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49-649: Castel Volturno was a settlement of the Oscans and then of the Etruscans , who called it Volturnum , and was a trade point on the road to Casilinum and Capua . Volturnum became a Roman colony in 194 BC and, in 95 AD, it was reached by the Via Domitiana , and received a large bridge connecting the two shores of the river with the same name. The town decayed after the fall of the Western Roman Empire , and, in 806 ,

98-464: A remains in most positions Long ā remains in an initial or medial position. Final ā starts to sound similar to [ɔː] so that it is written ú or, rarely, u . Short e "generally remains unchanged;" before a labial in a medial syllable, it becomes u or i , and before another vowel, e raises to higher-mid [ẹ], written í . Long ē similarly raises to higher-mid [ẹ], the sound of written í or íí . Short i becomes written í . Long ī

147-435: A growing conflict between the native Camorra and the immigrant African drug gangs. Murdered were Antonio Celiento, the owner of an arcade next to Baia Verde, and six African immigrants: Samuel Kwaku, 26 (Togo); Alaj Ababa (Togo); Francis Antwi, 31 (Ghana); Eric Affum Yeboah, 25 (Ghana); Alex Geemes, 28 (Liberia) and Cristopher Adams, 28 (Liberia). Joseph Ayimbora (Ghana), 34, survived by feigning death; he later helped identify

196-594: A machine gun on a hill in Ponte Annicchino and opened fire, killing four Cutolo members. After the Casalesi achieved dominance in their area following the defeat of Cutolo, Antonio Bardellino settled in Santo Domingo with his family. But unrest grew within the Casalesi. Heading up the clan's military operations were Francesco Schiavone and Francesco Bidognetti . They thought Bardellino's right-hand man, Mario Iovine,

245-562: A rapid expansion in recent decades. Oscan was written in various scripts depending on time period and location, including the "native" Oscan script, the South Oscan script which was based on Greek, and the ultimately prevailing Roman Oscan script. In coastal zones of Southern Italy, Oscan is thought to have survived three centuries of bilingualism with Greek between 400 and 100 BCE, making it "an unusual case of stable societal bilingualism" wherein neither language became dominant or caused

294-561: A sound shift in Oscan to become ~[uː]. Í was used to denote a higher-mid [ẹ] . [REDACTED] The Z of the native alphabet is pronounced [ts] . Doubling of vowels was used to denote length but a long I is written IÍ . Oscan written with the Greek alphabet was identical to the standard alphabet with the addition of two letters: one for the native alphabet's H and one for its V . The letters η and ω do not indicate quantity. Sometimes,

343-458: A surviving local toponym. In phonology too, Oscan exhibited a number of clear differences from Latin: thus, Oscan 'p' in place of Latin 'qu' (Osc. pis , Lat. quis ) (compare the similar P-Celtic/Q-Celtic cleavage in the Celtic languages ); 'b' in place of Latin 'v'; medial 'f' in contrast to Latin 'b' or 'd' (Osc. mefiai , Lat. mediae ). Oscan is considered to be the most conservative of all

392-508: A war between Schiavone's men and those loyal to another boss, Vincenzo De Falco, who was machine-gunned to death in 1991. Mario Iovine was also killed by De Falco's hitmen with revolver bullets while in a telephone booth in Portugal . The war lasted four years. The clan was heavily involved in the Naples waste management crisis that dumped toxic waste around Campania in the 1990s and 2000s; the boss of

441-502: Is believed to be one of the most powerful groups within the Camorra, specialising in construction and keeping a lower profile than clans that focus on drug dealing. In the 1980s, Bardellino realized that cocaine , not heroin , would become the more profitable drug and organized a trafficking operation smuggling it from Latin America to Aversa via a fish flour import-export business. Heroin

490-403: Is eo die (8) comitia non habuerit. In English: (3) … he shall take oath with the assent of the majority of the senate, provided that not less than (4) 40 are present, when the matter is under advisement. If anyone by right of intercession shall prevent the assembly, before preventing it, (5) he shall swear wittingly in the assembly without guile, that he prevents this assembly rather for

539-565: Is not present in Latin). Oscan nouns, like in Latin, are divided into multiple declension patterns. The second declension in Oscan has a few features that distinguish it from its Latin counterpart. These nouns in Oscan are declined as follows: Like in Latin, the third declension in Oscan is a merger of the i -stem nouns with the consonant-stem nouns. These nouns in Oscan are declined as follows. Neuters are not attested. Verbs in Oscan are inflected for

