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160-554: The Villa Kathrine is a Moroccan -style home located on the bluffs overlooking the Mississippi River in Quincy , Illinois . This home is the subject of a local lost treasure story as well as a ghostlore story featuring a dog. The unique home, sometimes branded as a castle, was built in 1900 by architect George Behrensmeyer for wealthy Quincy native W. George Metz . Metz had a fondness for Mediterranean architecture , and used

320-482: A grand mosque , in an arrangement that bears similarities to other palace-cities such as Madinat al-Zahra. The largest palace, Qasr al-Bahr ("Palace of the Sea"), was built around an enormous rectangular water basin. The architecture of the site has been compared to Fatimid architecture, but bears specific resemblances to contemporary architecture in the western Maghreb, Al-Andalus, and Arab-Norman Sicily. For example, while

480-720: A lighthouse , has a marble plaque over its entrance inscribed with the name of Ziyadat Allah I and the date 821, which in turn is the oldest Islamic-era monumental inscription to survive in Tunisia. In the 9th century Ifriqiya was controlled by the Aghlabid dynasty , who ruled nominally on behalf of the Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad but were de facto autonomous. The Aghlabids were major builders and erected many of Tunisia's oldest Islamic religious buildings and practical infrastructure works like

640-447: A speaker system on the minaret. Additionally, minarets historically served a visual symbolic purpose. In the early 9th century, the first minarets were placed opposite the qibla wall. Oftentimes, this placement was not beneficial in reaching the community for the call to prayer. They served as a reminder that the region was Islamic and helped to distinguish mosques from the surrounding architecture. They also acted as symbols of

800-711: A ṣawma῾a ("monk's cell", due to its small size). An example of these platforms is documented during the reconstruction of the Mosque of Amr ibn al-As in 673 by Mu'awiya 's local governor, Maslama ibn Mukhallad al-Ansari , who was given orders by the caliph to add one to each of the mosque's four corners, similar to the Great Mosque of Damascus which had a ṣawma῾a above each of the Roman-era towers at its four corners. Historical sources also mention such features in mosques in other parts of North Africa . In another example, under

960-454: A "lamp stand", a cognate of Hebrew menorah . It is assumed to be a derivation of an older reconstructed form, manwara . The other word, manār (plural: manā'ir or manāyir ), means "a place of light". Both words derive from the Arabic root n-w-r , which has a meaning related to "light". Both words also had other meanings attested during the early Islamic period: manār could also mean

1120-447: A "sign" or "mark" (to show one where to go) and both manār and manāra could mean " lighthouse ". The formal function of a minaret is to provide a vantage point from which the muezzin can issue the call to prayer, or adhan . The call to prayer is issued five times each day: dawn, noon, mid-afternoon, sunset, and night. In most modern mosques, the adhān is called from the musallah (prayer hall) via microphone to

1280-412: A balance between decorated surfaces and empty spaces, allowing the interaction of light and shadows across carved surfaces to play a role. The Almohad Kutubiyya and Tinmal mosques are often considered the prototypes of medieval mosque architecture in the region. The so-called "T-plan", combined with a hierarchical use of decoration that emphasizes the wider central and transverse qibla aisles of

1440-536: A design that was disseminated widely by Muslim pilgrims returning from Mecca. Further west, the Rustamid dynasty , who were Ibadi Kharijites and did not recognize the Abbasid Caliphs, held sway over much of the central Maghreb. Their capital, Tahart (near present-day Tiaret ), was founded in the second half of the 8th century by Abd al-Rahman ibn Rustam and was occupied seasonally by its semi-nomadic inhabitants. It

1600-413: A different design than the others. This configuration was particularly characteristic of Cairo . The minaret of the al-Maridani Mosque (circa 1340) is the first one to have an entirely octagonal shaft and the first one to end with a narrow lantern structure consisting of eight slender columns topped by a bulbous stone finial . This style later became the basic standard form of Cairene minarets, while

1760-795: A large reflective pool with porticos at either end and a mirador (lookout) tower at one end which looked down on the city from the edge of the palace walls. The most famous palaces, the Comares Palace and the Palace of the Lions , were added afterwards. The Comares Palace, which includes a lavish hammam ( bathhouse ) and the Hall of the Ambasadors (a throne room), was begun under Isma'il I (ruled 1314–1325) but mostly constructed under Yusuf I (1333–1354) and Muhammad V (ruled 1354–1359 and 1362–1391). The Palace of

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1920-429: A large riad garden courtyard with symmetrical reception halls facing each other across the long axis of the garden. Almohad architecture showed more restraint than Almoravid architecture in its use of ornamental richness, giving greater attention to wider forms, contours, and overall proportions. Earlier motifs were refined and were given a grander scale. While surface ornament remained important, architects strove for

2080-539: A major study on the question in 1926 which then became the standard scholarly theory on the origin of minarets for roughly fifty years. Creswell attributed the origin of minaret towers to the influence of Syrian church towers and regarded the spiral or helicoidal minarets of the Abbasid period as deriving from local ziggurat precedents, but rejected the possible influence of the Pharos Lighthouse. He also established that

2240-430: A monumental appearance. The first known minarets built as towers appeared under Abbasid rule. Four towers were added to the Great Mosque of Mecca during its Abbasid reconstruction in the late 8th century. In the 9th century single minaret towers were built in or near the middle of the wall opposite the qibla wall of mosques. These towers were built across the empire in a height to width ratio of around 3:1. One of

2400-506: A new palace at al-Mansuriyya , a former Fatimid capital near Kairouan, but it has not been found by archeologists. In Kairouan itself the Great Mosque was restored by Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis . The wooden maqsura within the mosque today is believed to date from this time. It is the oldest maqsura in the Islamic world to be preserved in situ and was commissioned by al-Mu῾izz ibn Badis in

2560-502: A period of transition for architecture in the region, setting the stage for future developments. Some of the oldest and most significant surviving examples of Almoravid religious architecture, although with later modifications, are the Great Mosque of Algiers (1096–1097), the Great Mosque of Tlemcen (1136), and the Great Mosque of Nedroma (1145), all located in Algeria today. The highly ornate, semi-transparent plaster dome in front of

2720-542: A place for prayer, and this continued to be the practice in mosques during the period of the four Rashidun Caliphs (632–661). The origin of the minaret is unclear. Many 19th-century and early 20th-century scholars traced the origin of minarets to the Umayyad Caliphate period (661–750) and believed that they imitated the church steeples found in Syria in those times. Others suggested that these towers were inspired by

2880-521: A preserved section of Almería 's defensive walls, dates from the 11th century, though little remains of the palaces built inside the Alcazaba. The Bañuelo of Granada, another historic Islamic bathhouse , is also traditionally dated to the 11th century, though recent studies suggest it may date from slightly later, the 12th century. The Aljaferia Palace in Zaragoza , though much restored in modern times,

3040-543: A small vaulted room with a mihrab (niche symbolizing the direction of prayer ) which is the oldest preserved mosque or prayer hall in North Africa. Another small room in the fortress, located above the front gate, is covered by a dome supported on squinches , which is the oldest example of this construction technique in Islamic North Africa. The tall cylindrical tower inside the ribat, most likely intended as

3200-466: A square shaft and are arranged in two tiers: the main shaft, which makes up most of its height, and a much smaller secondary tower above this which is in turn topped by a finial of copper or brass spheres. Some minarets in the Maghreb have octagonal shafts, though this is more characteristic of certain regions or periods; e.g. the minarets of the Great Mosque of Chefchaouen , the Great Mosque of Ouazzane ,

