64-602: The Res gestae Alexandri Macedonis ( The Deeds of Alexander the Macedonian ) is the earliest Latin translation of the Alexander Romance , usually dated between 270–330 AD and attributed to Julius Valerius Alexander Polemius . It is not the earliest Latin composition on Alexander the Great of any kind however, as already in the first century Quintus Curtius Rufus composed a lengthy historical account of Alexander's career in
128-718: A few in German , Dutch , Norwegian , Danish and Swedish . Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church . The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology . They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics . Their works were published in manuscript form before
192-562: A new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature , which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools , which served as a sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech. Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus , which contain fragments of everyday speech, gives evidence of an informal register of
256-472: A remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Muslim conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously. The spoken Latin that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from the other varieties, as it
320-695: A small number of Latin services held in the Anglican church. These include an annual service in Oxford, delivered with a Latin sermon; a relic from the period when Latin was the normal spoken language of the university. In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture . Canada's motto A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria Cross
384-411: Is Veritas ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue. Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages . For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code CH , which stands for Confoederatio Helvetica ,
448-566: Is a badly damaged palimpsest from Turin , dating to the seventh century. The other two manuscripts date to the tenth century, from Milan , and the twelfth century, from Paris . The Res gestae is often dated between 270–330, but also sometimes between 360–380 (sometime in the late third or fourth century). According to Richard Stoneman, the Iternarium (a later work that relies on the Res gestae ) can be precisely dated between 340 and 345, meaning that
512-420: Is a kind of written Latin used in the 3rd to 6th centuries. This began to diverge from Classical forms at a faster pace. It is characterised by greater use of prepositions, and word order that is closer to modern Romance languages, for example, while grammatically retaining more or less the same formal rules as Classical Latin. Ultimately, Latin diverged into a distinct written form, where the commonly spoken form
576-626: Is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus ultra ("No land further beyond", "No further!"). According to legend , this phrase was inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules , the rocks on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar and the western end of the known, Mediterranean world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence. In
640-512: Is also characterized by the literary style of amplificatio , insofar as it is expansive in its narration of the original source meaning without changing or distorting its meaning. The text was sophisticated and complex, and so it would be surpassed in popularity by an abridged version of the text known as the Zacher Epitome from the 9th century and a subsequent Latin versions of the Romance like
704-424: Is expansive in its narration of the original source meaning without changing or distorting its meaning. The text was sophisticated and complex, and so it would be surpassed in popularity by an abridged version of the text known as the Zacher Epitome from the 9th century and a subsequent Latin versions of the Romance like the 12th-century Historia de proeliis , both of which were much easier to read . Among
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#1732844938527768-638: Is highly fusional , with classes of inflections for case , number , person , gender , tense , mood , voice , and aspect . The Latin alphabet is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets . Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church at the Vatican City . The church continues to adapt concepts from modern languages to Ecclesiastical Latin of
832-661: Is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin Pro Valore . Spain's motto Plus ultra , meaning "even further", or figuratively "Further!", is also Latin in origin. It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and
896-958: Is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico , the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium . Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it
960-531: The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy . About 270,000 inscriptions are known. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In
1024-512: The Holy See , the primary language of its public journal , the Acta Apostolicae Sedis , and the working language of the Roman Rota . Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin. In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language. There are
1088-456: The Iternarium (a later work that relies on the Res gestae ) can be precisely dated between 340 and 345, meaning that the Res gestae must precede this. Stoneman also argues that the work must predate 330, as it describes the city of Rome as the capital of the empire, whereas in the year 330, the capital was moved from Rome to Constantinople . Likewise, the Aurelian Walls are mentioned in
1152-496: The Late Latin period, language changes reflecting spoken (non-classical) norms tend to be found in greater quantities in texts. As it was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, Romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages . Late Latin
