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92-418: Also referred to as a Palace church or Palace chapel , it was commissioned by Roger II of Sicily in 1132 to be built upon an older chapel (now the crypt) constructed around 1080. It took eight years to build, receiving a royal charter the same year, with the mosaics being only partially finished by 1143. The sanctuary, dedicated to Saint Peter , is reminiscent of a domed basilica . It has three apses , as

184-445: A cardinal ever-vigilant for Crusade supporters, to strike up a correspondence with Conrad III of Germany in an effort to break his alliance with Manuel I Comnenus . Roger himself never went on an expedition against Byzantium, instead handing command to the skillful George. In 1147, George set sail from Otranto with seventy galleys to attack Corfu . According to Nicetas Choniates , the island capitulated thanks to George's bribes (and

276-458: A charter document dated 12 June 1112. In 1117, his mother, who had married Baldwin I of Jerusalem , returned to Sicily, since the patriarch of Jerusalem had declared the marriage invalid. Roger seems to have felt the slight, and this might explain his later reluctance to go crusading. Roger married his first wife, Elvira , daughter of King Alfonso VI of Castile and, later, his fourth wife, Isabella, who may be identical to his former concubine,

368-499: A ditch, only to repent subsequently and rebury him decently. At this time, with Sergius dead, Alfonso was elected to replace him and together with his brother Roger went off to conquer the Abruzzi . After the death of Anacletus in January 1138, Roger had sought the confirmation of his title from Innocent. However, the pope wanted an independent Principality of Capua as a buffer state between

460-490: A further five, work was beginning on some of the earliest of the great stone castles . For example, Hugh de Lacy built a Motte-and-bailey castle on the site of the present day Trim Castle , County Meath, which was attacked and burned in 1173 by the Irish king Ruaidrí Ua Conchobair . De Lacy, however, then constructed a stone castle in its place, which enclosed over three acres within its walls, and this could not be burned down by

552-499: A grandniece of King Baldwin II of Jerusalem . They had one daughter: Roger also had five known illegitimate children: —By a daughter of Hugues I, Count of Molise: —With unknown mistresses: Norman architecture The term Norman architecture is used to categorise styles of Romanesque architecture developed by the Normans in the various lands under their dominion or influence in

644-669: A period of unrest in Cairo and a lack of patronage for the arts, prompting Fatimid artists to flee to Sicily. Scholars theorize this encouraged collaboration between the Sicilians and Fatimids – who introduced muqarnas . There is a newer theory that skilled Islamic craftsmen already existed in Sicily and were responsible for the muqarnas . This is based on the evidence that the Sicilian muqarnas vary significantly enough from any Islamic counterparts. However,

736-578: A secular character and represent oriental flora and fauna . This may be the only substantial passage of secular Byzantine mosaic extant today. The intricate and striking muqarnas that still exist in Italy are all in Palermo, mostly in the Zisa Palace and Capella Palatina. They are also a rare case of non-Islamic manifestations. They appeared in Sicily suddenly, meaning that a system as sophisticated as this one

828-717: A sequence of styles has been attributed to Thomas Rickman in his 1817 work An Attempt to Discriminate the Styles of English Architecture from the Conquest to the Reformation . In this work he used the labels "Norman, Early English, Decorated, and Perpendicular". The more inclusive term romanesque was used of the Romance languages in English by 1715, and was applied to architecture of the eleventh and twelfth centuries from 1819. Although Edward

920-455: A style must be assessed as an integral whole rather than an aggregate of features, and while some include these developments within the Norman or Romanesque styles, others describe them as transitional or "Norman–Gothic Transitional". A few websites use the term "Norman Gothic", but it is unclear whether they refer to the transitional style or to the Norman style as a whole. Neo-Norman architecture

1012-444: A succession of receding semicircular arches, often decorated with mouldings, typically of chevron or zig-zag design; sometimes there is a tympanum at the back of the head of the arch, which may feature sculpture representing a Biblical scene. Norman windows are mostly small and narrow, generally of a single round-headed light; but sometimes, especially in a bell tower , divided by a shaft into two lights. Viking invaders arrived at

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1104-516: A town central to the peninsular possessions (and a center of rebellion under his predecessors). There he promulgated the great law regulating all Sicilian affairs. It invested the king and his bureaucracy with absolute powers and reduced the authority of the often rebellious vassals. While there, centralising his kingdom, Roger declared a new standard coinage, named after the duchy of Apulia: the ducat . Roger's reforms in laws and administration aimed not only to strengthen his rule but also to improve