3360-529: A terrace overlooking the landscape below. Its main hall is a rectangular space divided into three naves by two rows of horseshoe arches and nearly every wall surface is covered in exceptional stone-carved decoration with geometric and tree of life motifs. While garden estates were built by the Umayyad rulers and elites of Cordoba before this, the gardens of Madinat al-Zahra are the oldest archeologically documented example of geometrically-divided gardens (related to

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3520-521: A vast and lavish palace-city called Madinat al-Zahra , located just outside Cordoba on the lower slopes of the Sierra Morena . Its construction started in 936 and continued for decades during his reign and that of his son. The site was later destroyed and pillaged after the end of the Caliphate, but its remains have been excavated since 1911. The site covers a vast area divided into three terraced levels:

3680-577: Is also notable for having built a vast imperial capital in Meknes , where the remains of his monumental structures can still be seen today. In 1765 Sultan Mohammed ben Abdallah (one of Moulay Isma'il's sons) started the construction of a new port city called Essaouira (formerly Mogador), located along the Atlantic coast as close as possible to his capital at Marrakesh, to which he tried to move and restrict European trade. He hired European architects to design

3840-432: Is not clear what function these towers served. They do not appear to have been used for the call to prayer and may have been intended instead as visual symbols of the mosque's status. Historical sources also reference an earlier manāra , built of stone, being added to the mosque of Basra in 665 by the Umayyad provincial governor, but it is not entirely clear if it was a tower or what form it had, though it must have had

4000-454: Is one of the earliest and most important examples that imported Ottoman elements into local architecture. Its congregational mosque is accompanied by a madrasa, a primary school, fountains, latrines, and even a café, many of which provided revenues for the upkeep of the complex. This arrangement is similar to Ottoman külliye complexes. It was also the first example of a "funerary mosque" in Tunis, as

4160-530: Is one of the most significant and best-preserved examples of this period, built during the second half of the 11th century by the Banu Hud . Inside its enclosure of fortified walls, one courtyard has been preserved from this period, occupied by pools and sunken gardens and wide rectangular halls fronted by porticos at either end. The arches of this courtyard have elaborate intersecting and mixed-linear designs and intricately-carved stucco decoration . The carved stucco of

4320-522: Is one of the most well-preserved Fatimid monuments in the Maghreb , although it too has been extensively damaged over time and was in large part reconstructed by archeologists in the 1960s. It consists of a hypostyle prayer hall with a roughly square courtyard. The mosque's original main entrance, a monumental portal projecting from the wall, was relatively unusual at the time and may have been inspired by ancient Roman triumphal arches . Another unusual feature

4480-511: Is one of the oldest palaces in the Maghreb to have been discovered and excavated. It was built in stone and has a carefully-designed symmetrical plan which included a large central courtyard and two smaller courtyards in each of the side wings of the palace. Some scholars believe this design imitated the now-lost Fatimid palaces of Mahdia. As independent rulers, however, the Zirids of Ifriqiya built relatively few grand structures. They reportedly built

4640-411: Is strongly felt in the Islamic architecture during this early Emirate period of the peninsula. The most obvious example of this was the reuse of columns and capitals from earlier periods in the initial construction of the Great Mosque of Cordoba. When new, richly-carved capitals were produced for the mosque's 9th-century expansion, they emulated the form of classical Corinthian capitals. In Seville,

4800-407: Is the oldest surviving minbar (pulpit) in the world, made of richly-carved teakwood panels. Both the carved panels of the minbar and the ceramic tiles of the mihrab are believed to be imports from Abbasid Iraq . An elegant dome in front of the mihrab with an elaborately-decorated drum is one of architectural highlights of this period. Its light construction contrasts with the bulky structure of

4960-672: The Qubba Ba'adiyyin , a small but highly ornate ablutions pavilion in Marrakesh, and the Almoravid expansion of the Qarawiyyin Mosque in Fez. These two monuments also contain the earliest clear examples of muqarnas decoration in the region, with the first complete muqarnas vault appearing in the central nave of the Qarawiyyin Mosque. The Almoravid palace of Ali Ibn Yusuf in Marrakesh, excavated in

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5120-401: The chahar bagh type) in the western Islamic world, among the oldest examples in the Islamic world generally, and the oldest known example to combine this type of garden with a system of terraces. Andalusi decoration and craftsmanship of this period became more standardized. While Classical inspirations are still present, they are interpreted more freely and are mixed with influences from

5280-562: The 'Alawis . Unlike the Alhambra of Granada, the grand palaces of Fes el-Jdid have not survived, though they may have been comparable in splendor. The Great Mosque of Fes el-Jdid , on the other hand, is one of the major Marinid mosques that is still well-preserved today, while numerous other mosques were built throughout Fes and in other cities during this period, including the Lalla az-Zhar Mosque in Fes,

5440-495: The Aghlabid Reservoirs of Kairouan. Much of their architecture, even their mosques, had a heavy and almost fortress-like appearance, but they nonetheless left an influential artistic legacy. One of the most important Aghlabid monuments is the Great Mosque of Kairouan, which was completely rebuilt in 836 by the emir Ziyadat Allah I (r. 817–838), although various additions and repairs were effected later which complicate

5600-661: The Almoravids (11th–12th centuries) and then the Almohads (12th–13th centuries), both of whom created empires that stretched across large parts of western and northern Africa and took over the remaining Muslim territories of al-Andalus in Europe. Both empires had their capital at Marrakesh , which was founded by the Almoravids in the second half of the 11th century. This period is one of the most formative stages of architecture in al-Andalus and

5760-608: The Bab Doukkala Mosque , which are notable for being part of larger multi-purpose charitable complexes including several other structures like public fountains, hammams, madrasas, and libraries. This marked a shift from the previous patterns of architectural patronage and may have been influenced by the tradition of building such complexes in Mamluk architecture in Egypt and the külliye s of Ottoman architecture. The Saadians also rebuilt

5920-734: The Ben Salah Mosque in Marrakesh, the Zawiya an-Nussak in Salé , the Great Mosque of Oujda , and others. The most famous architectural legacy of the Nasrids in Granada is the Alhambra, a hilltop palace district protected by heavy fortifications and containing some of the most famous and best-preserved palaces of western Islamic architecture. Initially a fortress built by the Zirids in the 11th century (corresponding to

6080-611: The Bou Inania , al-Attarine , and as-Sahrij madrasas, as well as the Marinid madrasa of Salé and the other Bou Inania in Meknes , are considered among the greatest architectural works of this period. The Marinids also imitated previous dynasties by founding their own fortified palace-city to the west of Fes, known afterwards as Fes el-Jdid ("New Fez"), which remained a frequent center of power in Morocco even during later dynasties such as

6240-731: The Castle of Tarifa , the Burgalimar Castle , the Caliphal Baths of Cordoba, and, possibly, the Baths of Jaen . In the 10th century much of northern Morocco also came directly within the sphere of influence of the Ummayyad Caliphate of Cordoba, with competition from the Fatimid Caliphate further east. Early contributions to Moroccan architecture from this period include expansions to

6400-723: The Cour de la Madeleine ('Courtyard of Madeline') in the Saint-Rustique Church  [ fr ] in Narbonne , where he discovered remains which he interpreted as the remains of a mosque from the 8th-century Muslim occupation of Narbonne. In Ifriqiya, the Ribat of Sousse and the Ribat of Monastir are two military structures dated to the late 8th century, making them the oldest surviving Islamic-era monuments in Tunisia – although subjected to later modifications. The Ribat of Sousse contains

6560-684: The Fatimids , generally refrained from building them during these early centuries. The earliest evidence of minarets being used for hosting the call to prayer dates to the 10th century and it was only towards the 11th century that minaret towers became a near-universal feature of mosques. Next to the Huaishengsi Mosque in Guangzhou is the Tower of Light, also known as the Guangta minaret (1350). The mosque and

