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126-456: The White Earth Indian Reservation ( Ojibwe : Gaa-waabaabiganikaag , lit.   'Where there is an abundance of white clay') is home to the White Earth Band , in northwestern Minnesota . It is the largest Indian reservation in the state by land area. The reservation includes all of Mahnomen County , plus parts of Becker and Clearwater counties in the northwest part of

252-534: A carriage driven by his trusted cousin and bodyguard Ojibwe. They were several miles from his home and were on the way to Washington, D.C. , where the Chief intended to renegotiate the terms of the treaty regarding the Ojibwe migration to the new White Earth Indian Reservation . In the meantime, Hole-in-the-Day had issued orders that no Ojibwe were to move to White Earth until the U.S. Government actually built everything on

378-494: A lingua franca or trade language in the circum-Great Lakes area , particularly in interactions with speakers of other Algonquian languages. Documentation of such usage dates from the 18th and 19th centuries, but earlier use is likely, with reports as early as 1703 suggesting that Ojibwe was used by different groups from the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to Lake Winnipeg , and from as far south as Ohio to Hudson Bay . Documentation from

504-435: A schwa and depending on the writer, may be transcribed as "i", "e" or "a". For example, anami'egiizhigad [ na · m ' e · gii · zh gad /əˌnaməˈʔɛːˌɡiːʒəˌɡad/ ] (Sunday, literally 'prayer day') may be transcribed as anama'egiizhigad in those dialects. The general grammatical characteristics of Ojibwe are shared across its dialects. The Ojibwe language is polysynthetic , exhibiting characteristics of synthesis and

630-407: A central role in Ojibwe grammar. Noun inflection and particularly verb inflection indicate a wide variety of grammatical information, realized through the use of prefixes and suffixes added to word stems . Grammatical characteristics include the following: There is a distinction between two different types of third person : the proximate (the third person deemed more important or in focus) and

756-526: A difficult but successful rear guard action along with two African American Regiments, the 55th and 59th United States Colored Infantry Regiments . They were credited with providing needed cover fire that kept 59th troops from being over-run while dismantling a bridge's decking to thwart Confederate Cavalry from following. Afterwards they participated in the Battle of Tupelo , the Burning of Oxford, Mississippi ,

882-600: A few farms. Many lakes dot the Reservation's land. Large lakes include Bass Lake; Big Rat Lake; Lower Rice Lake; Many Point Lake; North Twin Lake-South Twin Lake; Roy Lake; Round Lake; Snider Lake; Strawberry Lake; Tulaby Lake; and White Earth Lake. The White Earth Land Recovery Project encourages ownership of reservation land by members of the White Earth Band, as well as projects for reforestation and revival of

1008-567: A geographical term of convenience rather than a genetic subgroup , and its use does not indicate that the Central languages are more closely related to each other than to the other Algonquian languages. The most general Indigenous designation for the language is Anishinaabemowin 'speaking the native language' ( Anishinaabe 'native person,' verb suffix –mo 'speak a language,' suffix –win 'nominalizer'), with varying spellings and pronunciations depending upon dialect. Some speakers use

1134-563: A group of mobbed up Métis businessmen, fur traders , and illegal whiskey peddlers led by Allan Morrison and Clement Hudon Beaulieu , the Democratic Party 's political boss of the region of Minnesota where Crow Wing was located. While negotiating with a previous group of hired gunmen, Beaulieu had said that Hole-in-the-Day was "like a great big log" and, if he was not killed, it would be impossible for Beaulieu and his confederates to get past him. According to Anton Treuer , all of

1260-577: A high morpheme -to-word ratio. Ojibwe is a head-marking language in which inflectional morphology on nouns and particularly verbs carries significant amounts of grammatical information. Word classes include nouns , verbs , grammatical particles , pronouns , preverbs , and prenouns . Preferred word orders in a simple transitive sentence are verb-initial, such as verb–object–subject and verb–subject–object . While verb-final orders are dispreferred, all logically possible orders are attested. Complex inflectional and derivational morphology play

1386-633: A o/ and three corresponding long vowels /iː aː oː/ in addition to a fourth long vowel /eː/ , which lacks a corresponding short vowel. The short vowel /i/ typically has phonetic values centring on [ɪ] ; /a/ typically has values centring on [ə]~[ʌ] ; and /o/ typically has values centring on [o]~[ʊ] . Long /oː/ is pronounced [uː] for many speakers, and /eː/ is often [ɛː] . Ojibwe has nasal vowels . Some arising predictably by rule in all analyses, and other long nasal vowels are of uncertain phonological status. The latter have been analysed as underlying phonemes and/or as predictable and derived by

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1512-399: A secret location near the town of White Earth . Hole-in-the-Day's murder was national news, and theories about its cause were many: personal jealousy, retribution for his decades-long claim to be head chief of all the Ojibwe, retaliation for the attacks he fomented in 1862, or retribution for his recent vows to "use the butcher knife" to keep certain mixed-blood Ojibwes, or Métis , off of

1638-685: A small portion of the White Earth Reservation remained. It was the northeast portion of the existing Reservation, a fraction of the original size. Most of the other Minnesota Chippewa reservations were closed and emptied. A rebellion on the Leech Lake Reservation in 1898 saved Minnesota's Chippewa reservations, including the White Earth Reservation, probably the Red Lake Reservation, and the Chippewa reservations of Wisconsin. Before

1764-427: A third subgroup which is further divided into (i) a subgrouping of Northwestern Ojibwe and Saulteaux , and a subgrouping consisting of Eastern Ojibwe and a further subgrouping comprising Southwestern Ojibwe and Central Ojibwe. Valentine has proposed that Ojibwe dialects are divided into three groups: a northern tier consisting of Severn Ojibwe and Algonquin; a southern tier consisting of "Odawa, Chippewa, Eastern Ojibwe,

1890-448: A total of five. What is agreed on though is that one of his wives was a Roman Catholic Irish-American "white" woman named Ellen McCarthy. They began cohabitating after meeting on his journey to the eastern United States, where she worked as a hotel maid and may also have worked as a journalist . She is described as "Irish" but whether this means she was born in Ireland , or only that this

2016-709: A year later Hole-in-the-Day gave the USPS notice he was leaving their employ to be a Chief on the White Earth Reservation. The USPS was surprised as no one knew his heritage. He enlisted in Co. I 14th Minnesota Infantry Regiment for the Spanish American War . Joseph and his older brother Ignatius Hole-in-the-Day were well-educated and chiefs on White Earth. Ignatius attended the Indian school at Faribault and later graduated from St. John's College (later St. John's University). Joseph went to

