had attempted to solicit Weaver as an informant. As the law enforcement arm of the federal court, the USMS were responsible to arrest and bring in Weaver, now considered a fugitive . Weaver simply stayed in his remote home, threatening to resist any attempt to take him by force. Weaver was known to have an intense distrust of government. The erroneous Richins letter is believed to have compounded this sentiment and may have contributed to Weaver's reluctance to appear for trial. He
5985-524: The ATF informant to Aryan Nations security. In June 1990, Byerly attempted to use the sawed-off shotgun charge as leverage to get Weaver to act as an informant for his investigation into Aryan Nations. Weaver refused to become a "snitch", and the ATF filed the gun charges in June 1990. The ATF alleged that Weaver was a bank robber with criminal convictions. (Those claims were false: at that time Weaver had no criminal record. The 1995 Senate investigation found: "Weaver
6118-645: The Bottleneck/Roman Nose mountain range toward the Kootenai River . Caribou Ridge lies north of it, and the area between them drains into the Ruby Creek. Weaver insisted that his cabin, located north of the creek, was on Caribou Ridge, and that "Ruby Ridge" was a press invention. Both ridge names were in use before the Weavers moved to the area, as in a Forest Service report on the 1967 Sundance Fire. The standoff occurred approximately ten miles (16 km) from
6251-832: The Cabinet who are appointed by the president. These are the White House Chief of Staff, Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency, Director of the Office of Management & Budget, United States Trade Representative, U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, Chairman of the Council of Economic Advisers, and Administrator of the Small Business Administration. The heads of the 15 departments are chosen by
6384-537: The Chief Probation Officer, Terrence Hummel, contacted Ryan's clerk and informed them of the incorrect date in the letter. Hummel also contacted the U.S. Marshals Service (USMS) and Weaver's attorney, informing them both of the error. Judge Ryan, however, refused to withdraw the bench warrant. The USMS agreed to put off executing the warrant until after March 20 in order to see whether Weaver would show up in court on that day. If he were to show up on March 20,
6517-633: The Constitution, explains and applies the laws. This branch does this by hearing and eventually making decisions on various legal cases. Article III section I of the Constitution establishes the Supreme Court of the United States and authorizes the United States Congress to establish inferior courts as their need shall arise. Section I also establishes a lifetime tenure for all federal judges and states that their compensation may not be diminished during their time in office. Article II section II establishes that all federal judges are to be appointed by
6650-576: The English bars on dispensing or suspending the law, with some supposing that the Clause itself prohibits both." Many presidential actions are undertaken via executive orders , presidential proclamations , and presidential memoranda . The president is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces . Under the Reception Clause , the president is empowered to "receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers";
6783-605: The FBI and the Secret Service launched an investigation into allegations that Weaver had made threats against Reagan and other government and law enforcement officials. On February 12, Weaver and his wife were interviewed by two FBI agents, two Secret Service agents, and the Boundary County sheriff and his chief investigator. The Secret Service had been told that Weaver was a member of Aryan Nations (an antisemitic, neo-Nazi, white supremacist terrorist organization) and that he had
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#17328445683076916-563: The House plus its two senators). The District of Columbia has a number of electoral votes "equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives in Congress to which the District would be entitled if it were a State, but in no event more than the least populous State". A President may also be seated by succession . As originally drafted, there was no limit to the time a President could serve, however
7049-464: The Marshals at the "Y"; Roderick claimed to have yelled, "Back off! U.S. Marshal!" upon sighting Weaver, and Cooper said he had shouted, "Stop! U.S. Marshal!" By their account, Samuel and Striker came out of the woods about a minute later. When the Marshals' position was revealed by the dog "Striker", a yellow Labrador Retriever , DUSM Roderick shot the dog dead. Seeing this, Samuel Weaver reportedly said to
7182-534: The Marshals, "You've killed my dog, you son of a bitch!", and then shot in the direction of Roderick. DUSM Cooper then shot towards Samuel Weaver and Kevin Harris, who both sought cover. Harris, once finding cover behind a tree stump, then returned fire with a shot that killed DUSM William Francis "Bill" Degan Jr.. Samuel Weaver, now retreating up a hill, was then shot in the back and killed by DUSM Cooper. A later ballistics report showed that nineteen rounds were fired during