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6720-532: The Iberian Peninsula , part of the Visigothic Kingdom at the time, was conquered by a Muslim (largely Berber ) army led by Tariq ibn Ziyad and became known as Al-Andalus . The city of Cordoba became its capital. In 756 Abd ar-Rahman I established the independent Emirate of Cordoba here and in 785 he also founded the Great Mosque of Cordoba , one of the most important architectural monuments of

6880-650: The Kasbah Mosque of Tangier , and the Great Mosque of Asilah in Morocco or the Ottoman-era minarets of Tunisia such as the Youssef Dey Mosque and the Hammouda Pacha Mosque . Inside the main shaft a staircase, and in other cases a ramp, ascends to the top of the minaret. The minaret at the Great Mosque of Kairouan , built in 836 under Aghlabid rule, is the oldest minaret in North Africa and one of

7040-607: The Kasbah Mosque of Marrakesh, with its façades covered by sebka motifs and glazed tile, was particularly influential and set a style that was repeated, with minor elaborations, in the following period under the Marinids and other dynasties. The Almohad caliphs constructed their own palace complexes in several cities. They founded the Kasbah of Marrakesh in the late 12th century as their main residence, imitating earlier examples of self-contained palace-cities such as Madinat al-Zahra in

7200-667: The Minaret of Jam , in a remote area of present-day Afghanistan , was built c.  1175 by the Ghurids and features elaborate brick decoration and inscriptions. The Qutb Minar in Delhi , the most monumental minaret in India , was built in 1199 and was designed on the same model as the Minaret of Jam. In later periods, however, minarets in this region became generally less monumental in comparison with

7360-570: The Mosque of Ibn Adabbas was founded in 829 and was considered the second-oldest Muslim building in Spain (after the Great Mosque of Cordoba) until it was demolished in 1671. This mosque had a hypostyle form consisting of eleven aisles divided by rows of brick arches supported on marble columns. Of the brief Muslim presence in southern France during the 8th century, only a few funerary stelae have been found. In 1952 French archaeologist Jean Lacam excavated

7520-563: The Synagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca in Toledo (rebuilt in its current form in 1250), Synagogue of Cordoba (1315), and the Synagogue of El Tránsito (1355–1357). Further east, in Algeria, the Berber Zayyanid or Abd al-Wadid dynasty controlled their own state and built monuments in their main capital at Tlemcen . Yaghmorasan (r. 1236–1283), the founder of the dynasty, added minarets to

7680-611: The Umayyad Emirate of al-Andalus , emir Hisham I ordered the addition of a ṣawma'a to the Great Mosque of Cordoba in 793. A possible exception to the absence of tower minarets is documented in Caliph al-Walid 's renovation of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina in the early 8th century, during which he built a tower, referred to as a manāra , at each of the mosque's four corners. However, it

7840-568: The horseshoe arch , riad gardens (courtyard gardens with a symmetrical four-part division), square ( cuboid ) minarets , and elaborate geometric and arabesque motifs in wood, stucco , and tilework (notably zellij ). Over time, it made increasing use of surface decoration while also retaining a tradition of focusing attention on the interior of buildings rather than their exterior. Unlike Islamic architecture further east, western Islamic architecture did not make prominent use of large vaults and domes . Even as Muslim rule ended on

8000-444: The makhbara -style summit disappeared. Later minarets in the Burji Mamluk period (late 14th to early 16th centuries) typically had an octagonal shaft for the first tier, a round shaft on the second, and a lantern structure with finial on the third level. The stone-carved decoration of the minaret also became very extensive and varied from minaret to minaret. Minarets with completely square or rectangular shafts reappeared at

8160-411: The oldest minarets still standing is that of the Great Mosque of Kairouan in Tunisia , built in 836 and well-preserved today. Other minarets that date from the same period, but less precisely dated, include the minaret of the Friday Mosque of Siraf , now the oldest minaret in Iran, and the minaret opposite the qibla wall at the Great Mosque of Damascus (known as the "Minaret of the Bride"), now

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8320-472: The ziggurats of Babylonian and Assyrian shrines in Mesopotamia . Some scholars, such as A. J. Butler and Hermann Thiersch, agreed that the Syrian minarets were derived from church towers but also argued that the minarets of Egypt were inspired by the form of the Pharos Lighthouse in Alexandria (which survived up until medieval times). K. A. C. Creswell , an orientalist and important early-20th-century scholar of Islamic architecture , contributed

8480-428: The "Mosque of the Three Doors"), dated to 866 and commissioned by a private patron, possesses what is considered by some to be the oldest decorated external façade in Islamic architecture , featuring carved Kufic inscriptions and vegetal motifs . Apart from its limestone façade, most of the mosque was rebuilt at a later period. Another small local mosque from this period is the Mosque of Bu Fatata in Sousse, dated to

8640-536: The 10th century. The Almohads also made Tunis the regional capital of their territories in Ifriqiya (present-day Tunisia), establishing the city's own kasbah (citadel). The caliphs also constructed multiple country estates and gardens right outside some of these cities, continuing a tradition that existed under the Almoravids. These estates were typically centered around a large artificial water reservoir that sustained orchards of fruit trees and other plants, while small palaces or pleasure pavilions were built along

8800-499: The 12th century, was notable for its unique blending of Norman, Byzantine and Arab-Islamic cultures . Multiple examples of this "Arab-Norman" architecture – which was also heavily influenced by Byzantine architecture – have survived today and are even classified together as a UNESCO World Heritage Site (since 2015). While the Arab-Islamic elements of this architecture are closely linked to Fatimid architecture , they also come from Moorish architecture and are stylistically similar to

8960-429: The 15th century. It is categorized by the use of multiple minarets. Examples of this style include the monuments of Mughal architecture in the Indian subcontinent , such as the minarets on the roof of the south gate in Akbar's Tomb at Sikandra (1613), the minarets on the Tomb of Jahangir (1628-1638), and the four minarets surrounding the mausoleum of the Taj Mahal . Elsewhere in India, some cities and towns along

9120-417: The 19th century and after, the Moorish style was frequently imitated in the form of Neo-Moorish or Moorish Revival architecture in Europe and America, including Neo-Mudéjar in Spain. Some scholarly references associate the term "Moorish" or "Moorish style" more narrowly with this 19th-century trend in Western architecture. In the 7th century the region of North Africa became steadily integrated into

9280-419: The 20th century, contains the earliest known example of a riad garden (an interior garden symmetrically divided into four parts) in Morocco. In present-day Spain, the oldest surviving muqarnas fragments were found in a palace built by Muhammad Ibn Mardanish , the independent ruler of Murcia (1147–1172). The remains of the palace, known as al-Qasr al-Seghir (or Alcázar Seguir in Spanish) are part of

9440-424: The 9th century during, were built in hypostyle form but the structures themselves were rebuilt during later expansions. The layout of two other mosques from this era, the Mosque of Agadir and the Mosque of Aghmat , are known thanks to modern archeological investigations. The Mosque of Agadir was founded in 790 by Idris I on the site of the former Roman town of Pomeria (present-day Tlemcen in Algeria), while

9600-423: The Abbasid period and remains the most massive historic minaret in the world, involving over 6000 cubic meters of brick masonry. The Abu Dulaf Mosque, built near Samarra and finished in 861, has a smaller minaret of similar shape. In the later Abbasid period (11th to 13th centuries), after the Seljuk period, minarets were typically cylindrical brick towers whose square or polygonal bases were integrated into

9760-409: The Alcázar of Seville, where the former Almohad palaces once stood. Sicily was progressively brought under Muslim control in the 9th when the Aghlabids conquered it from the Byzantines. The island was subsequently settled by Arabs and Berbers from North Africa. In the following century the island passed into the control of the Fatimids, who left the island under the governorship of the Kalbids . By