2142-490: Is a significant Ojibwe influence. In locations such as Turtle Mountain, North Dakota individuals of Ojibwe ancestry now speak Michif and Ojibwe. Bungi Creole is an English-based Creole language spoken in Manitoba by the descendants of "English, Scottish, and Orkney fur traders and their Cree or Saulteaux wives ...". Bungee incorporates elements of Cree; the name may be from the Ojibwe word bangii 'a little bit' or

2268-585: Is adduced. The Central languages share a significant number of common features. These features can generally be attributed to diffusion of features through borrowing: "Extensive lexical, phonological, and perhaps grammatical borrowing—the diffusion of elements and features across language boundaries—appears to have been the major factor in giving the languages in the area of the Upper Great Lakes their generally similar cast, and it has not been possible to find any shared innovations substantial enough to require

2394-494: Is also in place at Lowell Elementary School in Duluth, Minnesota . The Algonquian language family of which Ojibwemowin is itself a member of the Algic language family, other Algic languages being Wiyot and Yurok . Ojibwe is sometimes described as a Central Algonquian language, along with Fox , Cree , Menominee , Miami-Illinois , Potawatomi , and Shawnee . Central Algonquian is

2520-676: Is an indigenous language of North America of the Algonquian language family . The language is characterized by a series of dialects that have local names and frequently local writing systems . There is no single dialect that is considered the most prestigious or most prominent, and no standard writing system that covers all dialects. Dialects of Ojibwemowin are spoken in Canada, from southwestern Quebec , through Ontario , Manitoba and parts of Saskatchewan , with outlying communities in Alberta ; and in

2646-613: Is an open-source app available for iOS devices. The Ojibwe People's Dictionary is an online language resource created in collaboration with the University of Minnesota. It is an accessible system that allows users to search in English or Ojibwe and includes voice recordings for many of the 17 000 entries in the collection. Despite what they have faced in the American and Canadian Governments' attempt to force Ojibwe into language death through

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2772-846: Is called makade-mashkikiwaaboo ('black liquid-medicine') by many speakers, rather than gaapii . These new words vary from region to region, and occasionally from community to community. For example, in Northwest Ontario Ojibwemowin , 'airplane' is ombaasijigan , literally 'device that gets uplifted by the wind' (from ombaasin , 'to be uplifted by the wind') as opposed to the Minnesota bemisemagak . Like any language dialects spanning vast regions, some words that may have had identical meaning at one time have evolved to have different meanings today. For example, zhooniyaans (literally 'small[-amount of] money' and used to refer to coins) specifically means 'dime' (10-cent piece) in

2898-447: Is known that some speakers of Menominee also speak Ojibwe and that the pattern persisted into the 20th century. Similarly, bilingualism in Ojibwe is still common among Potawatomis who speak Potawatomi. Reports from traders and travellers as early as 1744 indicate that speakers of Menominee , another Algonquian language, used Ojibwe as a lingua franca. Other reports from the 18th century and the early 19th century indicate that speakers of

3024-543: Is more commonly employed in the United States and in southwestern Ontario among descendants of Ojibwe migrants from the United States. Ojibwe and Potawatomi are frequently viewed as being more closely related to each other than to other Algonquian languages. Ojibwe and Potawatomi have been proposed as likely candidates for forming a genetic subgroup within Proto-Algonquian , although the required research to ascertain

3150-798: Is not in dispute. The relatively low degrees of mutual intelligibility between some nonadjacent Ojibwe dialects led Rhodes and Todd to suggest that Ojibwe should be analyzed as a linguistic subgroup consisting of several languages. While there is some variation in the classification of Ojibwe dialects, at a minimum the following are recognized, proceeding west to east: Western Ojibwe (Saulteaux) , Southwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa) , Northwestern Ojibwe , Severn Ojibwe (Oji-Cree) , Ottawa (Odawa) , Eastern Ojibwe , and Algonquin . Based upon contemporary field research, Valentine also recognizes several other dialects: Berens Ojibwe in northwestern Ontario, which he distinguishes from Northwestern Ojibwe; North of (Lake) Superior; and Nipissing. The latter two cover approximately

3276-476: Is phonologically contrastive and so is phonemic . Although long and short vowels are phonetically distinguished by vowel quality, vowel length is phonologically relevant since the distinction between long and short vowels correlates with the occurrence of vowel syncope , which characterizes the Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe dialects, as well as word stress patterns in the language. There are three short vowels /i

3402-488: Is predominantly non-native in population. Tiny settlements that are likely predominantly Native American include Mahkonce ; Maple Grove Township; Pine Bend; Roy Lake, and Strawberry Lake region. In July 2007, according to the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe, the total number of enrolled members of the White Earth Reservation is 19,291. Most members live off-reservation, particularly those of Dakota ancestry. Many live in

3528-497: Is present in phonological representations . The Ottawa and Southwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa) have /h/ in a small number of affective vocabulary items in addition to regular /ʔ/ . Some dialects may have otherwise non-occurring sounds such as /f, l, r/ in loanwords . Obstruent consonants are divided into lenis and fortis sets, with these features having varying phonological analyses and phonetic realizations cross-dialectally. In some dialects, such as Severn Ojibwe, members of

3654-403: Is the most plausible explanation for the distinctive linguistic features found in these three dialects. Many communities adjacent to these relatively sharply differentiated dialects show a mix of transitional features, reflecting overlap with other nearby dialects. While each of these dialects has undergone innovations that make them distinctive, their status as part of the Ojibwe language complex

3780-413: The 2000 United States Census and the 2006 Canadian census . The Ojibwe language is reported as spoken by a total of 8,791 people in the United States of which 7,355 are Native Americans and by as many as 47,740 in Canada, making it one of the largest Algic languages by numbers of speakers. The Red Lake , White Earth , and Leech Lake reservations are known for their tradition of singing hymns in

3906-593: The Battle of Nashville , the Mobile Campaign (1865) , the Battle of Fort Blakeley and the Battle of Spanish Fort . They returned to St. Paul, Minnesota in August 1865, having taken few casualties. Originally, the United States wanted to relocate all Anishinaabe people from Michigan , Wisconsin , and Minnesota to the White Earth Reservation. The plan was to open the vacated reservation lands to settlement by European Americans. The U.S. government even proposed relocating