7315-825: The President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments." These appointments delegate "by legal authority a portion of the sovereign powers of the federal government." The Constitution grants the president the "Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States , except in Cases of Impeachment"; this clemency power includes the power to issue absolute or conditional pardons, and to issue commute sentences , to remit fines, and to issue general amnesties . The presidential clemency power extends only to federal crimes, and not to state crimes. The president has informal powers beyond their formal powers. For example,
7448-507: The Ruby Ridge Task Force (RRTF) in an attempt to investigate Spence's charges; their report raised questions about all of the participating agencies' conduct and policies. Another inquiry was led by the Senate Subcommittee on Terrorism, Technology, and Government Information , which held hearings between September 6 and October 19, 1995. It issued a report in which it called for reforms in federal law enforcement in an attempt to prevent
7581-439: The Senate stands for election every two years. If a vacancy occurs, the state governor appoints a replacement to complete the term or to hold the office until a special election can take place. The House and Senate each have particular exclusive powers. For example, the Senate must approve (give " advice and consent " to) many important presidential appointments, including cabinet officers, federal judges (including nominees to
7714-472: The Supreme Court), department secretaries (heads of federal executive branch departments), U.S. military and naval officers, and ambassadors to foreign countries. All legislative bills for raising revenue must originate in the House of Representatives. The approval of both chambers is required to pass all legislation, which then may only become law by being signed by the president (or, if the president vetoes
7847-483: The Twenty-second Amendment, ratified in 1951, originally limits any president to serving two four-year terms (8 years); the amendment specifically "caps the service of a president at 10 years" by providing that "if a person succeeds to the office of president without election and serves less than two years, he may run for two full terms; otherwise, a person succeeding to office of president can serve no more than
7980-704: The US to Canada, now Union Pacific . While Amtrak's Empire Builder runs through town, the nearest station is at Sandpoint (the only Amtrak station in Idaho). Bonners Ferry has been home to KBFI AM 1450 since 1983. It is owned by local licensee Radio Bonners Ferry, Inc, owned by Blue Sky Broadcasting, Inc . While licensed to Bonners Ferry and having its transmitter site located there, KBFI shares studios and offices with its sister stations ( KSPT , KIBR , and KPND ), in nearby Sandpoint, Idaho. KSBF 88.9 FM began broadcasting in 2024. Owned and operated by Bonners Ferry Baptist Church, it
8113-428: The United States ( U.S. federal government or U.S. government ) is the common government of the United States , a federal republic located primarily in North America , comprising 50 states , five major self-governing territories , several island possessions , and the federal district (national capital) of Washington, D.C. , where the majority of the federal government is based. The U.S. federal government
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#17328445683078246-445: The United States was formed, many disputes have arisen over the limits on the powers of the federal government. These disputes have often been the subject of lawsuits that have ultimately been decided by the United States Supreme Court . Congressional oversight is intended to prevent waste and fraud, protect civil liberties and individual rights, ensure executive compliance with the law, gather information for making laws and educating
8379-493: The Weaver case accurately without the benefit of first-hand briefings from persons who had continuing involvement with him. Many of the people the USMS used as third party go-betweens on the Weaver case—Bill and Judy Grider, Alan Jeppeson, and Richard Butler —were assessed by the Marshals as more radical than the Weavers. When Deputy U.S. Marshal (DUSM) Dave Hunt asked Grider, "Why shouldn't I just go up there ... and talk to him?", Grider replied, "Let me put it to you this way. If I
8512-604: The Weavers' Conspiracy Against the Federal Government, Randy, Vicki, and Harris fired two shots at the Rivera helicopter. Operation "Northern Exposure" was suspended for three months due to the confirmation hearings for United States Marshals Service Director Henry E. Hudson . On August 21, 1992, six Marshals were sent to scout the area to determine suitable places away from the cabin to apprehend and arrest Weaver. The marshals, dressed in military camouflage , were equipped with night-vision goggles and M16 rifles . DUSMs Art Roderick, Larry Cooper, and William F. "Bill" Degan formed