1216-595: The Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance , which then developed a classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin . This was the basis for Neo-Latin which evolved during the early modern period . In these periods Latin was used productively and generally taught to be written and spoken, at least until the late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode. It then became increasingly taught only to be read. Latin grammar
1280-561: The Middle Ages , borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest , through the Anglo-Norman language . From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed " inkhorn terms ", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by
1344-636: The Old French Roman d'Alexandre and the Alexandried of the German poet Pfaffe Lamprecht . In the 9th-century, an abridged form of the Res gestae was written as the Zacher Epitome , also known as the Iulii Valerii Epitome which also became much more popular than the version of Julius and was the main conduit by which the Res gestae would subsequently exert its influence. It also influenced
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#17328449385271408-652: The Res Gestae of Ammianus Marcellinus (an important source for the history of the later Roman Empire ) or the Res Gestae Divi Augusti , a monumental inscription erected by the Roman emperor Augustus . Despite being based on the α recension of the Alexander Romance , the Res gestae also has unique material such as Letter of Zeuxis. It is also characterized by the literary style of amplificatio , insofar as it
1472-403: The Res gestae must precede this. Stoneman also argues that the work must predate 330, as it describes the city of Rome as the capital of the empire, whereas in the year 330, the capital was moved from Rome to Constantinople . Likewise, the Aurelian Walls are mentioned in the text: these were built in 270, and so the work must date between 270 and 330. Around 350, an Itinerarium Alexandri
1536-501: The Res gestae was written as the Zacher Epitome , also known as the Iulii Valerii Epitome which also became much more popular than the version of Julius and was the main conduit by which the Res gestae would subsequently exert its influence. It also influenced the Roman d'Alexandre as well as the Histoire ancienne jusquʾà César , the Roman de toute chevalerie by Thomas of Kent , and
1600-617: The Roman d'Alexandre as well as the Histoire ancienne jusquʾà César , the Roman de toute chevalerie by Thomas of Kent , and the Speculum historiale of Vincent van Beauvais . Latin Latin ( lingua Latina , pronounced [ˈlɪŋɡʷa ɫaˈtiːna] , or Latinum [ɫaˈtiːnʊ̃] ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages . Latin
1664-407: The common language of international communication , science, scholarship and academia in Europe until well into the early 19th century, by which time modern languages had supplanted it in common academic and political usage. Late Latin is the literary language from the 3rd century AD onward. No longer spoken as a native language, Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during
1728-399: The 12th-century Historia de proeliis , both of which were much easier to read . Among the earlier literary influences of Julius' account, the greatest that has been identified is that of Virgil especially in his Aeneid . The author of the Res gestae was Julius Valerius Alexander Polemius , a Greek native who would learn Latin during his studies. The name of the author (as listed in
1792-617: The British Crown. The motto is featured on all presently minted coinage and has been featured in most coinage throughout the nation's history. Several states of the United States have Latin mottos , such as: Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as: Some law governing bodies in the Philippines have Latin mottos, such as: Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University 's motto
1856-684: The Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Without the institutions of the Roman Empire that had supported its uniformity, Medieval Latin was much more liberal in its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead. Furthermore,
1920-580: The Grinch Stole Christmas! , The Cat in the Hat , and a book of fairy tales, " fabulae mirabiles ", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook . Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series,
1984-611: The Latin language. Contemporary Latin is more often studied to be read rather than spoken or actively used. Latin has greatly influenced the English language , along with a large number of others, and historically contributed many words to the English lexicon , particularly after the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Conquest . Latin and Ancient Greek roots are heavily used in English vocabulary in theology ,
Res gestae Alexandri Macedonis - Misplaced Pages Continue
2048-459: The Macedonian ) is the earliest Latin translation of the Alexander Romance , usually dated between 270–330 AD and attributed to Julius Valerius Alexander Polemius . It is not the earliest Latin composition on Alexander the Great of any kind however, as already in the first century Quintus Curtius Rufus composed a lengthy historical account of Alexander's career in the language. It is also not to be confused with similarly titled works, such as
2112-461: The United States the unofficial national motto until 1956 was E pluribus unum meaning "Out of many, one". The motto continues to be featured on the Great Seal . It also appears on the flags and seals of both houses of congress and the flags of the states of Michigan, North Dakota, New York, and Wisconsin. The motto's 13 letters symbolically represent the original Thirteen Colonies which revolted from
2176-552: The University of Kentucky, the University of Oxford and also Princeton University. There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Misplaced Pages has more than 130,000 articles. Italian , French , Portuguese , Spanish , Romanian , Catalan , Romansh , Sardinian and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin borrowings in English and Albanian , as well as