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4032-566: The Dakota people to the White Earth Reservation, although the two peoples had been traditional enemies and the Anishinaabe had invaded their land in the late 18th century. The U.S. continued to promote this policy until 1898. On July 8, 1889, the United States broke treaty agreements informing the Minnesota Chippewa that the Red Lake Reservation and White Earth Reservation would remain, but that

4158-597: The Enrollment Act , thus avoiding being drafted into the Civil War themselves. These white Crow Wing residents deliberately arranged for the Chippewa substitutes to sign the papers while under the influence of alcohol. Chief Hole in the Day II was furious when he learned of the subterfuge. One of those men was killed and buried with military honors before Company G even left St. Cloud where they had been mustered in. G Company

4284-589: The Indian Reorganization Act of 1934 mandated the phasing-out of the Native American boarding school program, the practice of sending youth to these institutions continued into the 1960s and 1970s. Because children were forced to live away from their home communities, many never had the opportunity to hear and use their native language. This government assimilation effort caused widespread loss of language and culture among indigenous communities, including

4410-532: The Leech Lake Reservation voted overwhelmingly to accept land allotments. The events of Battle of Sugar Point in October 1898 seemed to indicate otherwise. In 1889, the White Earth Reservation covered 1,093 square miles (2,830 km). After the votes were counted, the whites claimed that the vote had overwhelmingly accepted land allotments and the "surplus" lands would be sold to settlers. Afterwards, only

4536-454: The Nelson Act of 1889 and subsequent legislation permitted sales of tribal lands to white settlers. In 2020, the racial makeup of the reservation and off-reservation trust land was: 44.7   percent Native American ; 43.2   percent White ; 0.1% Asian ; 0.1% Black or African American ; 0.5% from other races ; and 11.5   percent from two or more races. Ethnically, the population

4662-586: The Nelson Act of 1889 took effect, groups of Anishinaabe and Dakota peoples began to relocate to the White Earth Reservation from other Minnesota Chippewa and Dakota reservations. The 1920 census details provide data on the heritage of the Anishinabe living on the White Earth Reservation, as they indicated their original bands. There were 4,856 from the Mississippi Band of Chippewa (over 1,000 were Mille Lacs band, and many were Dakota). The Pillagers numbered 1,218;

4788-464: The Twin cities , which offer more economic prospects. As of the census of 2020 , the combined population of the White Earth Reservation and associated off-reservation trust land was 9,726. The population density was 8.9 inhabitants per square mile (3.4/km). There were 4,989 housing units at an average density of 4.5 per square mile (1.7/km). The White Earth Reservation has a large non-Native population, as

4914-540: The obviative (the third person deemed less important or out of focus). Nouns can be singular or plural in number and either animate or inanimate in gender. Separate personal pronouns exist but are used mainly for emphasis; they distinguish inclusive and exclusive first-person plurals. Verbs, the most complex word class, are inflected for one of three orders ( indicative , the default; conjunct , used for participles and in subordinate clauses ; and imperative , used with commands), as negative or affirmative, and for

5040-523: The voting were many Dakota men, who were not part of their tribe. The Chippewa mistrusted the oversight and administration of the vote. To start; "whites" with a business interest in allotments, counted the vote rather than the Chippewa. Red Lake leaders warned the Government about reprisals if their Reservation was violated. The White Earth and Mille Lacs reservations overwhelmingly voted to accept land allotments and allow surplus land to be sold. Supposedly,

5166-405: The wild rice industry on the reservation's lakes. It sells a reservation brand of wild rice and other products. The 160,000-acre (65,000 ha) White Earth State Forest  [ fr ] is a portion of the Reservation. The Reservation's land is still recovering from the effects of the destruction which the lumber companies caused over a century ago. The Reservation is especially scenic in

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5292-712: The 1000 Chippewa "auxiliaries". Gen. Pope in particular objected to the Chippewa Auxiliaries. Major Hatch meet with Chief Hole-in-the-Day in July when the Chief offered warriors to join Hatch. Some newspapers reported that Hole in the Day's offer to fight the Dakota had been accepted. Papers also stated that Chippewa warrior vs. Dakota warrior was " diamond on diamond" as combatants . Papers also felt Hole-in-the-Day could do more against

5418-664: The 17th century indicates that the Wyandot language (also called Huron), one of the Iroquoian languages , was also used as a trade language east of the Great Lakes by speakers of the Nipissing and Algonquin dialects of Ojibwe, and also by other groups south of the Great Lakes, including the Winnebago and by a group of unknown affiliation identified only as "Assistaeronon." The political decline of

5544-461: The Chief. In 1957 a local resident illegally dug up the grave looking for valuable artifacts and discovered that there was no body. According to Ojibwe author and historian Anton Treuer , the oral tradition passed down among Hole-in-the-Day's extended family is that the Chief's non-Catholic relatives objected to Ignatius' choice of burial, secretly dug up and removed the Chief's body, and reburied him according to traditional Ojibwe rites at

5670-744: The Chiefs that Lincoln was busy with the civil war, but if they were needed they would be informed. This Chippewa effort made the news in many cities. The next day the Mdewakanton surrendered at Camp Release. St Paul's two photo studios made images of many of Chippewa leaders that came to the Capitol in 1862, including Hole-in-the-Day's, that are now in the Minnesota Historical Society archives. In late February 1863, 22 Chiefs waited in Chicago for Hole in

5796-547: The Chippewa he offered to fight the Santee Dakota. At a time of cronyism and the spoils system , the Chippewa and the Dakota people were both being victimized by the same rampant political corruption , extortion , and fraud tactics within the Department of Indian Affairs and the timing of their annuity payments were coincidentally close so the media linked their dis-satisfactions in an anti- Native American narrative. At

5922-674: The Cree equivalent, but whether there is any other Ojibwe component in Bungee is not documented. Ojibwe borrowings have been noted in Menominee , a related Algonquian language . All dialects of Ojibwe generally have an inventory of 17 consonants . Most dialects have the segment glottal stop /ʔ/ in their inventory of consonant phonemes; Severn Ojibwe and the Algonquin dialect have /h/ in its place. Some dialects have both segments phonetically, but only one

6048-473: The Dakota with 100 warriors that the "whites" could do with 1000 soldiers. Despite his efforts the Red lake band held a low opinion Hole in the Day and made it known at their September 1863 treaty signing. In 1865 newspapers reported that Hole-in-the-Day regretted not having been able to raise the Chippewa battalion for Major Hatch add fight the south. On June 27, 1868, Hole-in-the-Day left his house at Gull Lake in