8645-402: The bill, both houses of Congress then re-pass the bill, but by a two-thirds majority of each chamber, in which case the bill becomes law without the president's signature). The powers of Congress are limited to those enumerated in the Constitution; all other powers are reserved to the states and the people. The Constitution also includes the Necessary and Proper Clause , which grants Congress
8778-443: The border between the United States and British Columbia . Bonners Ferry in the 1880s flourished due to the mines in the north. Entering service in 1883 the Norwegian -built steamer Midge transported passengers and freight between Bonners Ferry and British Columbia for 25 years. In 1892 The Great Northern Railway was built, followed by the Spokane International and the Kootenai Valley lines. The village of Bonners Ferry
8911-458: The business, but the location retained the name of the original founder and later became the town of Bonners Ferry. Before the gold rush , only a few visitors had come to the region; one of the first was explorer David Thompson , a cartographer for the North West Company . Thompson and four fellow fur traders arrived in 1808 to trade with the Lower Kootenais. The local natives gave Thompson's party dried fish and moss bread. Thompson returned
9044-550: The cabin until the visitors were recognized. Beginning in February 1991, the USMS developed a Threat Source Profile on Weaver. Agents' failure to integrate new information into that profile was criticized in a 1995 report by a subcommittee of the Senate Judiciary Committee : The Subcommittee is ... concerned that, as Marshals investigating the Weaver case learned facts that contradicted information they previously had been provided, they did not adequately integrate their updated knowledge into their overall assessment of who Randy Weaver
9177-402: The case from state court to federal court. The United States Courts of Appeals are appellate courts that hear appeals of cases decided by the district courts, and some direct appeals from administrative agencies, and some interlocutory appeals. The U.S. Supreme Court hears appeals from the decisions of the courts of appeals or state supreme courts, and in addition has original jurisdiction over
9310-404: The chambers to consider urgent matters. The vice president is the second-highest official in rank of the federal government. The vice president's duties and powers are established in the legislative branch of the federal government under Article 1, Section 3, Clauses 4 and 5 as the president of the Senate ; this means that they are the designated presiding officer of the Senate. In that capacity,
9443-492: The charges against him, released on bail , and told that his trial would begin on February 19, 1991. On January 22, the judge in the case appointed attorney Everett Hofmeister as Weaver's legal representative. The same day, Weaver called probation officer Karl Richins and told him that he had been instructed to contact Richins on that date. Richins did not have the case file at that time, so he asked Weaver to leave his contact information and said he would contact him when he received
9576-534: The consent of two-thirds of the Senate. Article II's Appointments Clause provides that the president "shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States " while providing that "Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in
9709-539: The dog ran to Roderick, who shot it in front of Samuel. Samuel yelled, "You shot my dog, you son of a bitch!", and fired a shot at Roderick. Harris said that Degan came out of the woods and shot Samuel in the arm. Harris fired and hit Degan in the chest. According to the Weavers, Harris said that Cooper fired at Harris, who ducked for cover, and Cooper fired again, hitting Samuel in the back, who fell. Harris fired about 6 feet (2 m) in front of Cooper, forcing him to take cover. Only then did he hear Cooper identify himself as
9842-567: The economy. In addition, each house may name special, or select, committees to study specific problems. Today, much of the congressional workload is borne by the subcommittees, of which there are around 150. The Constitution grants numerous powers to Congress. Enumerated in Article I, Section 8, these include the powers to levy and collect taxes ; to coin money and regulate its value; provide for punishment for counterfeiting; establish post offices and roads, issue patents, create federal courts inferior to
9975-418: The executive branch when becoming president upon the death, resignation, or removal of the president, which has happened nine times in U.S. history. Lastly, in the case of a Twenty-fifth Amendment succession event, the vice president would become acting president, assuming all of the powers and duties of president, except being designated as president. Accordingly, by circumstances, the Constitution designates
10108-451: The federal government; for instance, the Federal Bureau of Investigation , National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , and National Park Service . Because the seat of government is in Washington, D.C. , "Washington" is sometimes used as a metonym for the federal government. The United States government is based on the principles of federalism and republicanism , in which power