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9920-466: The Fatimids usually built no minarets, the grand mosque of Qal'at Bani Hammad has a large square-based minaret with interlacing and polylobed arch decoration, which are features of architecture in al-Andalus. Various remnants of tile decoration have been discovered at the site, including the earliest known use of glazed tile decoration in western Islamic architecture. Archeologists also discovered fragments of plaster which have been identified by some as

10080-448: The Great Mosque in Cordoba and of the Aljaferia palace in Zaragoza, but it also introduced new ornamental techniques from the east, such as muqarnas , and added its own innovations, such as the lambrequin arch and the use of pillars instead of columns in mosques. Stucco-carved decoration began to appear more and more as part of these compositions and would become even more elaborate in subsequent periods. Almoravid patronage thus marks

10240-400: The Great Mosque of Cordoba in 951–952, which became the model for later minarets in the Maghreb and al-Andalus. Jonathan Bloom has suggested that Abd ar-Rahman III's construction of the minaret – along with his sponsoring of other minarets around the same time in Fez – was partly intended as a visual symbol of his self-declared authority as caliph and may have also been aimed at defying

10400-455: The Iberian Peninsula, the traditions of Moorish architecture continued in North Africa as well as in the Mudéjar style in Spain, which adapted Moorish techniques and designs for Christian patrons. In Algeria and Tunisia local styles were subjected to Ottoman influence and other changes from the 16th century onward, while in Morocco the earlier Hispano-Maghrebi style was largely perpetuated up to modern times with fewer external influences. In

10560-412: The Islamic Middle East , and from North African Berber traditions. Major centers of artistic development included the main capitals of the empires and Muslim states in the region's history, such as Córdoba , Kairouan , Fes , Marrakesh , Seville , Granada and Tlemcen . While Kairouan and Córdoba were some of the most important centers during the 8th to 10th centuries, a wider regional style

10720-477: The Islamic West or architecture of the Western Islamic lands. The use of the term "Moorish" comes from the historical Western European designation of the Muslim inhabitants of these regions as " Moors ". Some references on Islamic art and architecture consider this term to be outdated or contested. This architectural tradition integrated influences from pre-Islamic Roman , Byzantine , and Visigothic architectures, from ongoing artistic currents in

10880-404: The Lions was built under Muhammad V and possibly finished around 1380. It features a courtyard with a central marble fountain decorated with twelve lion sculptures. The galleries and chambers around the courtyard are notable for their extremely fine stucco decoration and some exceptional muqarnas vault ceilings. Four other nearby palaces in the Alhambra were demolished at various points after

11040-418: The Maghreb and al-Andalus. The collapse of the Cordoban caliphate in the early 11th century gave rise to the first Taifas period, during which al-Andalus was politically fragmented into a number of smaller kingdoms. The disintegration of central authority resulted in the ruin and pillage of Madinat al-Zahra. Despite this political decline, the culture of the Taifa emirates was vibrant and productive, with

11200-400: The Maghreb, establishing many of the forms and motifs that were refined in subsequent centuries. The Almoravids made use of Andalusi craftsmen throughout their realms, thus helping to spread the highly ornate architectural style of al-Andalus to North Africa. Almoravid architecture assimilated the motifs and innovations of Andalusi architecture, such as the complex interlacing arches of

11360-423: The Middle East, including ancient Sasanian or more recent Abbasid motifs . This is seen for example in the stylized vegetal motifs intricately carved onto limestone panels on the walls at Madinat al-Zahra. It is also at Madinat al-Zahra that the "caliphal" style of horseshoe arch was formalized: the curve of the arch forms about three quarters of a circle, the voussoirs are aligned with the imposts rather than

11520-412: The Mosque of Aghmat, a town about 30 km southeast of present-day Marrakesh, was founded in 859 by Wattas Ibn Kardus. Both of them were also hypostyle mosques with prayer halls supported by rows of pillars. In the 10th century Abd ar-Rahman III declared a new Caliphate in al-Andalus and inaugurated the height of Andalusi power in the region. He marked this political evolution with the creation of

11680-623: The Muslim world (known as the Maghreb al-Aqsa), became more definitive with the advent of the Idrisid dynasty at the end of the 8th century. The Idrisids founded the city of Fes , which became their capital and the major political and cultural center of early Islamic Morocco. In this early period Morocco also absorbed waves of immigrants from Tunisia and al-Andalus who brought in cultural and artistic influences from their home countries. The well-known Qarawiyyin and Andalusiyyin mosques in Fes, founded in

11840-619: The Ottomans), while mosques which continued to follow the Maliki maddhab (predominant in the Maghreb) continued to employ traditional square-shaft minarets. Minaret Two Arabic words are used to denote the minaret tower: manāra and manār . The English word "minaret" originates from the former, via the Turkish version ( minare ). The Arabic word manāra (plural: manārāt ) originally meant

12000-505: The Qarawiyyin and Andalusiyyin mosques in Fes and the addition of their square-shafted minarets, carried out under the sponsorship of Abd ar-Rahman III and following the example of the minaret he built for the Great Mosque of Cordoba. In Ifriqiya, the Fatimids also built extensively, most notably with the creation of a new fortified capital on the coast, Mahdia . Construction began in 916 and

12160-590: The Seljuk Empire, built paired portal minarets from brick that had Iranian origins. In general, mosques in Anatolia had only one minaret and received decorative emphasis while most of the mosque remained plain. Seljuk minarets were built of stone or brick, usually resting on a stone base, and typically had a cylindrical or polygonal shaft that is less slender than later Ottoman minarets. They were sometimes embellished with decorative brickwork or glazed ceramic decoration up

12320-555: The Villa Kathrine as his home when he was not venturing the world. Metz eventually sold the castle in 1912, and the site fell into disrepair and neglect before the non-profit Friends of the Castle sought to restore the Villa in 1978. Work on restoring the castle was completed in 1998, and appropriate site furnishings have been donated and obtained by staff throughout the years to further enhance

12480-679: The Villa Kathrine was used as a filming location in the Struber Productions film, Fang , which has yet to be released. Moorish architecture Moorish architecture is a style within Islamic architecture which developed in the western Islamic world , including al-Andalus (on the Iberian peninsula ) and what is now Morocco , Algeria , and Tunisia (part of the Maghreb ). Scholarly references on Islamic architecture often refer to this architectural tradition in terms such as architecture of

12640-439: The architectural forms of the Caliphate period continuing to evolve. A number of important palaces or fortresses, in various cities, were begun or expanded by local dynasties. The Alcazaba of Malaga , begun in the early 11th century and subsequently modified, is one of the most important examples. The earliest part of the palace features horseshoe arches with carved vegetal decoration that appear to imitate, with less sophistication,

12800-679: The artistic legacy established by their predecessors. When Granada was conquered in 1492 by Catholic Spain and the last Muslim realm of al-Andalus came to an end, many of the remaining Spanish Muslims (and Jews ) fled to Morocco and other parts of North Africa, further increasing the Andalusian influence in these regions in subsequent generations. The architectural styles of the Marinids, Zayyanids, and Nasrids were very similar to each other. Craftsmen probably travelled between royal courts and from region to region, resulting in mutual influences between

12960-422: The arts of the three kingdoms. Compared with the relatively restrained decoration of Almohad architecture, the monuments of all three dynasties during this period are marked by increasingly extensive and intricate decoration on every surface, particularly in wood, stucco, and zellij (mosaic tilework in complex geometric patterns ). Some differences are still found between the styles of each dynasty, such as