6174-665: The Day In 1847 Hole-in-the-Day succeeded his father, Hole in the Day (senior), as head chief of the Mississippi Band of the Ojibwe in central Minnesota. His father was a member of the Noka(bear) clan and that passed to him. Like his father, Hole-in-the-Day participated in skirmishes against the Santee Dakota , and was prominent in negotiations with the Santee Dakota and with the U.S. Government. Hole-in-the-Day strove to be considered

6300-698: The Day for the Ojibwe joining forces with Little Crow prompted Shaw-Bosh-Kung, head chief of the Mille Lacs band of Chippewa to take 700-750 warriors to Fort Ripley to volunteer to fight the Dakota and defend the garrison against Hole in the Day, along with the Sandy Lake band. William P. Dole , the Indian agent was at Fort Ripley, asked that they return to their reservation. He told them they would be informed if they were needed. However, war Chief Mou-Zoo-Mau-Nee (Iron-Walker) and 200 Mille Lacs warriors remained to protect

6426-556: The Day and Ellen to Washington D.C. as Minnesota's candidate to West Point . Very early in the Dakota War of 1862 , Hole-in-the-Day spoke out in favor of joining forces with the Mdewakanton to drive European settlers from Minnesota. His threats to attack Fort Ripley were taken as serious. To encourage other Chippewa to join him, Hole-in-the-Day spread a rumor that the Union Army

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6552-737: The Day and the Indian Commissioner to go with them to see Lincoln. In April 1863 President Lincoln summoned the Mille Lacs and other Mississippi bands to Washington. He repeated what the Indian agent had told them at Fort Ripley, that the Mille Lacs Band could stay on their reservation for 1,000 years for their actions in support of the Government. At that time the Mille Lacs Bands and Sandy Lake Bands that participated were designated "non-removable" from their reservations. The boundaries of

6678-579: The Day's camp at great personal risk and convinced the Chief to call off the attempted uprising, to go with him to Crow Wing, and sign a peace agreement with the United States Federal Government . On 15 September 1862, a council was held at the Crow Wing agency where 10 Chiefs of the Mississippi and Pillager Bands "offered their services, and if necessary their lives to punish the enemies of

6804-617: The Elder and Hole-in-the-Day II or the Younger, there were at least two other prominent Minnesota Ojibwe of the 1800s named Hole-in-the-Day. One Hole-in-the-Day from Red Lake was involved in the Nelson Act of 1889. Another Hole-in-the-Day from Leech Lake played a leading role in 1898 in the nation's last Indian battle, the Battle of Sugar Point . Hole-in-the-Day II had two sons that used his name, Ignatius Hole-in-the Day and Joseph Hole-in-the-Day. Joseph

6930-768: The Haskill Institute and the University of Minnesota . Ignatius traveled the state giving paid lectures to the public on Ojibwa history. Joseph was employed for a period by the Bureau of Ethnology recording indigenous lore . White Earth Reservation has many settlements located within its borders. Some are predominantly non-native, or include have large portion that is biracial. Today, how individuals live in terms of their culture often determines whether they are considered Ojibwe. Some community members prefer to identify as Anishinaabe or Ojibwe while others prefer "Chippewa". Some claim

7056-564: The Hurons in the 18th century and the ascendancy of Ojibwe-speaking groups including the Ottawa led to the replacement of Huron as a lingua franca. In the area east of Georgian Bay , the Nipissing dialect was a trade language. In the Lower Peninsula of Michigan , the eastern end of the Upper Peninsula , the area between Lake Erie and Lake Huron , and along the north shore of Georgian Bay,

7182-591: The Leech Lake and Red Lake Indian Reservations , is known for its tradition of singing hymns in the Ojibwe language . Prior to the decision to create a reservation in Mahnomen County , there were Chippewa/Ojibwa living there. G Company of the 9th Minnesota Infantry Regiment had a large component of bi-racial White Earth Chippewa. Their military service was the result of underhand tactics, Chippewa historians Julia Spears and William Warren report: A group of white citizens of Crow Wing enrolled bi-racial Chippewa as substitutes to fight in their place, as allowed by

7308-448: The Mille Lacs Reservation were made permanent. In June 1863, Hole-in-the-Day offered Gen. Sibley 600 warriors for his expedition into Dakota Territory that Sibley turned down. Not dissuaded, in July Hole-in-the-Day offered his warriors to Major Hatch. Hatch's Battalion or the Indian Battalion of Minnesota Volunteers was initially proposed to consist of 1000 Chippewa. Numerous papers published that Hole-in-the-Day thought Major Hatch

7434-556: The Ojibwe language is kept alive through indigenous methods of teaching, which emphasizes hands-on experiences, such as the sugar bush harvest. The language is then passed on in a similar manner in which it has been throughout history in that older members of the community—including elders/instructors and older students at the schools—relay their knowledge and experiences to the younger generation. Ojibwe communities are found in Canada from southwestern Quebec , through Ontario , southern Manitoba and parts of southern Saskatchewan ; and in

7560-446: The Ojibwe language is notable for its relative lack of borrowing from other languages. Instead, speakers far prefer to create words for new concepts from existing vocabulary. For example in Minnesota Ojibwemowin , 'airplane' is bemisemagak , literally 'thing that flies' (from bimisemagad , 'to fly'), and 'battery' is ishkode-makakoons , literally 'little fire-box' (from ishkode , 'fire', and makak , 'box'). Even 'coffee'

7686-421: The Ojibwe language may be more culturally meaningful to communities than simply educating about the culture through English. The goal, as with many other language immersion schools across the country, is to meet state-mandated standards for curriculum in the native language. This can be a challenge as public education standards are rigorous with curriculum on complex mathematic and scientific concepts occurring at

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7812-529: The Ojibwe language, is a language of action." Therefore, students are encouraged to learn the language by observing and by doing. For example, each spring the students at Waadookodaading participate in a maple sugar harvest. Older students and elders instruct the younger students on the harvest process, narrating what they are doing in Ojibwemowin as the younger students observe. The younger students are then encouraged to participate as they learn, gathering wood, helping to drill trees, and hauling buckets of sap. Thus,

7938-402: The Ojibwe language. These courses mainly target adults and young adults; however, there are many resources for all age groups, including online games which provide domains for online language use. In the 1980s, The Northern Native-Languages Project was introduced in Ontario to get Indigenous languages such as Ojibwe, to be taught in schools. Years later, the first curriculum was established for