10241-444: The fight. DUSM Roderick fired one shot from an M16A1 (which killed "Striker", the dog, by entering his body two inches from the dog's anus, and exiting the chest), then Samuel fired three from a .223 Ruger Mini-14 (at Roderick), Degan fired seven from an M16 (at Harris and Weaver, while moving at least 21 feet (6.4 m)), and Cooper fired six from a 9 mm Colt submachine gun (at Harris and Weaver), Harris then fired two from
10374-546: The government would take away his children. USMS officers made a series of attempts to have Weaver surrender peacefully, but he refused to leave his cabin. Weaver negotiated with U.S. Marshals Ron Evans, W. Warren Mays, and David Hunt through third parties from March 5 to October 12, 1991, when Assistant U.S. Attorney Ron Howen directed that the negotiations cease. The U.S. Attorney directed that all negotiations go through Hofmeister, but Weaver refused to talk with him. Marshals began preparing plans to capture Weaver to stand trial on
10507-414: The government's position at trial was that Cooper had fired the shot. The Subcommittee engaged additional experts and ultimately declined to draw a final conclusion. The Justice Department's Ruby Ridge Task Force (RRTF) report to the Office of Professional Responsibility (OPR, 1994) states: The evidence suggests, but does not establish, that the shot that killed Samuel Weaver was fired by DUSM Cooper. It
10640-579: The house, and negotiations for a surrender were attempted. By Saturday, August 22, special rules of engagement (ROE) were drafted and approved by FBI Headquarters and the Marshal Service for use on Ruby Ridge. According to the later RRTF report to the DOJ (1994), the Ruby Ridge ROE were as follows: Federal government of the United States [REDACTED] [REDACTED] The federal government of
10773-411: The impact of a round. Cooper sought cover. He testified that he saw Samuel run away and radioed OP team member Dave Hunt that he had wounded or killed Harris. As described by Randy and Sara Weaver, in their book The Federal Siege (1998), Harris's version of events differed, as follows. Harris told them Striker was followed out of the woods by Samuel and Harris, and that the dog ran up to Cooper. He said
10906-516: The investigators that neither he nor Kumnick was a member of Aryan Nations but he stated that Kumnick was "associated with The Covenant, The Sword, and the Arm of the Lord ." On February 28, Randy and Vicki Weaver filed an affidavit with the county courthouse alleging that their personal enemies were plotting to provoke the FBI into attacking and killing the Weaver family. On May 6, the Weavers sent President Reagan
11039-477: The law and creating precedent for future law and decisions. The United States Constitution does not specifically mention the power of judicial review , which is the power to declare a law unconstitutional. There have been instances in the past where such declarations have been ignored by the other two branches. Below the U.S. Supreme Court are the United States Courts of Appeals , and below them in turn are
11172-539: The main cabin. From 11:15 a.m. onward, Hunt reported to the Crisis Center in Washington, D.C. , that no further gunfire was heard. In the aftermath of the gunfight on August 21 at 11:20 am PDT , DUSM Hunt requested immediate support from Idaho law enforcement, and he also alerted the FBI by notifying it that a Marshal had been killed. Following Hunt's phone call, the Marshals Service Crisis Center
11305-436: The mountain started their pickup truck. The recon team retreated through the woods to a "Y" junction in the trails 500 yards (460 m) west of the cabin, out of sight of the cabin. Samuel and Harris followed Striker on foot through the woods while Randy, also on foot, took a separate logging trail; Vicki, Sara, Rachel, and baby Elisheba remained at the cabin. The OP team were anxious at first, but then relaxed. Randy encountered
11438-464: The nation is a party. The terms "Government of the United States of America" or "United States Government" are often used in official documents to represent the federal government as distinct from the states collectively. In casual conversation or writing, the term "Federal Government" is often used, and the term "U.S. Government" is sometimes used. The terms "Federal" and "National" in government agency or program names generally indicate affiliation with
11571-473: The nation's highest judiciary authority, the Supreme Court (as well as to lower federal courts), but those nominees must be approved by Congress. The Supreme Court, in turn, can invalidate unconstitutional laws passed by the Congress. The United States Congress , under Article I of the Constitution, is the legislative branch of the federal government. It is bicameral , comprising the House of Representatives and