1196-470: A truce with the pope in October 1144. These lands were for the next seven centuries to constitute the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily. In 1139, Bari, the 50,000 inhabitants of which had remained unscathed behind its massive walls during the wars of the past year, decided to surrender. The excellentissimus princeps Jaquintus , who had led the rebellion of the city, was hanged, along with many of his followers, but

1288-523: Is a defining point of Norman architecture. Grand archways are designed to evoke feelings of awe and are very commonly seen as the entrance to large religious buildings such as cathedrals. Norman arches are semicircular in form. Early examples have plain, square edges; later ones are often enriched with the zig-zag and roll mouldings. The arches are supported on massive columns , generally plain and cylindrical , sometimes with spiral decoration; occasionally, square-section piers are found. Main doorways have

1380-540: Is a type of Romanesque Revival architecture based on Norman Romanesque architecture. There is sometimes confusion, especially in North America, between this style and revivalist versions of vernacular or later architecture of Normandy , such as the " Norman farmhouse style " popular for larger houses. Romanesque Revival versions focus on the arch and capitals, and decorated doorways. There are two examples in Manchester:

1472-491: Is built along an east–west axis. On the west side resides the throne platform and on the east side is the sanctuary with the nave connecting these two sides, with domes over each side. Along the northern wall of the sanctuary is the royal balcony and the northern chapel, where the King would watch and listen to the liturgy on special feast days. Along the nave runs two rows of colonnades, with windows in between each colonnade. The chapel

1564-411: Is fitted together and reinforced with fiber bindings held together with animal glue. The ceiling is supported by horizontal cavetto wood moldings that touch the upper part of the windows and has longitudinal and transverse symmetry. It is composed of a central horizontal field with a star-and-cross pattern. The muqarnas has 5 horizontal tiers that allow a smooth transition from the ceiling to the walls of

1656-414: Is the earliest surviving example of wooden muqarnas . The construction of muqarnas constructed in wood likely began from this building given all previous examples are made of bricks or stones. The muqarnas ceiling was built most likely after the mosaics of the nave ordered by William I. The wooden components are all incredibly small – ranging between 1 and 1.5 centimetres (0.4 and 0.6 in). Each piece

1748-674: Is usual in Byzantine architecture, with six pointed arches (three on each side of the central nave) resting on recycled classical columns . The muqarnas ceiling of the nave and the chapel's rectilinear form show the Fatimid influence in the building's construction. The mosaics of the Palatine Chapel are of unparalleled elegance as concerns elongated proportions and streaming draperies of figures. They are also noted for subtle modulations of colour and luminance. The oldest are probably those covering

1840-458: The opus gallicum technique to Italy. Their clever use of the local stone artisans, together with the vast riches amassed from their enslaved population, made such tremendous feats possible, some as majestic as those of the ancient Roman structures they tried to emulate. Besides the encastellation of the countryside, the Normans erected several religious buildings which still survive. They edified

1932-637: The Church of Saint-Étienne at Caen, in 1067. This would eventually form a model for the larger English cathedrals some 20 years later, after they had invaded and conquered England. In England, Norman nobles and bishops had influence before the Norman Conquest of 1066, and Norman influences affected late Anglo-Saxon architecture . Edward the Confessor was brought up in Normandy and in 1042 brought masons to work on

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2024-694: The Duchy of Amalfi revolted and in 1131, Roger sent John of Palermo across the Strait of Messina to join up with a royal troop from Apulia and Calabria and march on Amalfi by land while George of Antioch blockaded the town by sea and set up a base on Capri . Amalfi soon capitulated. In 1132, Roger sent Robert II of Capua and Ranulf II of Alife to Rome in a show of force in support of Anacletus. While they were away, Roger's half-sister Matilda, Ranulf's wife, fled to Roger claiming abuse. Simultaneously, Roger annexed Ranulf's brother's County of Avellino . Ranulf demanded

2116-666: The Kingdom of Sicily and the Papal States , something Roger would not accept. In the summer of 1139, Innocent II invaded the kingdom with a large army, but was ambushed on 22 July 1139 at Galluccio , southeast of present-day Cassino , by Roger's son and was captured. Three days later, by the Treaty of Mignano , the pope proclaimed Roger II rex Siciliae ducatus Apuliae et principatus Capuae (King of Sicily, Duke of Apulia and commander of Capua). The boundaries of his regno were only later fixed by

2208-521: The Persian Gulf , with thousands outlining each section of the embroidery. Pearls were a common decoration on pan-Mediterranean textiles, but were also used and admired on clothing of the Byzantine Empire. The enameled surfaces are also attributed to the Byzantine Empire, as they had many craftsmen specializing in this type of work. The gold embroidery was most likely created by Muslim craftsmen, given