8064-420: The Ojibwe language. As of 2011, Ojibwe is the official language of Red Lake. Because the dialects of Ojibwe are at least partly mutually intelligible, Ojibwe is usually considered to be a single language with a number of dialects, i.e. Ojibwe is "... conventionally regarded as a single language consisting of a continuum of dialectal varieties since ... every dialect is at least partly intelligible to

8190-414: The Ojibwe of the Border Lakes region between Minnesota and Ontario, and Saulteaux; and third, a transitional zone between these two polar groups, in which there is a mixture of northern and southern features." Michif is a mixed language that primarily is based upon French and Plains Cree , with some vocabulary from Ojibwe, in addition to phonological influence in Michif-speaking communities where there

8316-463: The Ojibwe people. With the remaining population of native speakers declining as older generations pass away, many historians consider now an important point in the language's history that will determine if it will proliferate or become extinct. Ojibwe historian Anton Treuer estimates that there are about 1,000 speakers of Ojibwe left in the United States, most residing in Minnesota on the Red Lake Indian Reservation or in Mille Lacs region. Teacher of

8442-402: The Ottawa dialect served as a trade language. In the area south of Lake Superior and west of Lake Michigan Southwestern Ojibwe was the trade language. A widespread pattern of asymmetrical bilingualism is found in the area south of the Great Lakes in which speakers of Potawatomi or Menominee, both Algonquian languages, also spoke Ojibwe, but Ojibwe speakers did not speak the other languages. It

8568-424: The Pembina Band were 472; and 113 were Fond du Lac and other Lake Superior Chippewa bands. In 1885, Joseph, the youngest son of Chief Hole in the Day II, was sponsored by former governor Alexander Ramsey to be a cadet at West Point . They traveled to Washington D.C. to meet President Cleveland making national news. All agreed that he was a good candidate and likely to be accepted. They returned to Minnesota and

8694-432: The Reservation that had been promised in the previous Treaty. Near the Crow Wing Agency, the Chief found the road obstructed by a group of twelve armed men from the Pillager Band . Standing up, the Chief called out in his native tongue , "You find me at a bad time! I am unarmed!" In response, he was shot with a double barrel shotgun . He fell to the ground where another attacker repeatedly stabbed him to make sure that he

8820-467: The Reservation. The western part of the Reservation is prime prairie land. Many farms are located in this section. Another area of numerous farms is the extreme northeastern section of the Reservation. The most dense forest is situated between Callaway and Pine Point, on up to just west and north of Mahkonce. North of there, the forest becomes less dense, especially around the Pine Bend and Rice Lake regions. The region between Mahkonce and Pine Bend has

8946-455: The United States Federal Government to keep its promises to the Chippewa, but also of the Chief's ability to keep Clement Beaulieu and his confederates in check. Anton Treuer has described the Chief's assassination as a watershed moment in the history of the Ojibwe people and argues that the aftermath of the Chief's murder was a major factor in the continuing language loss and the ongoing collapse of Ojibwe culture . Besides Hole-in-the-Day

9072-675: The United States from northern Michigan through northern Wisconsin and northern Minnesota , with a number of communities in northern North Dakota and northern Montana . Groups of speakers of the Ottawa dialect migrated to Kansas and Oklahoma during the historical period, with a small amount of linguistic documentation of the language in Oklahoma. The presence of Ojibwe in British Columbia has been noted. Current census data indicate that all varieties of Ojibwe are spoken by approximately 56,531 people. This figure reflects census data from

9198-422: The United States, but a 'quarter' (25-cent piece) in Canada, or desabiwin (literally 'thing to sit upon') means 'couch' or 'chair' in Canada, but is used to specifically mean 'saddle' in the United States. Cases like 'battery' and 'coffee' also demonstrate the often great difference between the literal meanings of the individual morphemes in a word, and the overall meaning of the entire word. Hole in

9324-894: The United States, from Michigan to Wisconsin and Minnesota , with a number of communities in North Dakota and Montana , as well as groups that were removed to Kansas and Oklahoma during the Indian Removal period . While there is some variation in the classification of its dialects, at least the following are recognized, from east to west: Algonquin , Eastern Ojibwe , Ottawa (Odawa) , Western Ojibwe (Saulteaux) , Oji-Cree (Severn Ojibwe) , Northwestern Ojibwe , and Southwestern Ojibwe (Chippewa) . Based upon contemporary field research, J. R. Valentine also recognizes several other dialects: Berens Ojibwe in northwestern Ontario, which he distinguishes from Northwestern Ojibwe; North of (Lake) Superior; and Nipissing. The latter two cover approximately

9450-628: The Waadookodaading Ojibwe Language Immersion School located on the Lac Courte Oreilles Reservation in northern Wisconsin. Most students come from English-speaking homes and are learning Ojibwemowin as their second language. At this school, instructors and elders teach the preschoolers to third graders entirely in the Ojibwe language, so that by the time that students complete kindergarten, they know both English and Ojibwe alphabets and writing systems. In

9576-473: The White Earth Reservation and to have them dropped from the Federal annuity rolls. For decades, the reasons for the Chief's murder remained a mystery. The names of the assassins were known, however no one was ever charged with the murder. In 1911, the surviving assassins testified and confirmed longstanding suspicions that the 1868 murder of Chief Hole-in-the-Day had been a contract killing : they had been hired by

9702-599: The White Earth Reservation employs non-Indians as well as Chippewa from off the reservation to fill its staffing needs. The Band issues its own reservation license plates to vehicles. The White Earth Reservation owns and operates an Event Center, a hotel, the Shooting Star Casino, the White Earth Housing Authority, the Reservations College, and other business enterprises. The poverty rate on

9828-423: The White Earth Reservation may be nearly fifty percent. The unemployment rate on the White Earth Reservation is almost twenty-five percent. White Earth Reservation is situated in an area where the prairie meets the boreal forest . About half the Reservation is covered by a forest and lakes, with second-growth trees. In the late 19th century, lumber companies clear-cut much of the old growth forest that had covered

9954-485: The assassins had come by 1911 to regret their actions. Beaulieu and his confederates had kept none of the promises of lavish payment made to the assassins. Furthermore, Beaulieu, the other co-conspirators, and their families had then taken control of the Government, law enforcement, and business community of the White Earth Indian Reservation . Similarly to both the rackrenting Anglo-Irish landlords of