11704-418: The nearest incorporated city of Bonners Ferry and approximately thirty miles (48 km) south of the border with Canada ( British Columbia ). Randy Weaver , a former Iowa factory worker and U.S. Army soldier, moved with his wife and four children to northern Idaho during the 1980s so they could " home-school his children and escape what he and his wife Vicki saw as a corrupted world." In 1978, Vicki,
11837-528: The next year and established a trading post on Lake Pend Oreille . He was followed in 1846 by Jesuit Priest Father DeSmet , a missionary to the Kootenai Tribe . The Oregon Question was settled by the Oregon Treaty of 1846 which established the 49th Parallel north as the boundary between the US and British North America . Government surveyors of the Boundary Commission came in 1858 to establish
11970-696: The office of vice president. Article II, Section 2 of the Constitution sets forth the creation of a presidential Cabinet. The role of the Cabinet is to advise the president and carry out the programs and laws of the federal government. The Cabinet is composed of the vice president and the leaders of 15 executive departments. Those executive departments are the Departments of State, Treasury, Defense, Justice, Interior, Agriculture, Commerce, Labor, Health and Human Services, Housing and Urban Development, Transportation, Energy, Education, Veterans Affairs, and Homeland Security. Additionally, there are seven other members of
12103-403: The official. Then, a trial is held in the Senate to decide whether the official should be removed from office. As of 2023 , three presidents have been impeached: Andrew Johnson , Bill Clinton , and Donald Trump (twice). None of the three were removed from office following trial in the Senate. Article I, Section 2, paragraph 2 of the U.S. Constitution gives each chamber the power to "determine
12236-410: The paperwork. According to Richins, Weaver did not give him a telephone number. Hofmeister sent Weaver letters on January 19, January 31, and February 5, asking Weaver to contact him to work on his defense within the federal court system. On February 5, the trial date was changed from February 19 to 20 to give participants more travel time following a federal holiday . The court clerk sent the parties
12369-480: The plaintiffs and the government of another state was the defendant. It did not disturb federal jurisdiction in cases in which a state government is a plaintiff and a citizen of another state the defendant. The power of the federal courts extends both to civil actions for damages and other redress, and to criminal cases arising under federal law. The interplay of the Supremacy Clause and Article III has resulted in
12502-439: The population. There were 1,027 households, out of which 31.7 percent had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.0 percent were married couples living together, 11.2 percent had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.7 percent were non-families. 32.9 percent of all households were made up of individuals, and 15.5 percent had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size
12635-425: The population. There were 1,117 households, of which 27.6 percent had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.1 percent were married couples living together, 12.5 percent had a female householder with no husband present, 4.8 percent had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.5 percent were non-families. 38.6 percent of all households were made up of individuals, and 20% had someone living alone who
12768-543: The power to "make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers". Members of the House and Senate are elected by first-past-the-post voting in every state except Louisiana and Georgia , which have runoffs , and Maine and Alaska , which use ranked-choice voting . Congress has the power to remove the president, federal judges, and other federal officers from office. The House of Representatives and Senate have separate roles in this process. The House must first vote to impeach
12901-497: The power to adjourn Congress whenever the House and Senate cannot agree when to adjourn; no president has ever used this power. The president also has the constitutional power to, "on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them"; this power has been used "to consider nominations, war, and emergency legislation." This Section invests the President with the discretion to convene Congress on "extraordinary occasions"; this special session power that has been used to call
13034-540: The power to re-organize or even abolish federal courts lower than the Supreme Court. The U.S. Supreme Court decides cases and controversies , which include matters pertaining to the federal government, disputes between states, and interpretation of the United States Constitution, and, in general, can declare legislation or executive action made at any level of the government as unconstitutional , nullifying
13167-494: The president and approved with the "advice and consent" of the U.S. Senate. Once confirmed, these "Cabinet secretaries" serve at the pleasure of the president. In addition to the executive departments, a number of staff organizations are grouped into the Executive Office of the President (EOP), which was created in 1939 by President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The EOP is overseen by the White House Chief of Staff. The EOP includes