2300-530: The cathedral at Messina consecrated in 1197. However, here the high Gothic campanile is of a later date and should not be confused with the early Gothic built during the Norman period; which featured pointed arches and windows rather than the flying buttresses and pinnacles later to manifest themselves in the Gothic era. After its Norman conquest in 1091, Malta saw the construction of several Norman pieces of architecture. Many have been demolished and rebuilt over

2392-597: The tiraz bands, the Arabic text in calligraphy, and Kufic script. The piece was made in a private royal workshop, dedicated to creating tiraz fabric and other royal garments. It is one of few surviving mementos of Fatimid -style royal garb preserved in its entirety. The inscription written in the tiraz band along the bottom of the piece states, "Here is what was created in the princely treasury, filled with luck, eminence, majesty, perfection, long-suffering, superiority, welcome, prosperity, liberality, brilliance, pride, beauty,

2484-563: The 1150s most of this coinage was no longer in use and soon after, it disappeared altogether. Nevertheless, the controversy over the coinage did not hinder the Kingdom's prosperity. Roger II had acquired large wealth not only through his royal patrimony but also through his military campaigns and their financial rewards. For example, gold and silver were gained through the campaigns in Apulia in 1133 and Greece in 1147. Sicily's geographic situation at

2576-462: The 11th and 12th centuries. In particular the term is traditionally used for English Romanesque architecture . The Normans introduced large numbers of castles and fortifications including Norman keeps , and at the same time monasteries , abbeys , churches and cathedrals, in a style characterised by the usual Romanesque rounded arches (particularly over windows and doorways) and especially massive proportions compared to other regional variations of

2668-612: The Capella Palatina. Another potential source is Syria where the earliest muqarnas are from the 12th century in Aleppo. Up to a dozen Syrian muqarnas styles resemble the Sicilian examples. The primary demerit to this theory is the fact that the Sicilian muqarnas precede their Syrian counterparts by 30 years. Some also believe the muqarnas came from the Fatimids in Egypt. There was potentially

2760-793: The Confessor built the original Westminster Abbey in Romanesque style (now all replaced by later rebuildings), its construction predates the Norman Conquest: it is still believed to have been the earliest major Romanesque building in England. No other significant remaining Romanesque architecture in Britain can clearly be shown to predate the Norman Conquest. However, historians believe that many surviving "Norman" elements in buildings–nearly all churches–may well in fact be Anglo-Saxon elements. The Norman arch

2852-594: The English word admiral ). Roger made Sicily the leading maritime power in the Mediterranean. A powerful fleet was built up under several admirals, or "emirs", of whom the greatest was George, formerly in the service of the Muslim prince of Mahdia . Mainly thanks to him, a series of conquests were made on the African coast (1146–1153). From 1135 Roger II started to conquer the coast of Tunisia and enlarge his dominions: Tripoli

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2944-521: The Great ( Italian : Ruggero II , Sicilian : Ruggeru II , Greek : Ρογέριος; 22 December 1095 – 26 February 1154) was King of Sicily and Africa , son of Roger I of Sicily and successor to his brother Simon . He began his rule as Count of Sicily in 1105, became Duke of Apulia and Calabria in 1127, then King of Sicily in 1130 and King of Africa in 1148. By 999, Norman adventurers had arrived in southern Italy. By 1016, they were involved in

3036-876: The Irish. The years between 1177 and 1310 saw the construction of some of the greatest of the Norman castles in Ireland. The Normans settled mostly in an area in the east of Ireland, later known as the Pale , and among other buildings they constructed were Swords Castle in Fingal (North County Dublin), Dublin Castle and Carrickfergus Castle in County Antrim. The Normans began constructing castles, their trademark architectural piece, in Italy from an early date. William Iron Arm built one at an unidentified location (Stridula) in Calabria in 1045. After

3128-656: The Islamic vision of eternal paradise, implying that the Norman Kings were the most eminent representatives of heaven on earth. The ceiling represents the relationship between Mediterranean and Islamic traditions through inscriptions, iconography, and geometry. There are approximately 75 inscriptions serving as invocations of regal power. They are blessings of praise and good wishes for power, prosperity, goodness, health, and beyond. Many of these inscriptions are in Kufic script – emphasizing