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588-518: Is possible that both languages existed simultaneously under different conditions, in which Latin was given political, religious, and administrative importance while Oscan was considered a "low" language. This phenomenon is referred to as diglossia with bilingualism. Some Oscan graffiti exists from the 1st century CE, but it is rare to find evidence from Italy of Latin-speaking Roman citizens representing themselves as having non–Latin-speaking ancestors. Oscan speakers came into close contact with

637-471: Is spelt with i but when written with doubling as a mark of length with ií . Short o remains mostly unchanged, written ú ; before a final -m , o becomes more like u . Long ō becomes denoted by u or uu . Short u generally remains unchanged; after t , d , n , the sound becomes that of iu . Long ū generally remains unchanged; it changed to an ī sound in monosyllables, and may have changed to an ī sound for final syllables. Oscan had

686-630: The Hernici , Marrucini and Paeligni , minor tribes of eastern central Italy. Adapted from the Etruscan alphabet, the Central Oscan alphabet was used to write Oscan in Campania and surrounding territories from the 5th century BCE until at least the 1st century CE. Oscan is known from inscriptions dating as far back as the 5th century BCE. The most important Oscan inscriptions are

735-724: The Italic languages . Oscan is therefore a close relative of Umbrian and South Picene . Oscan was spoken by a number of tribes, including the Samnites , the Aurunci ( Ausones ), and the Sidicini . The latter two tribes were often grouped under the name " Osci ". The Oscan group is part of the Osco-Umbrian or Sabellic family, and includes the Oscan language and three variants ( Hernican , Marrucinian and Paelignian ) known only from inscriptions left by

784-600: The Latium population. Early Latin texts have been discovered nearby major Oscan settlements. For example, the Garigliano Bowl was found close to Minturnae , less than 40 kilometers from Capua , which was once a large Oscan settlement. Oscan had much in common with Latin , though there are also many striking differences, and many common word-groups in Latin were absent or represented by entirely different forms. For example, Latin volo , velle , volui , and other such forms from

833-616: The Lombard Prince of Benevento Grimoald III gave its port to the abbots of Montecassino . In 841 it was ravaged by Saracens . After 856, the Lombard bishop Radipert had a castle built on what remained of the bridge. After a period under local counts, in 1062 it was again given to Montecassino while in 1206, Frederick II donated it to the archbishops of Capua. Alfonso V of Naples gave it to his daughter, but, when her husband, Duke Marino of Sessa, rebelled, besieged it and destroyed part of

882-471: The Proto-Indo-European root *welh₁- ('to will') were represented by words derived from *ǵʰer- ('to desire'): Oscan herest ('(s)he shall want, (s)he shall desire', German cognate 'begehren', Dutch 'begeren', English cognate 'yearn') as opposed to Latin volent (id.). Latin locus (place) was absent and represented by the hapax slaagid (place), which Italian linguist Alberto Manco has linked to

931-601: The Tabula Bantina , the Oscan Tablet or Tabula Osca, and the Cippus Abellanus . In Apulia , there is evidence that ancient currency was inscribed in Oscan (dating to before 300 BCE) at Teanum Apulum . Oscan graffiti on the walls of Pompeii indicate its persistence in at least one urban environment well into the 1st century of the common era . In total, as of 2017, there were 800 found Oscan texts, with

980-398: The n is lost) and possibly before nf and nx as well. Anaptyxis , the development of a vowel between a liquid or nasal and another consonant, preceding or following, occurs frequently in Oscan; if the other (non-liquid/nasal) consonant precedes, the new vowel is the same as the preceding vowel. If the other consonant follows, the new vowel is the same as the following vowel. Short

1029-622: The 2000s Castel Volturno is said to have been "completely handed over" to foreign clans by the Camorra, namely "clans from Lagos and Benin City " - for the purpose of cocaine trafficking and for the transit of prostitutes to the whole of Europe. Despite the dominance of the Nigerian mafia clans, ecclesiastical institutions, including the Commune of the Comboni missionaries, organize a social and moral alternative to

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1078-552: The Camorra first used in Italy. According to him, the place is the epicenter of the Nigerian mafia, "since the Italian mafia increasingly invested in legal industries, where it washes their billions." In fact, according to a Spiegel report from 2019, young women from Nigeria, not last also from the parents, pushed to prostitution in Italy respectively Castel Volturno. On a woman, who then refused on