13300-476: The president and confirmed by the United States Senate. The Judiciary Act of 1789 subdivided the nation jurisdictionally into judicial districts and created federal courts for each district. The three tiered structure of this act established the basic structure of the national judiciary: the Supreme Court, 13 courts of appeals, 94 district courts, and two courts of special jurisdiction. Congress retains
13433-543: The president has broad authority to conduct foreign relations, is generally considered to have the sole power of diplomatic recognition , and is the United States' chief diplomat, although the Congress also has an important role in legislating on foreign affairs, and can, for example, "institute a trade embargo, declare war upon a foreign government that the President had recognized, or decline to appropriate funds for an embassy in that country." The president may also negotiate and sign treaties, but ratifying treaties requires
13566-466: The president has major agenda-setting powers to influence lawmaking and policymaking, and typically has a major role as the leader of their political party . The president and vice president are normally elected as running mates by the Electoral College ; each state has a number of electoral votes equal to the size of its Congressional delegation ( i.e. , its number of Representatives in
13699-525: The president's signature, "unless the Congress by their Adjournment prevent its Return in which Case it shall not be a Law" (called a pocket veto ). A presidential veto may be overridden by a two-thirds vote in both houses of Congress; this occurs relatively infrequently. The president may be impeached by a majority in the House and removed from office by a two-thirds majority in the Senate for " treason , bribery , or other high crimes and misdemeanors ". The president may not dissolve Congress , but has
13832-560: The prosecution had evidence that no shots had been fired at the helicopter." Media reports that Weaver had fired on the Rivera helicopter became part of the justification later cited by U.S. Marshal Wayne "Duke" Smith and FBI HRT Commander Richard Rogers in drawing up the Ruby Ridge rules of engagement on August 21–22, 1992. Also, in spite of Weiss's repeated denials that shots had been fired at his helicopter, Howen charged that, as Overt Act 32 of
13965-495: The public, and evaluate executive performance. It applies to cabinet departments, executive agencies, regulatory commissions, and the presidency. Congress's oversight function takes many forms: The executive branch is established in Article Two of the United States Constitution , which vests executive power in the president of the United States . The president is both the head of state (performing ceremonial functions) and
14098-418: The reconnaissance team, while DUSMs David Hunt, Joseph Thomas, and Frank Norris formed an observation post (OP) team on the ridge north of the cabin. At one point, Roderick threw two rocks at the Weaver cabin to test the dog's reaction. Later, the dog, "Striker" began following the agents. Weaver's friend, Kevin Harris, and Weaver's 14-year-old son, Samuel, emerged and followed Striker to investigate. Harris and
14231-472: The religious leader of the family, began to have recurrent dreams of living on a mountaintop and believed that the apocalypse was imminent. After the birth of their son, Samuel, the Weavers began selling their belongings and visited the Amish to learn how to live without electricity. They bought twenty acres (8 ha) of land on Ruby Ridge in 1983 and began building a cabin; the property was in Boundary County on
14364-472: The rules of its proceedings". From this provision were created congressional committees , which do the work of drafting legislation and conducting congressional investigations into national matters. The 118th Congress (2023–2025) has 20 standing committees in the House and 19 in the Senate, plus 4 joint permanent committees with members from both houses overseeing the Library of Congress , printing, taxation, and
14497-478: The same way as the president or other officials of the federal government. U.S. judges are appointed by the president, subject to confirmation by the Senate. Another Constitutional provision prohibits Congress from reducing the pay of any present Article III judge. However, Congress is able to set a lower salary for all future judges who take office after such a pay reduction is passed by Congress. Bonners Ferry Bonners Ferry ( Kutenai language : ʔaq̓anqmi )
14630-470: The scheduled court date. When Weaver did not appear in court on February 20, Ryan issued a bench warrant for failure to appear in court. On February 26, Ken Keller, a reporter for the Kootenai Valley Times , telephoned the U.S. Probation Office and asked whether Weaver did not show in court on February 20 because the letter Richins sent him had an incorrect date. Upon finding a copy of the letter,