2240-487: The author and then forgotten, but some useful ones survived, such as 'imbibe' and 'extrapolate'. Many of the most common polysyllabic English words are of Latin origin through the medium of Old French . Romance words make respectively 59%, 20% and 14% of English, German and Dutch vocabularies. Those figures can rise dramatically when only non-compound and non-derived words are included. Zacher Epitome The Res gestae Alexandri Macedonis ( The Deeds of Alexander
2304-535: The beginning of the Renaissance . Petrarch for example saw Latin as a literary version of the spoken language. Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the post-classical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed, that is from around 700 to 1500 AD. The spoken language had developed into the various Romance languages; however, in the educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as
2368-425: The benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics . The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin. Parts of Carl Orff 's Carmina Burana are written in Latin. Enya has recorded several tracks with Latin lyrics. The continued instruction of Latin is seen by some as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin
2432-430: The comic playwrights Plautus and Terence and the author Petronius . While often called a "dead language", Latin did not undergo language death . By the 6th to 9th centuries, natural language change eventually resulted in Latin as a vernacular language evolving into distinct Romance languages in the large areas where it had come to be natively spoken. However, even after the fall of Western Rome , Latin remained
2496-461: The country's full Latin name. Some film and television in ancient settings, such as Sebastiane , The Passion of the Christ and Barbarians (2020 TV series) , have been made with dialogue in Latin. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost (" Jughead "). Subtitles are usually shown for
2560-493: The decline in written Latin output. Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world. The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church . The Catholic Church required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965 , which permitted the use of the vernacular . Latin remains
2624-561: The development of European culture, religion and science. The vast majority of written Latin belongs to this period, but its full extent is unknown. The Renaissance reinforced the position of Latin as a spoken and written language by the scholarship by the Renaissance humanists . Petrarch and others began to change their usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world. Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through
Res gestae Alexandri Macedonis - Misplaced Pages Continue
2688-432: The earlier literary influences of Julius' account, the greatest that has been identified is that of Virgil especially in his Aeneid . The author of the Res gestae was Julius Valerius Alexander Polemius , a Greek native who would learn Latin during his studies. The name of the author (as listed in the manuscripts) is somewhat confusing as it contains two nomina and two cognomina , and so some have proposed that
2752-413: The earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence . The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet . The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon script to what ultimately became a strictly left-to-right script. During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, from about 75 BC to AD 200,
2816-445: The fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered. Comprehensive versions of authors' works were published by Isaac Casaubon , Joseph Scaliger and others. Nevertheless, despite the careful work of Petrarch, Politian and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following. Neo-Latin literature
2880-487: The history of Latin, and the kind of informal Latin that had begun to move away from the written language significantly in the post-Imperial period, that led ultimately to the Romance languages . During the Classical period, informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors, inscriptions such as Curse tablets and those found as graffiti . In
2944-679: The invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library , published by Harvard University Press , or the Oxford Classical Texts , published by Oxford University Press . Latin translations of modern literature such as: The Hobbit , Treasure Island , Robinson Crusoe , Paddington Bear , Winnie the Pooh , The Adventures of Tintin , Asterix , Harry Potter , Le Petit Prince , Max and Moritz , How
3008-675: The language of the Roman Rite . The Tridentine Mass (also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo) is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of
3072-405: The language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi , "the speech of the masses", by Cicero ). Some linguists, particularly in the nineteenth century, believed this to be a separate language, existing more or less in parallel with the literary or educated Latin, but this is now widely dismissed. The term 'Vulgar Latin' remains difficult to define, referring both to informal speech at any time within
3136-434: The language. It is also not to be confused with similarly titled works, such as the Res Gestae of Ammianus Marcellinus (an important source for the history of the later Roman Empire ) or the Res Gestae Divi Augusti , a monumental inscription erected by the Roman emperor Augustus . Despite being based on the α recension of the Alexander Romance , the Res gestae also has unique material such as Letter of Zeuxis. It
3200-601: The last two elements of the name, Alexander Polemius , arose as a scribal confusion of the phrase Alexandrou polemoi , or "Alexander’s Wars". Nevertheless, most have accepted the full name as his real one and he is typically identified, as in the Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire , with Flavius Polemius, who was Consul in 338 and Comes of the East in 345. The work is extant in three manuscripts. The oldest manuscript