1127-514: The Latin word originally meant ‘piece (of meat).’ Oscan tangin- "judgement, assent" is ultimately related to English 'think'. Casalesi clan The Casalesi clan is a clan within the Camorra , an Italian criminal organization, operating from San Cipriano d'Aversa in the province of Caserta . Formed by Antonio Bardellino , it is a confederation of clans in the Caserta area. The Casalesi clan

1176-489: The Villaggio Coppola beach settlement was illegally built by the Camorra clan of Casalesi in the 1970s. However, a 2017 New York Times article on the project more sympathetically reports: "When Villaggio Coppola was built in the 1960s... the aspiration was of a utopian residential area.", and does not mention any involvement of the Camorra in its inception. While the origins of this project have not been well documented,

1225-455: The archaic Etruscan alphabet during the 7th century BCE, but a recognizably Oscan variant of the alphabet is attested only from the 5th century BCE. At the beginning of the 3rd century BCE its sign inventory was extended over the classical Etruscan alphabet by the introduction of lowered variants of I and U, transcribed as Í and Ú. Ú came to be used to represent Oscan /o/, while U was used for /u/ as well as historical long */oː/, which had undergone

1274-449: The buildings remain in use to the present day, and can now be seen as a profound ongoing architectural statement, evolving and decaying outside of the influence of normal market forces. The Villaggio Coppola was used as the principle setting of the 2018 film Dogman , where it serves as an eerie interstitial microcosm and earns a credit for "il Patrocinio Morale", or 'morale guidance'. According to Camorra's opponent Roberto Saviano , in

1323-664: The clan were grouped together in the Spartacus Trial . Over 1,300 people were investigated and 500 witnesses took the stand. The trial against 36 members of the Casalesi clan finally concluded on June 19, 2008, after 10 years. Over the course of the trial five people involved in the case were murdered, including an interpreter. A judge and two journalists received death threats. All defendants were found guilty, and 16 were sentenced to life imprisonment. Francesco Schiavone , his lieutenant, Francesco Bidognetti , Antonio Iovine and Michele Zagaria were given life sentences. The clan

1372-471: The clan, Gaetano Vassallo, admitted to systematically working for 20 years to bribe local politicians and officials to gain their acquiescence to dumping toxic waste. In March 2004, Francesco Schiavone's cousin, Francesco Cicciariello Schiavone, was arrested in Poland and charged with 10 homicides, three kidnappings, nine attempted homicides and extortion. Following his arrest, all the police investigations into

1421-407: The clans. Many crimes were prevented or clarified by members of African immigrants. Saviano considers Castel Volturno to be a city of the future as it is controlled and managed by immigrants - so anti-criminal forces should be supported. In contrast, claimed a television reportage of Spiegel TV , citing the Italian journalist Sergio Nazarro, that the development of African crime clans on the model of

1470-427: The clusters ηι and ωϝ denote the diphthongs /ei/ and /ou/ respectively while ει and oυ are saved to denote monophthongs /iː/ and /uː/ of the native alphabet. At other times, ει and oυ are used to denote diphthongs, in which case o denotes the /uː/ sound. When written in the Latin alphabet, the Oscan Z does not represent [ts] but instead [z] , which is not written differently from [s] in

1519-426: The colloquial usage of the language is the presence of Oscan graffiti on walls of Pompeii that were reconstructed after the earthquake of 62 CE , which must therefore have been written between 62 and 79 CE. Other scholars argue that this is not strong evidence for the survival of Oscan as an official language in the area, given the disappearance of public inscriptions in Oscan after Roman colonization. It

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1568-527: The death of the other; however, over the course of the Roman period , both Oscan and Greek were progressively effaced from Southern Italy, excepting the controversial possibility of Griko representing a continuation of ancient dialects of Greek. Oscan's usage declined following the Social War . Graffiti in towns across the Oscan speech area indicate it remained in colloquial usage. One piece of evidence that supports

1617-861: The following categories: Present, future and future perfect forms in the active voice use the following set of personal endings: Imperfect, perfect indicative and all tenses of the subjunctive in the active voice use a different set of endings: Passive endings are attested only for the 3rd person: singular -ter , plural -nter . Perfect stems are derived from the present stem in different ways. Latin -vī- and -s- perfects are not attested in Oscan. Instead, Oscan uses its own set of forms, including reduplicated perfects such as deded 'gave', -tt- suffix as in prúfa-tt-ed 'approved', -k- suffix as in kella-k-ed 'collected, and -f- suffix as in aíkda-f-ed 'rebuilt'. Some verbs also use suppletive forms. Other tenses are formed by suffixation: The following non-finite forms are attested (all of them are based on