14763-406: The siege-related charges, and Weaver was only found guilty of violating his bail terms and of failing to appear for a court hearing, both related to the original federal firearms charges. The Weaver family and Harris both filed civil suits against the federal government in response to the firefight and the siege. In August 1995, the Weavers won a combined out-of-court settlement of $ 3.1 million; Harris
14896-465: The standoff, FBI sniper Lon Horiuchi shot Weaver, then shot Harris, but the second shot also hit and killed Weaver's wife Vicki. The conflict was ultimately resolved by civilian negotiators, including veteran activist Bo Gritz , who eventually convinced him to surrender. Harris surrendered and was arrested on August 30; Weaver and his three daughters surrendered the next day. Extensive litigation followed. Initially, Randy Weaver and Harris were tried on
15029-527: The states, or other recognized entities. Since the American Civil War , the powers of the federal government have generally expanded greatly, although there have been periods since that time of legislative branch dominance (e.g., the decades immediately following the Civil War) or when states' rights proponents have succeeded in limiting federal power through legislative action, executive prerogative or by
15162-522: The trial courts wherein cases that are considered under the Judicial Code (Title 28, United States Code) consistent with the jurisdictional precepts of federal question jurisdiction , diversity jurisdiction, and pendent jurisdiction can be filed and decided. The district courts can also hear cases under removal jurisdiction , wherein a case brought in a state court meets the requirements for diversity jurisdiction, and one party litigant chooses to "remove"
15295-508: The vice president as routinely in the legislative branch, or succeeding to the executive branch as president, or possibly being in both as acting president pursuant to the Twenty-fifth Amendment . Because of circumstances, the overlapping nature of the duties and powers attributed to the office, the title of the office and other matters, such has generated a spirited scholarly dispute regarding attaching an exclusive branch designation to
15428-510: The vice president has the authority ( ex officio , for they are not an elected member of the Senate) to cast a tie-breaking vote . Pursuant to the Twelfth Amendment , the vice president presides over the joint session of Congress when it convenes to count the vote of the Electoral College . As first in the U.S. presidential line of succession , the vice president's duties and powers move to
15561-624: The weapons charges and his failure to appear at the correct trial date. Although marshals stopped the negotiations as ordered, they made other contact. On March 4, 1992, U.S. Marshals Ron Evans and Jack Cluff drove to the Weaver property and spoke with Weaver, posing as real-estate prospects. At a March 27, 1992, meeting at USMS headquarters, Art Roderick code-named the operation "Northern Exposure". Surveillance teams were dispatched and cameras set up to record activity at Weaver's residence. Marshals observed that Weaver and his family responded to vehicles and other visitors by taking up armed positions around
15694-465: The woods. They said Degan challenged Harris, who turned, shot and fatally wounded Degan before he could fire first. They said Roderick shot the dog once, Samuel fired twice at Roderick, and Roderick returned fire. Roderick and Cooper testified that they heard multiple gunshots from the Weaver party. Cooper testified that he fired two three-shot bursts at Harris and saw Harris fall "like a sack of potatoes" with leaves flying up in front of him, presumably from
15827-447: The younger Weaver said that they were hoping the dog had noticed a game animal as the cabin was out of meat. The recon team (Roderick, Cooper, and Degan) initially retreated through the woods in radio contact with the OP team, but later took up hidden defensive positions. Later, the OP team and the Weavers claimed the dogs were alerted to the recon team in the woods after neighbors at the foot of
15960-581: Was acquitted . On cross-examination by the defense, ballistics experts called by the prosecution testified that the physical evidence contradicted neither the prosecution's nor the defense's theories of the gunfight. Martin Fackler testified that Roderick fired the shot or shots that killed Striker, that Degan fired the shot that hit Samuel in the right elbow, that Harris shot and killed Degan, and that Cooper "probably" shot and killed Samuel. Roderick and Cooper said that Striker preceded Harris and Samuel out of
16093-427: Was 2.37 and the average family size was 3.00. In the city, the population was spread out, with 26.9 percent under the age of 18, 8.2 percent from 18 to 24, 24.5 percent from 25 to 44, 21.3 percent from 45 to 64, and 19.1 percent who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.8 males. The median income for
16226-447: Was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.22 and the average family size was 2.91. The median age in the city was 41.9 years. 23.7 percent of residents were under the age of 18; 7.5 percent were between the ages of 18 and 24; 21.9 percent were from 25 to 44; 27.4 percent were from 45 to 64; and 19.5 percent were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.0 percent male and 52.0 percent female. As of