13120-512: The beginning of his reign. Its floor plan had noticeable differences from previous Almohad-period mosques but the minaret, completed in 1233, bears very strong resemblance the minaret of the earlier Almohad Kasbah Mosque in Marrakesh. Other foundations from the Hafsid period in Tunis include the Haliq Mosque (13th century) and the al-Hawa Mosque (1375). The Bardo Palace (today a national museum)

13280-637: The caliph's palace at the center, possibly modeled on the Round City of Baghad . While only sparse remains of the city have been uncovered, it appears to have differed from earlier Fatimid palaces in its extensive use of water. One excavated structure had a vast rectangular courtyard mostly occupied by a large pool. This use of water was reminiscent of earlier Aghlabid palaces at nearby Raqqada and of contemporary palaces at Madinat al-Zahra, but not of older Umayyad and Abbasid palaces further east, suggesting that displays of waterworks were evolving as symbols of power in

13440-548: The carved image of a tree occupied by birds and harpies . In North Africa, new Berber dynasties such as the Zirids ruled on behalf of the Fatimids, who had moved their base of power to Cairo in the late 10th century. The Zirid palace at 'Ashir (near the present town of Kef Lakhdar in Algeria) was built in 934 by Ziri ibn Manad while in the service of the Fatimid caliph al-Qa'im . It

13600-497: The castle's Moroccan roots. Currently, the site functions as the official tourist information center to the City of Quincy and tours are granted of the site on an appointment basis. Inside, the castle features a harem , a courtyard , and a reflecting pool . Much of the designs for the interior and exterior of the building were based upon W. George Metz's sketches of Islamic architecture that he observed during his global travels. In 2010,

13760-454: The center of the arch, the curve of the extrados is "stilted" in relation to that of the intrados, and the arch is set within a decorative alfiz . Back in Cordoba itself, Abd ar-Rahman III also expanded the courtyard ( sahn ) of the Great Mosque and built its first true minaret. The minaret, with a cuboid shape about 47 metres (154 ft) tall, became the model followed for later minarets in

13920-410: The central Maghreb (present-day Algeria) during the 11th and 12th centuries. They built an entirely new fortified capital known as Qal'at Bani Hammad , founded in 1007. Although abandoned and destroyed in the 12th century, the city has been excavated by modern archeologists and the site is one of the best-preserved medieval Islamic capitals in the world. It contains several palaces, various amenities, and

14080-806: The central Maghreb, and the Hafsids in Ifriqiya. What remained of the Muslim-controlled territories in al-Andalus was consolidated by the Nasrid dynasty into the Emirate of Granada , which lasted another 250 years until its final conquest by the Catholic Monarchs in 1492, at the end of the Reconquista . Both the Nasrids in al-Andalus to the north and the Marinids in Morocco to the south were important in further refining

14240-465: The centuries since their foundation. The Madrasa al-Muntasiriya, completed in 1437, is among the best preserved madrasas of the Hafsid period. The Hafsids were eventually supplanted by the Ottomans who took over most of the Maghreb in the 16th century, with the exception of Morocco, which remained an independent kingdom. This resulted in an even greater divergence between the architecture of Morocco to

14400-623: The chapel is covered by a large rectangular vault ceiling made of painted wood and carved in muqarnas : the largest rectangular muqarnas vault of its kind. The eventual collapse of the Almohad Empire in the 13th century was precipitated by its defeat at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212) in al-Andalus and by the advance of the Berber Marinid dynasty in the western Maghreb, the Zayyanids in

14560-408: The chronology of its construction. Its design was a major reference point in the architectural history of mosques in the Maghreb. The mosque features an enormous rectangular courtyard, a large hypostyle prayer hall, and a thick three-story minaret (tower from which the call to prayer is issued). The prayer hall's layout reflects an early use of the so-called "T-plan", in which the central nave of

14720-784: The city but was rebuilt in by Christian rulers, including Peter the Cruel who added lavish sections in Moorish style starting in 1364 with the help of craftsmen from Granada and Toledo. Other smaller but notable examples in Cordoba include the Chapel of San Bartolomé and the Royal Chapel ( Capilla Real ) in the Great Mosque (which was converted to a cathedral in 1236). Some surviving 13th and 14th-century Jewish synagogues were also built (or rebuilt) in Mudéjar Moorish style while under Christian rule, such as

14880-413: The city, resulting in a relatively unique historic city built by Moroccans but with Western European architecture, particularly in the style of its fortifications. Similar maritime fortifications or bastions , usually called a sqala , were built at the same time in other port cities like Anfa (present-day Casablanca ), Rabat, Larache , and Tangier . Late sultans were also significant builders. Up until

15040-496: The coast have small mosques with simple staircase minarets. The oldest minarets in Iraq date from the Abbasid period. The Great Mosque of Samarra (848–852) is accompanied by one of the earliest preserved minarets, a 50-metre-high (160 ft) cylindrical brick tower with a spiral staircase wrapped around it, standing outside the walls of the mosque. It is the tallest of the early minarets of

15200-454: The complex includes the founder's mausoleum, dated to 1639. While the hypostyle form of the mosque and the pyramidal roof of the mausoleum reflect traditional architecture in the region, the minaret's octagonal shaft reflects the influence of the "pencil"-shaped Ottoman minarets. In this period, octagonal minarets often distinguished mosques following the Hanafi maddhab (which was associated with

15360-457: The current Alcazaba ), it was expanded into a self-contained and well-fortified palace district complete with habitations for servants and workers. The oldest remaining palace there today, built under Muhammad III (ruled 1302–1309), is the Palacio del Partal which, although only partly preserved, demonstrates the typical layout which would be repeated in other palaces nearby: a courtyard centered on

15520-422: The current tower was reconstructed later in 1296. Under the Fatimids (10th-12th centuries), new mosques generally lacked minarets. One unusual exception is the Mosque of al-Hakim , built between 990 and 1010, which has two minarets at its corners. The two towers have slightly different shapes: both have square bases but one has a cylindrical shaft above this and the other an octagonal shaft. This multi-tier design

15680-493: The details of minarets borrowed from Fatimid designs. Most distinctively, the summits of minarets had a lantern structure topped by a pointed ribbed dome, whose appearance was compared to a mabkhara , or incense burner. This design continued under the early Bahri Mamluks (13th to early 14th century), but soon began to evolve into the shapes distinctive to Mamluk architecture . They became very ornate and usually consisted of three tiers separated by balconies, with each tier having

15840-516: The earlier Mosque of Agadir and the Great Mosque of Tlemcen while his successor, Abu Sa'id 'Uthman (r. 1283–1304), founded the Mosque of Sidi Bel Hasan in 1296. The Zayyanids built other religious foundations in the area, but many have not survived to the present day or have preserved little of their original appearance. In addition to mosques, they built the first madrasas in Tlemcen. The Madrasa Tashfiniya , founded by Abu Tashfin I (r. 1318–1337),

16000-489: The earliest appearance of muqarnas ("stalactite" or "honeycomb" sculpting) in the western Islamic world, but their identification as true muqarnas has been questioned or rejected by some other scholars. The late 11th century saw the significant advance of Christian kingdoms into Muslim al-Andalus, particularly with the fall of Toledo to Alfonso VI of Castile in 1085, and the rise of major Berber empires originating in northwestern Africa. The latter included first

16160-474: The earliest mosques had no minarets and he suggested that the first purpose-built minarets were built for the Mosque of Amr ibn al-As in Fustat in 673. In 1989 Jonathan Bloom published a new study which argued that the first true minaret towers did not appear until the 9th century, under Abbasid rule, and that their initial purpose was not related to the call to prayer. References on Islamic architecture since