1666-464: The following diphthongs: The sounds of diphthongs remain unchanged from the Proto-Indo-European origins. The consonant inventory of Oscan is as follows: In Oscan, s between vowels did not undergo rhotacism as it did in Latin and Umbrian; but it was voiced, becoming the sound /z/ . However, between vowels, the original cluster rs developed either to a simple r with lengthening on

1715-541: The killers. The murders sparked violent protests from Castel Volturno's immigrant community the following day, which culminated in the signing of measures launched by the Ministry of Interior and the Ministry of Defense on combating organized crime and illegal immigration to Caserta. Oscan Oscan is an extinct Indo-European language of southern Italy . The language is in the Osco-Umbrian or Sabellic branch of

1764-531: The known Italic languages , and among attested Indo-European languages it is rivaled only by Greek in the retention of the inherited vowel system with the diphthongs intact. Oscan was originally written in a specific "Oscan alphabet", one of the Old Italic scripts derived from (or cognate with) the Etruscan alphabet . Later inscriptions are written in the Greek and Latin alphabets . The Osci probably adopted

1813-410: The land within the boundaries where the temple of Hercules stands in the middle, may the senate allow him to build outside of the walls that encircle the sanctuary of Hercules, across the road leads there. And a building that a man from Nola builds, shall be of use by the people of Nola. And a building that a man from Abella builds, shall be of use by the people of Abella. But beyond the wall that encircle

1862-439: The living substance of the seaside resort has decayed continuously. Because of the illegal waste disposal of the Camorra , the beach is often littered with garbage despite regular cleaning. In addition to regular garbage, toxic waste leeching from unregulated landfills in the vicinity, also from the Camorra, has contaminated the beach and forced a near complete prohibition on entering the water in places. According to some reports,

1911-410: The native alphabet. When Oscan inscriptions are quoted, it is conventional to transliterate those in the "Oscan" alphabet into Latin boldface , those in the "Latin" alphabet into Latin italics , and those in the "Greek" alphabet into the modern Greek alphabet. Letters of all three alphabets are represented in lower case. Vowels are regularly lengthened before ns and nct (in the latter of which

1960-547: The new Domiziana Road and a new bridge were built (1954). The beach resorts were expanded after the Second World War into a holiday resort. Holiday guests included members of a nearby US Army base. After an earthquake in 1980 in the Campania region, the Italian government temporarily housed homeless people in the apartments. Then the homeowners left the apartments empty and later leased them to African migrant workers. Since then,

2009-441: The preceding vowel, or to a long rr (as in Latin), and at the end of a word, original rs becomes r just as in Latin. Unlike in Latin, the s is not dropped, either Oscan or Umbrian, from the consonant clusters sm , sn , sl : Umbrian `sesna "dinner," Oscan kersnu vs Latin cēna . Oscan nouns can have one of the seven cases: nominative , vocative , accusative , genitive , dative , ablative and locative (the latter

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2058-1475: The present stem): Ekkum svaí píd herieset trííbarak avúm tereí púd liímítúm pernúm púís herekleís fíísnú mefiú íst, ehtrad feíhúss pús herekleís fíísnam amfret, pert víam pússt íst paí íp íst, pústin slagím senateís suveís tanginúd tríbarakavúm líkítud. íním íúk tríbarakkiuf pam núvlanús tríbarakattuset íúk tríbarakkiuf íním úíttiuf abellanúm estud. avt púst feíhúís pús físnam amfret, eíseí tereí nep abellanús nep núvlanús pídum tríbarakattíns. avt thesavrúm púd eseí tereí íst, pún patensíns, múíníkad tanginúd patensíns, íním píd eíseí thesavreí púkkapíd eestit aíttíúm alttram alttrús herríns. avt anter slagím abellanam íním núvlanam súllad víú uruvú íst. pedú íst eísaí víaí mefiaí teremenniú staíet. In Latin : Item si quid volent aedificare in territorio quod limitibus tenus quibus Herculis fanum medium est, extra muros, qui Herculis fanum ambiunt, [per] viam positum est, quae ibi est, pro finibus senatus sui sententia, aedificare liceto. Et id aedificium quam Nolani aedificaverint, id aedificium et usus Abellanorum esto. At post muros qui fanum ambiunt, in eo territorio nec Avellani nec Nolani quidquam aedificaverint. At thesaurum qui in eo territorio est, cum paterent, communi sententia paterent, et quidquid in eo thesauro quandoque extat, portionum alteram alteri caperent. At inter fines Abellanos et Nolanos ubique via curva est, [pedes] est in ea via media termina stant. In English: And if anyone shall want to build on