16359-507: Was a Green Beret, that he would shoot on sight anyone who attempted to arrest him, that he had collected certain types of arms, that he had "booby-trapped" and tunneled his property—exaggerated the threat he posed. A review of Weaver's DD-214 in an investigation after the events of Ruby Ridge revealed that Weaver had never been a Green Beret or a member of the Special Forces; it was possible he had received some general demolition training as
16492-599: Was activated under the direction of Duke Smith, associate director for Operations. The Marshals Service Special Operations Group (SOG) was alerted to deploy. In response to the USMS call, the Boundary County sheriff's office mobilized. Also in response to the USMS request, Idaho Governor Cecil Andrus declared a state of emergency in Boundary County, allowing use of the Idaho National Guard Armory at Bonners Ferry and, after an initial delay, to use National Guard armored personnel carriers (APCs). Soon thereafter,
16625-402: Was armed. Samuel fired back at the marshals, and was shot and killed by the team. In the ensuing exchange of fire, Weaver's friend Kevin Harris shot and killed Deputy Marshal William Francis Degan Jr. Weaver, Harris, and members of Weaver's immediate family refused to surrender. The Hostage Rescue Team of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI HRT) became involved as the siege was mounted. In
16758-548: Was awarded a $ 380,000 settlement in September 2000. In 1997, a Boundary County prosecutor indicted Horiuchi for the manslaughter of Vicki, but the county's new prosecutor controversially closed the case, judging that he would be unlikely to secure a conviction. The behavior of federal agents during these events drew intense scrutiny. At the end of Weaver's trial, the Department of Justice's Office of Professional Responsibility formed
16891-461: Was concluded there was no indication he intended to kill or injure Weaver. Reporter Jess Walter , in his work Ruby Ridge: The Truth and Tragedy of the Randy Weaver Family concludes that Cooper fired the bullet that killed Samuel Weaver. In 1997, Boundary County Sheriff Greg Sprungl conducted an independent search of the "Y", and his investigator, Lucien Haag, discovered and confirmed that
17024-611: Was discovered in the East Kootenays of British Columbia in 1863, thousands of prospectors from all over the West surged northward over a route that became known as the Wildhorse Trail. Edwin Bonner, a merchant from Walla Walla, Washington , established a ferry in 1864 where the trail crossed the broad Kootenai River . In 1875, Richard Fry, and his Sinixt wife, Justine Su-steel Fry, leased
17157-576: Was formally established in 1893, along the south bank of the Kootenai River. Scattered along the valley and benchland were a few ranches and homesteads. Numerous mines were developed in the nearby mountains, including the Continental Mine in the Selkirks. The lumber industry also grew rapidly. Bonners Ferry, perched on stilts to avoid the inevitable spring floods, appeared to be a boom town. Moving into
17290-504: Was not a suspect in any bank robberies.") A federal grand jury indicted Weaver in December 1990 for making and possessing, but not for selling, illegal weapons in October 1989. The ATF concluded it would be too dangerous for agents to arrest Weaver at his property. In January 1991, ATF agents posed as broken-down motorists and arrested Weaver when he and Vicki stopped to assist. Weaver was told of
17423-529: Was or what threat he might pose. If the Marshals made any attempt to assess the credibility of the various people who gave them information about Weaver, they never recorded their assessments. Thus, rather than maintaining the Threat Source Profile as a living document , the Marshals added new reports to an ever-expanding file, and their overall assessment never really changed. These problems rendered it difficult for other law enforcement officials to assess
17556-569: Was sitting on my property and somebody with a gun comes to do me harm, then I'll probably shoot him." The Subcommittee said that the profile included "a brief psychological profile completed by a person who had conducted no firsthand interviews and was so unfamiliar with the case that he referred to Weaver as 'Mr. Randall' throughout". A later memo circulated within the Justice Department opined that: The assumptions of federal and some state and local law enforcement personnel about Weaver—that he
17689-407: Was suspicious of what he thought were inconsistent messages from the government and his lawyer; he began to think there was a conspiracy against him. Weaver came to believe that he would not receive a fair trial if he were to appear in court. His distrust grew even further when Hofmeister erroneously told him that if he lost the trial, he would lose his land, essentially leaving Vicki homeless, and that
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