10080-525: The beginning of a word are frequently lost. In the Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe dialects, all metrically weak vowels are deleted. For example, bemisemagak(in) (airplane(s), in the Southwestern Ojibwe dialect) is stressed as [ be · m se · m gak /ˈbɛːmɪˌseːmʌˌɡak/ ] in the singular but as [ be · m se · m ga · kin /ˌbeːmɪˈsɛːmʌˌɡaˌkin/ ] in the plural. In some other dialects, metrically weak (unstressed) vowels, especially "a" and "i", are reduced to

10206-507: The classroom, students generally first become familiar with the language by hearing and speaking it and then advance to reading and writing it as well. They are taught mathematics, reading, social studies, music, and other typical school subjects through the medium of the Ojibwe language so as to increase student's exposure to Ojibwemowin while providing a well-rounded education. In her research study on Ojibwe immersion schools, Ojibwe scholar and educator Mary Hermes suggests that educating through

10332-501: The community's land was improperly sold or seized by outside interests, including the U.S. federal government , in the late 19th century and early 20th century. According to the Dawes Act of 1887 , the communal land was to be allotted to individual households recorded in tribal rolls, for cultivation in subsistence farming. Under the act, the remainder was declared surplus and available for sale to non-Native Americans. The Nelson Act of 1889

10458-537: The educational system, many indigenous communities across the Great Lakes region are making efforts towards the Ojibwe language revival by similarly using the school system. Largely inspired by the success of Polynesian languages immersion schools in Hawaii and New Zealand , similar school programs have been starting throughout Minnesota and Wisconsin in recent years. One of the most notable programs—developed by Ojibwe educators Lisa LaRonge and Keller Paap —is that of

10584-443: The extra families will likely not participate for fear of being evicted from their homes. It may be that the population of the White Earth Band is larger than that of whites on the reservation. White Earth Reservation has an economy which is similar to other Native American reservations. In 2011, the government of the White Earth Reservation employed nearly 1,750 employees. The tribal payroll was near $ 21 million. The government of

10710-510: The fort as did 100 from the Sandy Lake band. Both the Sandy Lake and Mille Lacs bands gained "non-removal" designations from the United States Federal Government as a result. Commissioner Dole gave the Mille Lacs band a document stating they could remain on their reservation for 1000 years for their actions. When no one else could reach him, Roman Catholic priest and missionary Father Francis Xavier Pierz entered Hole in

10836-540: The fortis set are realized as a sequence of /h/ followed by a single segment drawn from the set of lenis consonants: /p t k tʃ s ʃ/ . Algonquin Ojibwe is reported as distinguishing fortis and lenis consonants on the basis of voicing , with fortis being voiceless and lenis being voiced. In other dialects fortis consonants are realized as having greater duration than the corresponding lenis consonant, invariably voiceless, "vigorously articulated," and aspirated in certain environments. In some practical orthographies such as

10962-626: The head chief of all Minnesota Ojibwe. Many government officials actually did consider him to be head chief in Minnesota. This was due to his endeavoring to be involved in most, if not all, important negotiations and dealings between the Minnesota Ojibwe/Chippewa and the U.S. government, and that he presented himself in an articulate and amiable manner. However, many Chippewa leaders in Minnesota did not recognize him as their head chief. Hole-in-the-Day had several wives. Some accounts number them as many as eight Other sources number his wives as

11088-530: The important role language revitalization has in treating health concerns. The use of language connects a community through shared views and supports the well-being of said community. Researchers found that language and the notion of culture were intertwined together instead of being separate concepts, and the people who regularly practiced their language and culture were often associated with more positive health outcomes, particularly for psychological health and mental well-being. An "Ojibway Language and People" app

11214-665: The language Keller Paap approximates that most fluent speakers in the United States are over 70 years old, making exposure to spoken Ojibwemowin limited in many communities. Ojibwe educators and scholars across the region are working with the remaining elders who speak Ojibwemowin, known as the First Speakers, so as to document and learn the language in hopes to preserve it and pass it on to the next generation of speakers. In recent years, historian and Ojibwe professor Anton Treuer has been recording stories told by about 50 different Ojibwe elders in their native language so as to preserve both

11340-449: The language and language structure; however, it does not help grow the use of the language outside of a school setting. The most effective way of promoting language is being surrounded by the language, especially in a familial setting. This is difficult to replicate in schools, which is why speaking Ojibwe with family and in one's home life is important in growing language revitalization. Research has been done in Ojibwe communities to prove

11466-431: The language and pieces of knowledge and history. Alongside his current mentor, a Ponemah elder named Eugene Stillday, he writes the recorded stories in both Ojibwe and translated English. Recently, there has been more of a push toward bringing the Ojibwe language back into more common use, through language classes and programs sponsored by universities, sometimes available to non-students, which are essential to passing on

11592-467: The largest Indian community on the Reservation; Pine Point; Rice Lake; Twin Lakes ; and White Earth, which is the second-largest Indian settlement on the Reservation. The following communities are considered to have predominantly Indian populations when their mixed-blood residents are included, whether or not those are enrolled tribal members: Waubun, Ogema, and Callaway. The largest community is Mahnomen , which

11718-542: The late 19th century, the American federal Native American boarding school initiative which forced Native American children to attend government-run boarding schools in an attempt to "acculturate" them into American society. Often far from their home communities, these schools attempted to remove any ties children had to their native culture and to limit their ability to visit home. Students were forced to speak English, cut their hair, dress in uniform, practise Christianity, and learn about European culture and history. Although

11844-399: The linguistic history and status of a hypothetical "Ojibwe–Potawatomi" subgroup has not yet been undertaken. A discussion of Algonquian family subgroups indicates that "Ojibwe–Potawatomi is another possibility that awaits investigation." In a proposed consensus classification of Algonquian languages, Goddard (1996) classifies Ojibwa and Potawatomi as "Ojibwayan," although no supporting evidence

11970-415: The metrical foot defines the domain for relative prominence , in which a strong syllable is assigned stress because it is more prominent than the weak member of the foot. Typically, the strong syllable in the antepenultimate foot is assigned the primary stress. Strong syllables that do not receive main stress are assigned at least secondary stress. In some dialects, metrically weak (unstressed) vowels at