16320-466: The early Abbasid minarets were not built to host the call to prayer, but were instead adopted as symbols of Islam that were suited to important congregational mosques . Their association with the muezzin and the call to prayer only developed later. As the first minaret towers were built by the Abbasids and had a symbolic value associated with them, some of the Islamic regimes opposed to the Abbasids, such as

16480-514: The emerging Muslim world during the Early Arab-Muslim Conquests . The territory of Ifriqiya (roughly present-day Tunisia ), and its newly-founded capital city of Kairouan (also transliterated as "Qayrawan") became an early center of Islamic culture for the region. According to tradition, the Great Mosque of Kairouan was founded here by Uqba ibn Nafi in 670, although the current structure dates from later. In 711 most of

16640-897: The end of the Reconquista (1492). The summer palace and gardens known as the Generalife were also created nearby – at the end of the 13th century or in the early 14th century – in a tradition reminiscent of the Almohad-era Agdal Gardens of Marrakesh and the Marinid Royal Gardens of Fes. The Nasrids also built other structures throughout the city – such as the Madrasa and the Corral del Carbón – and left their mark on other structures and fortifications throughout their territory, though not many significant structures have survived intact to

16800-535: The existing style with high fidelity but did not introduce major new innovations. The Saadians, especially under the sultans Abdallah al-Ghalib and Ahmad al-Mansur , were extensive builders and benefitted from great economic resources at the height of their power in the late 16th century. In addition to the Saadian Tombs, they also built several major mosques in Marrakesh including the Mouassine Mosque and

16960-459: The first half of the 11th century (though later restored). It is notable for its woodwork, which includes an elaborately carved Kufic inscription dedicated to al-Mu'izz. The Qubbat al-Bahw , an elegant dome at the entrance of the prayer hall of the Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis, dates from 991 and can be attributed to Al-Mansur ibn Buluggin . The Hammadids , an offshoot of the Zirids, ruled in

17120-531: The first madrasas to the region, beginning with the Madrasa al-Shamma῾iyya built in Tunis in 1238 (or in 1249 according to some sources ). This was followed by many others (almost all of them in Tunis) such as the Madrasa al-Hawa founded in the 1250s, the Madrasa al-Ma'ridiya (1282), and the Madrasa al-Unqiya (1341). Many of these early madrasas, however, have been poorly preserved or have been considerably modified in

17280-532: The highest level contained the caliph's palaces, the level below this contained official buildings and dwellings of high officials, and the lowest and largest level was inhabited by common workers, craftsmen, and soldiers. The most lavish building discovered so far, known today as the Salón Rico ("Rich Hall" in Spanish), is the reception hall of Abd ar-Rahman III, which is fronted by sunken gardens and reflective pools on

17440-404: The hypostyle hall (the one leading to the mihrab) and the transverse aisle running along the qibla wall are wider than the other aisles and intersect in front of the mihrab. The mihrab of the prayer hall is among the oldest examples of its kind, richly decorated with marble panels carved in high- relief vegetal motifs and with ceramic tiles with overglaze and luster . Next to the mihrab

17600-715: The late 17th century and early 18th century, Ottoman control became largely nominal: the Regency of Algiers (Algeria) was de facto ruled by the local dey s until the French conquest of 1830 , Tunisia was ruled by the Muradid dynasty (after 1602) and the Husaynid dynasty (after 1705), and Libya was ruled by the Qaramanli dynasty until the return of direct Ottoman control in 1835. Whereas architecture in Morocco remained largely traditional during

17760-856: The late 19th century and early 20th century, both the sultans and their ministers continued to build beautiful palaces, many of which are now used as museums or tourist attractions, such as the Bahia Palace in Marrakesh, the Dar Jamaï in Meknes, and the Dar Batha in Fes. Over the course of the 16th century the central and eastern Maghreb – Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya – came under Ottoman control. Major port cities such as Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli also became centers of pirate activity, which brought in wealth to local elites but also attracted intrusions by European powers, who occupied and fortified some coastal positions. In

17920-473: The late 20th century often agree with Bloom's view that the mosques of the Umayyad Caliphate did not have minarets in the form of towers. Instead of towers, some Umayyad mosques were built with platforms or shelters above their roofs that were accessed by a staircase and from which the muezzins could issue the call to prayer. These structures were referred to as a mi'dhana ("place of the adhān" ) or as

18080-583: The late caliphate period is the Bab al-Mardum Mosque (now known as the Church of San Cristo de la Luz) in Toledo , which has a nine-bay layout covered by a variety of ribbed domes and an exterior façade with an Arabic inscription carved in brick. Other monuments from the Caliphate period in al-Andalus include some of Toledo's old city gates (e.g. Puerta de Bisagra ), the former mosque (and later monastery) of Almonaster la Real ,

18240-452: The level of their balconies. Ottoman architecture followed earlier Seljuk models and continued the Iranian tradition of cylindrical tapering minaret forms with a square base. Classical Ottoman minarets are described as "pencil-shaped" due to their slenderness and sharply-pointed summits, often topped with a crescent moon symbol. The presence of more than one minaret, and of larger minarets,

18400-453: The mid-11th century the island was fragmented into smaller Muslim states and by the end of that century the Normans had conquered it under the leadership of Robert Guiscard and Roger de Hauteville (Roger I) . Virtually no examples of architecture from the period of the Emirate of Sicily have survived today. However, the following period of Norman domination, especially under Roger II in

18560-420: The mihrab of the Great Mosque of Tlemcen, dating from the reign of Ali ibn Yusuf (r. 1106–1143), is one of the highlights of this period. The design of the dome traces its origins to the earlier ribbed domes of Al-Andalus and, in turn, it probably influenced the design of similar ornamental domes in later mosques in Fez and Taza . In Morocco, the only notable remnants of Almoravid religious architecture are

18720-414: The minaret merge aspects of Islamic and Chinese architecture . Its circular shaft and the double staircase arrangement inside it resembles the minarets of Iranian and Central Asian architecture, such as the Minaret of Jam. The style of minarets has varied throughout the history of Egypt . The minaret of the 9th-century Ibn Tulun Mosque imitated the spiral minarets of contemporary Abbasid Samarra, though

18880-596: The monumental Mansurah Mosque (begun in 1303, only partly preserved today). Further east, Abu al-Hasan founded the Mosque of Sidi Bu Madyan in the city in 1338–39. In Ifriqiya (Tunisia), the Hafsids, a branch of the Almohad ruling class, declared their independence from the Almohads in 1229 and developed their own state which came to control much of the surrounding region. They were also significant builders, particularly under

19040-697: The mosque, became an established feature of this architecture. The monumental minarets of the Kutubiyya Mosque, the Giralda of the Great Mosque of Seville (now part of the city's cathedral ), and the Hassan Tower of Rabat, as well as the ornamental gateways of Bab Agnaou in Marrakesh and Bab Oudaia and Bab er-Rouah in Rabat, were all models that established the overall decorative schemes that became recurrent in these architectural elements from then on. The minaret of

19200-436: The mosque. The number of minarets by mosques was also not fixed: originally only one minaret accompanied a mosque, but some later traditions constructed more, especially for larger or more prestigious mosques. Minarets are built out of any material that is readily available, and often changes from region to region. In the construction of the tall and slender Ottoman minarets, molten iron was poured into pre-cut cavities inside

19360-581: The mosques for which they were built. The tradition of building pairs of minarets probably began in the 12th century, but it became especially prominent under the Ilkhanids (13th-14th centuries), who built twin minarets flanking important iwans such as the mosque's entrance. The rise of the Timurid Empire , which heavily patronized art and architecture, led to what is now called the "international Timurid" style which spread from Central Asia during and after