2107-481: The sake of the public welfare, (6) rather than out of favor or malice toward anyone; and that too in accordance with the judgment of the majority of the senate. The presiding magistrate whose assembly is prevented in this way shall not hold the assembly on this day. Notes: Oscan carn- “part, piece” is related to Latin carn- “meat” (seen in English ‘carnivore’), from an Indo-European root *ker- meaning ‘cut’―apparently

2156-1428: The sanctuary, in that territory neither the Abellans nor the Nolans may build anything. But the treasury that is in that territory, when it is opened it shall be opened following a shared decision, and whatever is in that treasury, they shall share equally amongst them. But the road that as between the borders of Abella and Nola is a communal road. The boundaries stand in the middle of this road. out of six paragraphs in total, lines 3-8 (the first couple lines are too damaged to be clearly legible): (3) … deiuast maimas carneis senateis tanginud am … (4) XL osiins, pon ioc egmo comparascuster. Suae pis pertemust, pruter pan … (5) deiuatud sipus comenei, perum dolum malum, siom ioc comono mais egmas touti- (6)cas amnud pan pieisum brateis auti cadeis amnud; inim idic siom dat senates (7) tanginud maimas carneis pertumum. Piei ex comono pertemest, izic eizeic zicelei (8) comono ni hipid. In Latin: (3) … iurabit maximae partis senatus sententia [dummodo non minus] (4) XL adsint, cum ea res consulta erit. Si quis peremerit, prius quam peremerit, (5) iurato sciens in committio sine dolo malo, se ea comitia magis rei publicae causa, (6) quam cuiuspiam gratiae aut inimicitiae causa; idque se de senatus (7) sententia maximae partis perimere. Cui sic comitia perimet (quisquam),

2205-537: The spot, an example was made. There is a climate of fear due to the Nigerian gangs around, so that many prostitutes are intimidated and would not go to the police. The Castel Volturno massacre was a massacre perpetrated by the Casalesi clan that led to the deaths of seven people on September 18, 2008. The massacre outside the Ob Ob Exotic Fashion tailor shop on the Via Domitiana was widely characterized as part of

2254-569: The walls (1460). The following year the king sold it to the city of Capua, which held it until the abolition of feudalism in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies in 1810. In 1812 it became an autonomous commune. In 1860 it was annexed to the newly unified Kingdom of Italy . Castel Volturno received a boost in its agricultural activities after the nearby lands were dried during the Fascist government , and after

2303-749: Was jointly ruled by Michele Zagaria and Antonio Iovine until the latter's capture and arrest on November 17, 2010. The clan was then led solely by Zagaria, until he too was captured on December 7, 2011. He was found in a bunker near his home province. The Casalesi clan is heavily involved in the cement and milk industries as well as the international drug trade, supplying drugs to the Mafia in Palermo and having alliances with Albanian mobsters and Nigerian crime syndicates . Their total assets are estimated to be worth around 30 billion euros. On September 18, 2008 six African immigrants were shot dead at Castel Volturno in what

2352-477: Was smuggled as well, and shipments to the Gambino crime family were concealed inside espresso filters. When one shipment was intercepted by the authorities, Bardellino reportedly called John Gotti and told him, "Don't worry, now we're sending twice as much another way". During the Camorra war of the 1980s, the Casalesi sided with Nuova Famiglia against Raffaele Cutolo . In one incident, Casalesi members positioned

2401-559: Was too close to Bardellino and did not approve of their plans for autonomy. They convinced Bardellino to order the murder of Iovine's brother, and then told Iovine that Bardellino had his brother killed based purely on a rumour. Iovine murdered Bardellino in retaliation in his Brazilian villa in 1988, meeting him under the pretext of discussing their cocaine operation. Several men loyal to Bardellino were subsequently murdered. Francesco Schiavone took over as leader. In 1990, Vincenzo De Falco tipped off authorities against Schiavone. This led to

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