12096-739: The non-winter months. Weather on the White Earth Reservation is challenging. Winter lasts at least three months, with daily lows for those months averaging 1 °F (−17 °C), −6 °F and 0 °F (−18 °C). Other average high and low temperatures for the summer and winter months are shown below. Average yearly precipitation at Mahnomen is over 22 inches (560 mm). 47°13′39″N 95°43′13″W  /  47.22750°N 95.72028°W  / 47.22750; -95.72028 Ojibwe language Ojibwe ( / oʊ ˈ dʒ ɪ b w eɪ / oh- JIB -way ), also known as Ojibwa ( / oʊ ˈ dʒ ɪ b w ə / oh- JIB -wə ), Ojibway , Otchipwe , Ojibwemowin , or Anishinaabemowin ,

12222-488: The offenders. Even so, a journey was made by Federal Indian Agent Joel Bassett and a posse of twenty-two United States Army soldiers from Fort Ripley to Leech Lake, where Chief Flat Mouth of the Pillager Band refused to permit the arrest of Chief Hole in the Day's assassins. Chief Flat Mouth's grounds were that, if he surrendered them, only the assassins would be prosecuted while whomever had hired them would go free. At

12348-444: The operation of phonological rules from sequences of a long vowel and /n/ and another segment, typically /j/. Placement of word stress is determined by metrical rules that define a characteristic iambic metrical foot , in which a weak syllable is followed by a strong syllable. A foot consists of a minimum of one syllable and a maximum of two syllables, with each foot containing a maximum of one strong syllable. The structure of

12474-506: The others would be eliminated. The Bureau of Indian Affairs also stated the Chippewa from the other Reservations would be relocated to White Earth. Instead of dealing with the Chippewa tribes on a nation-to-nation level, the Bureau put decisions about communal land use to a vote by tribal members. It said that the decision to accept land allotments under the Dawes Act would be settled by a vote of individual adult Chippewa males, rather than allowing

12600-399: The person, number, animacy, and proximate/obviative status of both the subject and object as well as for several different modes (including the dubitative and preterit ) and tenses. Although it does contain a few loans from English (e.g. gaapii , 'coffee') and French (e.g. mooshwe , 'handkerchief' (from mouchoir ), ni-tii , 'tea' (from le thé , 'the tea'), in general,

12726-416: The postulation of a genetically distinct Central Algonquian subgroup." The possibility that the proposed genetic subgrouping of Ojibwa and Potawatomi can also be accounted for as diffusion has also been raised: "The putative Ojibwa–Potawatomi subgroup is similarly open to question, but cannot be evaluated without more information on Potawatomi dialects." Several different Ojibwe dialects have functioned as

12852-446: The program and it was known as Native Languages 1987. There has also been an increase in published children's literature. The increase in materials published in Ojibwe is essential to increasing the number of speakers. Language revitalization through Ojibwe frameworks also allows for cultural concepts to be conveyed through language. A 2014 study has indicated that learning Indigenous languages such as Ojibwe in school helps in learning

12978-408: The question as to whether or not they should include English instruction. Some research suggests that learning to write in one's first language is important prior to learning a second language. Therefore, many schools include some level of English education at certain grade levels. Along with using the native language, Waadookodaading uses native ways of teaching in its education system. "Ojibwemowin,

13104-497: The request of his son Ignatius Hole-in-the-Day, Chief Hole-in-the-Day was buried by Fr. Francis Xavier Pierz , without a Requiem Mass , in the unconsecrated section of the Roman Catholic cemetery at Old Crow Wing. In an interview on White Earth during the 1920s, an elderly Catholic Ojibwe recalled that the men who had secretly hired the Pillager Band assassins pretended at the time to be very scandalized by Fr. Pierz's burial of

13230-438: The same era and the many other robber barons like them during America's Gilded Age , Beaulieu and the other conspirators then abused the power of their positions to enrich themselves and their families, while systematically defrauding and impoverishing everyone else on White Earth. In 1911, the surviving assassins testified about their involvement because they had grown aware not only of Chief Hole-in-the-Day's ability to force

13356-619: The same territory as Central Ojibwa , which he does not recognize. The aggregated dialects of Ojibwemowin comprise the second most commonly spoken First Nations language in Canada (after Cree ), and the fourth most widely spoken in the United States or Canada behind Navajo , the Inuit languages and Cree. Ojibwemowin is a relatively healthy indigenous language. The Waadookodaading Ojibwe Language Immersion School in Hayward, Wisconsin teaches all classes to children in Ojibwe only. A similar program

13482-596: The same territory as Central Ojibwa , which he does not recognize. Two recent analyses of the relationships between the Ojibwe dialects are in agreement on the assignment of the strongly differentiated Ottawa dialect to a separate subgroup, and the assignment of Severn Ojibwe and Algonquin to another subgroup, and differ primarily with respect to the relationships between the less strongly differentiated dialects. Rhodes and Todd recognize several different dialectal subgroupings within Ojibwe: (a) Ottawa; (b) Severn and Algonquian; (c)

13608-473: The same time the media published story after story of the Chippewa support of the Government vs. the Dakota. Also at that time Crow Wing, Minnesota citizens used alcohol to get the bi-racial Chippewa intoxicated and sign papers as substitutes to fight in the Civil War. Hole-in the Day was furious when he learned of the subterfuge. Those men were bi-racial White Earth Chippewa. They formed a large portion of Co. G 9th Minnesota . On 6 September, calls by Hole in

13734-483: The second and third grade levels. Ojibwe educators at these schools are constantly working with elders so as to design new ways to say lesser-used words in Ojibwe such as plastic or quotient . Because the Ojibwe language is traditionally oral, it is often difficult for educators to find adequate resources to develop the curriculum. Thus, through these school programs, the language is constantly evolving. Many of these Ojibwe language immersion schools are also considering

13860-482: The speakers of the neighboring dialects." The degree of mutual intelligibility between nonadjacent dialects varies considerably; recent research has shown that there is strong differentiation between the Ottawa dialect spoken in southern Ontario and northern Michigan; the Severn Ojibwa dialect spoken in northern Ontario and Manitoba; and the Algonquin dialect spoken in southwestern Quebec. Valentine notes that isolation

13986-636: The state along the Wild Rice and White Earth rivers. The reservation's land area is 1,093 square miles (2,830 km). The population was 9,726 as of the 2020 census , including off-reservation trust land. The White Earth Indian Reservation is one of six bands that make up the Minnesota Chippewa Tribe , their governing body for major administrative needs. It is about 225 miles (362 km) from Minneapolis–Saint Paul and roughly 65 miles (105 km) from Fargo–Moorhead . The White Earth Reservation