19520-585: The most common style in the eastern Islamic world (in Iran, Central Asia , and South Asia ). During the Seljuk period minarets were tall and highly decorated with geometric and calligraphic design. They were built prolifically, even at smaller mosques or mosque complexes. The Kalyan Minaret in Bukhara remains the most well known of the Seljuk minarets for its use of brick patterned decoration. The tallest minaret of this era,

19680-418: The new city was officially inaugurated on 20 February 921, although some construction continued. In addition to its heavy fortified walls, the city included the Fatimid palaces, an artificial harbor, and a congregational mosque (the Great Mosque of Mahdia ). Much of this has not survived to the present day. Fragments of mosaic pavements from the palaces have been discovered from modern excavations. The mosque

19840-704: The oldest minaret in the region of Syria (though its upper section was probably rebuilt multiple times). In Samarra , the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate in present-day Iraq , the Great Mosque of Samarra was built in the years 848–852 and featured a massive helicoidal minaret behind its northern wall. Its design was repeated in the nearby Abu Dulaf Mosque (861). The earlier theory which proposed that these helicoidal minarets were inspired by ancient Mesopotamian ziggurats has been challenged and rejected by some later scholars including Richard Ettinghausen , Oleg Grabar , and Jonathan Bloom. Bloom also argues that

20000-409: The oldest minarets in the world. It has the shape of a massive tower with a square base, three levels of decreasing widths, and a total height of 31.5 meters. The first two levels are from the original 9th-century construction but the third level was reconstructed at a later period. Another important minaret for the architectural history of the region is the minaret built by Abd ar-Rahman III for

20160-683: The palace appear to be a further elaboration of 10th-century Cordoban architecture, in particular al-Hakam II's extension in the Mosque of Cordoba, and of the Taifa -period aesthetic that followed it. Remains of another palace at Balaguer , further east in Catalonia today, are contemporary with the Aljaferia. Fragments of stucco decoration found here show that it was built in a very similar style. However, they also include rare surviving examples of figural sculpture in western Islamic architectural decoration, such as

20320-572: The political and religious authority of the Muslim rulers who built them. The region's socio-cultural context has influenced the shape, size, and form of minarets. Different regions and periods developed different styles of minarets. Typically, the tower's shaft has a cylindrical, cuboid (square), or octagonal shape. Stairs or ramps inside the tower climb to the top in a counterclockwise fashion. Some minarets have two or three narrow staircases fitted inside one another in order to allow multiple individuals to safely descend and ascend simultaneously. At

20480-680: The preceding Almoravid period. The Palazzo dei Normanni (Palace of the Normans) in Palermo contains the Cappella Palatina , one of the most important masterpieces of this style, built under Roger II in the 1130s and 1140s. It combines harmoniously a variety of styles: the Norman architecture and door decor, the Arabic arches and scripts adorning the roof, the Byzantine dome and mosaics. The central nave of

20640-408: The present-day Monastery of Santa Clara in Murcia. The muqarnas fragments are painted with images of musicians and other figures. Ibn Mardanish also constructed what is now known as the Castillejo de Monteagudo, a hilltop castle and fortified palace outside the city that is one of the best-preserved examples of Almoravid-era architecture in the Iberian Peninsula. It has a rectangular plan and contained

20800-458: The present-day. Meanwhile, in the former territories of al-Andalus under the control of the Spanish kingdoms of Léon , Castile and Aragon , Andalusi art and architecture continued to be employed for many years as a prestigious style under new Christian patrons, becoming what is known as Mudéjar art (named after the Mudéjars or Muslims under Christian rule). This type of architecture, created by Muslim craftsmen or by other craftsmen following

20960-444: The region. Abd ar-Rahman III's cultured son and successor, al-Hakam II , further expanded the mosque's prayer hall, starting in 962. He endowed it with some of its most significant architectural flourishes and innovations, which included a maqsura enclosed by intersecting multifoil arches , four ornate ribbed domes, and a richly-ornamented mihrab with Byzantine -influenced gold mosaics . A much smaller but notable work from

21120-472: The reign of Abu Iqal al-Aghlab ibn Ibrahim (r. 838–841), which has a hypostyle prayer hall fronted by an external portico of three arches. Both the Ibn Khayrun and Bu Fatata mosques are early examples of the "nine-bay" mosque, meaning that the interior has a square plan subdivided into nine smaller square spaces, usually vaulted, arranged in three rows of three. This type of layout is found later in al-Andalus and as far as Central Asia, suggesting that it may be

21280-433: The reigning monarchy of the country to this day. As a result, many of the mosques and palaces standing in Morocco today have been built or restored by the 'Alawis at some point or another in recent centuries. Ornate architectural elements from Saadian buildings, most infamously from the lavish El Badi Palace, were also stripped and reused in buildings elsewhere during the reign of Moulay Isma'il (1672–1727). Moulay Isma'il

21440-430: The reigns of successful leaders like Abu Zakariya (ruled 1229–1249) and Abu Faris (ruled 1394–1434), though not many of their monuments have survived intact to the present-day. While Kairouan remained an important religious center, Tunis was the capital and progressively replaced it as the main city of the region and the main center of architectural patronage. Unlike the architecture further west, Hafsid architecture

21600-401: The rival Fatimid Caliphs to the east who did not endorse the construction of minarets at the time. Other important historic minarets in the region are the Almohad -era minarets of the Kutubiyya Mosque and the Kasbah Mosque in Marrakesh , the Hassan Tower in Rabat , and the Giralda in Seville , all from the 12th and early 13th centuries. The Seljuks of Rum , a successor state of

21760-399: The royal palace complex in the Kasbah of Marrakesh for themselves, where Ahmad al-Mansur constructed the famous El Badi Palace (built between 1578 and 1593) which was known for its superlative decoration and costly building materials including Italian marble . The 'Alawis, starting with Moulay Rashid in the mid-17th century, succeeded the Saadians as rulers of Morocco and continue to be

21920-399: The same period, architecture in Algeria and Tunisia was blended with Ottoman architecture , especially in the coastal cities where Ottoman influence was strongest. Some European influences were also introduced, particularly through the importation of materials from Italy such as marble. In Tunis, the Mosque complex of Yusuf Dey , built or begun around 1614–15 by Yusuf Dey (r. 1610–1637),

22080-400: The same tradition, continued many of the same forms and motifs with minor variations. Numerous examples are found in the early churches of Toledo (e.g. the Church of San Román , 13th century), as well as other cities in Aragon such as Zaragoza and Teruel . Among the most famous and celebrated examples is the Alcazar of Seville, which was the former palace of the Abbadids and the Almohads in

22240-432: The southern portico, enveloping a simple brick core, is especially dizzying and complex, drawing on the forms of plain and multifoil arches but manipulating them into motifs outside their normal structural logic. Next to the northern hall of the courtyard, which was probably al-Muqtadir 's audience hall, is an unusual small octagonal room with a mihrab, most likely a private oratory for the ruler. The designs and decoration of

22400-401: The stones, which then solidified and helped to bind the stones together. This made the structures more resistant to earthquakes and powerful winds. The earliest mosques lacked minarets, and the call to prayer was often performed from smaller tower structures. The early Muslim community of Medina gave the call to prayer from the doorway or roof of the house of Muhammad , which doubled as

22560-550: The structure of the mosque itself. Their main cylindrical shafts were tapered and culminated in muqarnas cornices supporting a balcony, above which is another small cylindrical turret topped by a dome. Two examples of this style are the Mosque of al-Khaffafin and the Mosque of Qumriyya. Minarets in the Maghreb (region encompassing present-day Algeria , Libya , Mauritania , Morocco , Tunisia , and Western Sahara ) and historical al-Andalus (present-day Gibraltar , Portugal , Spain , and Southern France ) traditionally have