3264-444: The manuscripts) is somewhat confusing as it contains two nomina and two cognomina , and so some have proposed that the last two elements of the name, Alexander Polemius , arose as a scribal confusion of the phrase Alexandrou polemoi , or "Alexander’s Wars". Nevertheless, most have accepted the full name as his real one and he is typically identified, as in the Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire , with Flavius Polemius, who
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#17328449385273328-431: The meanings of many words were changed and new words were introduced, often under influence from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail. Renaissance Latin, 1300 to 1500, and the classicised Latin that followed through to the present are often grouped together as Neo-Latin , or New Latin, which have in recent decades become a focus of renewed study , given their importance for
3392-421: The sciences , medicine , and law . A number of phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As a result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to
3456-618: The styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from late antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars. The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, also called Archaic or Early Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom , traditionally founded in 753 BC, through the later part of the Roman Republic , up to 75 BC, i.e. before the age of Classical Latin . It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of
3520-455: The text: these were built in 270, and so the work must date between 270 and 330. Around 350, an Itinerarium Alexandri was composed based on the Res gestae and a lost work of Alexander's biography by Arrian . It is sometimes speculated that Julius Valerius is also the author of the Itinerarium . Julius Valerius' complete works were also used by Albéric de Pisançon (c. 1130), a source for
3584-422: The written form of Latin was increasingly standardized into a fixed form, the spoken forms began to diverge more greatly. Currently, the five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of native speakers are Spanish , Portuguese , French , Italian , and Romanian . Despite dialectal variation, which is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy have retained
3648-464: Was Consul in 338 and Comes of the East in 345. The work is extant in three manuscripts. The oldest manuscript is a badly damaged palimpsest from Turin , dating to the seventh century. The other two manuscripts date to the tenth century, from Milan , and the twelfth century, from Paris . The Res gestae is often dated between 270–330, but also sometimes between 360–380 (sometime in the late third or fourth century). According to Richard Stoneman,
3712-779: Was also used as a convenient medium for translations of important works first written in a vernacular, such as those of Descartes . Latin education underwent a process of reform to classicise written and spoken Latin. Schooling remained largely Latin medium until approximately 1700. Until the end of the 17th century, the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language ) and later native or other languages. Education methods gradually shifted towards written Latin, and eventually concentrating solely on reading skills. The decline of Latin education took several centuries and proceeded much more slowly than
3776-422: Was composed based on the Res gestae and a lost work of Alexander's biography by Arrian . It is sometimes speculated that Julius Valerius is also the author of the Itinerarium . Julius Valerius' complete works were also used by Albéric de Pisançon (c. 1130), a source for the Old French Roman d'Alexandre and the Alexandried of the German poet Pfaffe Lamprecht . In the 9th-century, an abridged form of
3840-491: Was extensive and prolific, but less well known or understood today. Works covered poetry, prose stories and early novels, occasional pieces and collections of letters, to name a few. Famous and well regarded writers included Petrarch, Erasmus, Salutati , Celtis , George Buchanan and Thomas More . Non fiction works were long produced in many subjects, including the sciences, law, philosophy, historiography and theology. Famous examples include Isaac Newton 's Principia . Latin
3904-499: Was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire. Spoken Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing. For many Italians using Latin, though, there was no complete separation between Italian and Latin, even into
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#17328449385273968-710: Was originally spoken by the Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio ), the lower Tiber area around Rome , Italy. Through the expansion of the Roman Republic it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire . By the late Roman Republic , Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin . Vulgar Latin refers to the less prestigious colloquial registers , attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of
4032-515: Was perceived as a separate language, for instance early French or Italian dialects, that could be transcribed differently. It took some time for these to be viewed as wholly different from Latin however. After the Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses. While
4096-431: Was shut down in June 2019), and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin. A variety of organisations, as well as informal Latin 'circuli' ('circles'), have been founded in more recent times to support the use of spoken Latin. Moreover, a number of university classics departments have begun incorporating communicative pedagogies in their Latin courses. These include
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