14112-710: The term Ojibwemowin . The general term in Oji-Cree (Severn Ojibwe) is Anihshininiimowin , although Anishinaabemowin is widely recognized by Severn speakers. Some speakers of Saulteaux Ojibwe refer to their language as Nakawemowin . The Ottawa dialect is sometimes referred to as Daawaamwin , although the general designation is Nishnaabemwin , with the latter term also applied to Jibwemwin or Eastern Ojibwe . Other local terms are listed in Ojibwe dialects . English terms include Ojibwe , with variants including Ojibwa and Ojibway . The related term Chippewa

14238-407: The tribe to make a decision according to their own traditions of council. Included in the decision to allow allotment, was that lands remaining after all households received allotments, would be declared "surplus" and could be sold to "white" settlers. Chippewa leaders were outraged. They knew they could count on the average Anishinaabe adult male to abide by the council's decision. However, included in

14364-575: The unrelated Siouan language Ho-Chunk (Winnebago) also used Ojibwe when dealing with Europeans and others. Other reports indicate that agents of the American government at Green Bay, Wisconsin , spoke Ojibwe in their interactions with Menominee, with other reports indicating that "the Chippewa, Menominee, Ottawa, Potawatomi, Sac, and Fox tribes used Ojibwe in intertribal communication...." Some reports indicate that farther west, speakers of non-Algonquian languages such as Ho-Chunk (Winnebago), Iowa , and Pawnee spoke Ojibwe as an "acquired language." In

14490-537: The value of the non-profit 501(c)(3) to be used for collateral. At that time, less than ten percent of the land within reservation boundaries was owned by tribal members. The White Earth Band government operates the Shooting Star Casino, Hotel and Event center in Mahnomen, Minnesota . The entertainment and gambling complex employs over 1000 tribal and non-tribal staff, with a new location in Bagley, Minnesota . White Earth, like

14616-633: The white people, the Sioux..." Notable Chippewa leaders there were Chiefs Hole-in-the-Day, the Buffalo, and Flat-mouth. On 22 September 40-50 Chippewa leaders of 22 bands arrived at the Minnesota State Capitol at the invitation of Gov. Ramsey thinking that their offer to fight the Dakota had been accepted. Major General Pope would not accept their service as a matter of "public policy". Nearly all of Minnesota's Chippewa wanted to help. Gov. Ramsey told

14742-693: The widely-used double vowel system, fortis consonants are written with voiceless symbols: p, t, k, ch, s, sh . Lenis consonants have normal duration and are typically voiced intervocalically. Although they may be devoiced at the end or beginning of a word, they are less vigorously articulated than fortis consonants, and are invariably unaspirated. In the double vowel system, lenis consonants are written with voiced symbols: b, d, g, j, z, zh . All dialects of Ojibwe have two nasal consonants /m/ and /n/ , one labialized velar approximant /w/ , one palatal approximant /j/ , and either /ʔ/ or /h/ . All dialects of Ojibwe have seven oral vowels . Vowel length

14868-510: The word "Chippewa" is the anglicized form of Ojibwa that was used by European settlers in the U.S. while Ojibwa was used the French provenances of Canada. According to tradition, the Ojibwe had a patrilineal society in which inheritance and descent was passed down paternal lines. Children were considered born into their father's clan and took their social status from his people. Settlements that are predominantly native include Elbow Lake; Naytahwaush,

14994-570: Was drafting Ojibwe men to fight in the ongoing Civil War . Largely in reaction to this rumor and war mongering, a group of Leech Lake Pillager band burned the Indian Agency in Walker, Minnesota , took prisoners , and went to Crow Wing. Hole-in-the-Day had his own major grievances with the Government , but they were not enough for him to actually join the Santee Dakota. Like the other leaders of

15120-408: Was 2.1   percent Hispanic or Latino of any race. The chairwoman of the White Earth Reservation says that the Indian populations of reservations are higher than counted during censuses. She said that many Reservation families had more than one family sharing the same residence, and these were not always counted. In some cases up to three families shared the same residence. During census counts,

15246-494: Was a corollary law that enabled the land to be divided and sold to non-Native Americans. In the latter half of the 20th century, the federal government arranged for the transfer of state and county land to the reservation in compensation for other property that had been lost. In 1989, Winona LaDuke formed the White Earth Land Recovery Project , which has slowly been acquiring land privately held to add back to

15372-668: Was created on March 19, 1867, by a treaty (16  Stat.   719 ) signed in Washington, D.C. Ten Ojibwe Indian chiefs met with President Andrew Johnson at the White House to negotiate the treaty. The chiefs Wabanquot (White Cloud), a Gull Lake Mississippi Chippewa , and Fine Day, of the Removable Mille Lacs Indians , were among the first to move with their followers to White Earth in 1868. The reservation originally covered 1,300 square miles (3,400 km). Much of

15498-531: Was dead. After which the assassins went to Hole-in-the-Day's house and looted it. Only Ojibwe's warning of the dangers of kidnapping a "White woman" prevented the Pillagers from abducting Ellen McCarthy; the youngest of the Chief's wives . The murder of Hole-in-the-Day was an Indian on Indian crime on Indian land, and the United States Department of Justice had no authority to arrest or prosecute

15624-578: Was posted forward to Fort Abercrombie in Dakota Territory . They arrived on September 3 to find the Fort under Sioux attack. They went into action and helped break the assault. The Company joined the garrison and survived the Sioux siege that followed. The company remained at Fort Abercrombie until the 9th Minnesota was sent south where it participated in the Battle of Brice's Crossroads . There, G Company gained recognition as skilled Skirmishers . They fought

15750-591: Was the correct man for Command. The Chippewa offers to fight the Dakota had the interest and support of Gov. Ramsey as well as both US Senators Rice and Wilkinson . With Generals Pope and Sibley opposed, the Senators went higher to Secretary of War Stanton of the Department of War . In July, 1863 the Senators, united in their dislike for Pope, requested that Secretary of War Stanton authorize an independent mounted Indian Battalion of Minnesota Volunteers consisting of

15876-415: Was where her ancestors came from is unclear. Some sources give his name as Joseph Hole-in-the-Day. He was considering becoming a Catholic at the time of his death, but had not been baptized . At the time of his assassination he was reported to be the wealthiest man in Minnesota at being worth $ 2million. Late in the fall of 1885, the ex- Secretary of War and ex-governor, Ramsey escorted the son of Hole in

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