22720-454: The style of Madinat al-Zahra. Another part contains intersecting multifoil arches that resemble those of al-Hakam II's maqsura in the Cordoba mosque, though serving a purely decorative and non-structural purpose here. The Alcazar of Seville and the Alcazaba of the Alhambra were also the site of earlier fortresses or palaces by the Abbadids (in Seville ) and the Zirids (in Granada), respectively. The Alcazaba of Almería , along with

22880-480: The surrounding mosque and the dome's drum is elaborately decorated with a frieze of blind arches , squinches carved in the shape of shells, and various motifs carved in low-relief. The mosque's minaret is the oldest surviving one in North Africa and the western Islamic world. Its form was modeled on older Roman lighthouses in North Africa, quite possibly the lighthouse at Salakta (Sullecthum) in particular. The Great Mosque of al-Zaytuna in Tunis , which

23040-470: The top of the stairs, a balcony encircles the upper sections of the tower and from here the muezzin may give the call to prayer. Some minaret traditions featured multiple balconies along the tower's shaft. The summit often finishes in a lantern -like structure and/or a small dome, conical roof, or curving stone cap, which is in turn topped by a decorative metal finial . Different architectural traditions also placed minarets at different positions relative to

23200-520: The very end of the Mamluk period during the reign of Sultan al-Ghuri (r. 1501–1516). During al-Ghuri's reign, the lantern summits were also doubled – as with the minaret of the Mosque of Qanibay Qara or al-Ghuri's minaret at the al-Azhar Mosque – or even quadrupled – as with the original minaret of al-Ghuri's madrasa . Starting with the Seljuk period (11th and 12th centuries), minarets in Iran had cylindrical shafts with square or octagonal bases that taper towards their summit. These minarets became

23360-441: The water's edge. In Marrakesh, the present-day Agdal and Menara gardens both developed from such Almohad creations. In Seville, the remains of the Almohad al-Buḥayra garden , founded in 1171, were excavated in the 1970s. Sunken gardens were also part of Almohad palace courtyards. In some cases the gardens were divided symmetrically into four parts, much like a riad garden. Examples of these have been found in some courtyards of

23520-485: The west, which continued to follow essentially the same Andalusi-Maghrebi traditions of art as before, and the architecture of Algeria and Tunisia to the east, which increasingly blended influences from Ottoman architecture into local designs. In Morocco, after the Marinids came the Saadian dynasty in the 16th century, which marked a political shift from Berber-led empires to sultanates led by Arab sharifian dynasties. Artistically and architecturally, however, there

23680-502: The western Islamic world. The mosque was notable for its vast hypostyle hall composed of rows of columns connected by double tiers of arches (including horseshoe arches on the lower tier) composed of alternating red brick and light-colored stone. The mosque was subsequently expanded by Abd ar-Rahman II in 836, who preserved the original design while extending its dimensions. The mosque was again embellished with new features by his successors Muhammad , Al-Mundhir , and Abdallah . One of

23840-416: The western gates of the mosque, known as Bab al-Wuzara' (today known as Puerta de San Esteban ), dates from this period and is often noted as an important prototype of later Moorish architectural forms and motifs: the horseshoe arch has voussoirs that alternate in colour and decoration and the arch is set inside a decorative rectangular frame ( alfiz ). The influence of ancient Classical architecture

24000-453: The wider use of marble columns in Nasrid palaces and the increasing use of wooden elements in Marinid architecture. Nasrid architecture also exhibits details influenced by Granada's closer interactions with Christian kingdoms like Castile . The Marinids, who chose Fes as their capital, were also the first to build madrasas in this region, a type of institution which originated in Iran and had spread west. The madrasas of Fes, such as

24160-421: Was also begun by the Hafsids in the 15th century, and is mentioned in historical records for the first time during the reign of Abu Faris. The Hafsids also made significant renovations to the much older Great Mosque of Kairouan – renovating its ceiling, reinforcing its walls, and building or rebuilding two of its entrance gates in 1293 – as well as to the al-Zaytuna Mosque in Tunis. The Hafsids also introduced

24320-490: Was broad continuity and the Saadians are seen by modern scholars as continuing to refine the existing Moorish-Moroccan style, with some considering the Saadian Tombs in Marrakesh as one of the apogees of this style. Starting with the Saadians, and continuing with the 'Alawis (their successors and the reigning monarchy of Morocco today), Moroccan art and architecture is portrayed by modern scholars as having remained essentially "conservative"; meaning that it continued to reproduce

24480-481: Was built primarily in stone (rather than brick or mudbrick ) and appears to have featured much less decoration. In reviewing the history of architecture in the region, scholar Jonathan Bloom remarks that Hafsid architecture seems to have "largely charted a course independent of the developments elsewhere in the Maghrib [North Africa]". The Kasbah Mosque of Tunis was one of the first works of this period, built by Abu Zakariya (the first independent Hafsid ruler) at

24640-462: Was celebrated for its rich decoration, including zellij tile decoration with sophisticated arabesque and geometric motifs whose style was repeated in some subsequent Marinid monuments. The Marinids also intermittently occupied Tlemcen in the 14th century and left their mark on the area. During his siege of the city at the beginning of the century, the Marinid leader Abu Ya'qub built a fortified settlement nearby named al-Mansurah , which includes

24800-407: Was destroyed by the Fatimids in 909 but its remains were excavated in the 20th century. The city was surrounded by a fortified wall interspersed with square towers. It contained a hypostyle mosque, a fortified citadel on higher ground, and a palace structure with a large courtyard similar to the design of traditional houses. The Islamization of present-day Morocco, the westernmost territory of

24960-462: Was founded earlier around 698, owes its overall current form to a reconstruction during the reign of the Aghlabid emir Abu Ibrahim Ahmad (r. 856–863). Its layout is very similar to the Great Mosque of Kairouan. Two other congregational mosques in Tunisia, the Great Mosque of Sfax (circa 849) and the Great Mosque of Sousse (851), were also built by the Aghlabids but have different forms. The small Mosque of Ibn Khayrun in Kairouan (also known as

25120-608: Was later synthesized and shared across the Maghreb and al-Andalus thanks to the empires of the Almoravids and the Almohads , which unified both regions for much of the 11th to 13th centuries. Within this wider region, a certain difference remained between architectural styles in the more easterly region of Ifriqiya (roughly present-day Tunisia) and a more specific style in the western Maghreb (present-day Morocco and western Algeria) and al-Andalus, sometimes referred to as Hispano-Moresque or Hispano-Maghrebi . This architectural style came to encompass distinctive features such as

25280-399: Was only found in the minarets of the great mosques at Mecca and Medina at that time, suggesting a possible link to those designs. Shortly after their construction, the lower sections of the minarets were encased in massive square bastions, for reasons that are not clearly known, and the tops were rebuilt in 1303 by a Mamluk sultan. Under the Ayyubids (late 12th to mid-13th centuries),

25440-461: Was reserved for mosques commissioned by the Ottoman sultans themselves. Taller minarets often also had multiple balconies (known as şerefe in Turkish) along their shafts instead of one. The Üç Şerefeli Mosque in Edirne , finished in 1447, was the first sultanic mosque to have multiple minarets with multiple balconies. Of its four minarets, the northwestern minaret was the tallest Ottoman minaret up to that time, rising to 67 metres. Its height

25600-400: Was the absence of a minaret, which may have reflected an early Fatimid rejection of such structures as unnecessary innovations. In 946 the Fatimids began construction of a new capital, al-Mansuriyya , near Kairouan. Unlike Mahdia, which was built with more strategic and defensive considerations in mind, this capital was built as a display of power and wealth. The city had a round layout with

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