3220-630: The Mezzogiorno ;: Sicily 's Norman period lasted from c.  1061 until about 1200. The architecture was decorated in gilded mosaics such as that at the cathedral at Monreale . The Palatine Chapel in Palermo built in 1130 is perhaps the strongest example of this. The interior of the dome , (itself a Byzantine feature), is decorated in a mosaic depicting Christ Pantocrator accompanied by his angels . During Sicily's later Norman era early Gothic influences can be detected such as those in

3312-729: The Norman's victory and new dynasty in Sicily. It was later used as a coronation cloak by the Holy Roman Emperors and is now in the Imperial Treasury (Schatzkammer) in Vienna . The mantle is an example of the Normans' multicultural court and a mark of trade in Palermo. It is a luxury object made from red silk imported from the Byzantine Empire, its outer panels embellished with gold embroidery, pearls, enamel and jewels. The lining panels are separated into five sections made from three separate silks, each woven with gold. The pearls are from

3404-469: The Romanesque style of the Franks. By 950, they were building stone keeps . The Normans were among the most travelled peoples of Europe, exposing them to a wide variety of cultural influences which became incorporated in their art and architecture. They elaborated on the early Christian basilica plan. Their churches were originally longitudinal with side aisles and an apse. They then began to add towers , as at

3496-637: The Three Great Orthodox Church Fathers referred to as the Three Hierarchs, which originated fifty years earlier. Every composition is set within an ornamental frame, not dissimilar to that used in contemporaneous mosaic icons . The rest of the mosaics, dated to the 1160s or the 1170s, are executed in a cruder manner and feature Latin (rather than Greek) inscriptions. Probably a work of local craftsmen, these pieces are more narrative and illustrative than transcendental. A few mosaics have

3588-430: The U.S. on 30 April 2001 in his honor. Roger's first marriage was in 1117 to Elvira , a daughter of King Alfonso VI of Castile . When she died, rumors flew that Roger had died as well, as his grief had made him a recluse. They had six children: Roger's second marriage was in 1149 to Sibylla , daughter of Hugh II, Duke of Burgundy . They had two children: Roger's third marriage was in 1151 to Beatrice of Rethel ,

3680-496: The age of 12. Adelaide continued as regent to her younger son Roger, who was nine. Upon the death in 1105 of his elder brother, Simon of Hauteville, Roger inherited the County of Sicily under the regency of his mother, Adelaide del Vasto. His mother was assisted by such notables as Christodulus , the Greek emir of Palermo . In 1109, Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos bestowed upon him

3772-467: The ancient city was fully integrated into the Norman realm. From there Roger moved to Benevento and northern Apulia, where Duke Ranulf, although steadily losing his bases of power, had some German troops plus some 1,500 knights from the cities of Melfi , Trani , Troia , and Bari, who were "ready to die rather than lead a miserable life". On 30 October 1137, at the Battle of Rignano (next to Monte Gargano ),

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3864-534: The backing of the Republic of Pisa , the Republic of Genoa , and the Byzantine emperor John II , each of whom feared the growth of a powerful Norman kingdom. A Pisan fleet led by the exiled prince of Capua dropped anchor off Naples in 1135. Ranulf joined Robert and Sergius there, encouraged by news coming from Sicily that Roger was fatally ill or even already dead. The important fortress of Aversa , among others, passed to

3956-492: The basis for the Sicilian silk industry. George capped the expedition with a sack of Corinth , in which the relics of Saint Theodore were stolen, and then returned to Sicily. In 1149, however, Corfu was retaken. George went on a punitive expedition against Constantinople, but could not land and instead defied the Byzantine emperor by firing arrows against the palace windows. Despite this act, his expedition left no enduring effects. Roger died at Palermo on 26 February 1154 and

4048-548: The ceiling, the drum, and the dome. The shimmering mosaics of the transept , presumably dating from the 1140s and attributed to Byzantine artists, with an illustrated scene, along the north wall, of St. John in the desert and a landscape of Agnus Dei . Below this are five saints, the Greek fathers of the church, St. Gregory of Nissa, St. Gregory the Theologian, St. Basil, St. John Chrysostom and St. Nicholas. The three central figures, St. Gregory, St. Basil, and St. John Chrysostom, are

4140-597: The centre of the Mediterranean favored trade with Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. Its primary export was durum wheat ; others included foods like cheese and vine fruits. Unlike other states, Sicily also had a strong political and military standing, so its merchants were supported and to some extent protected. This standing allowed for an increase in internal trade and a stronger market, which led to noticeable developments in agriculture. Roger had now become one of

4232-546: The chancellor Robert of Selby , while even the Byzantine emperor John II Comnenus sent subsidies to Lothair. Salerno surrendered, and the large army of Germans and Normans marched to the very south of Apulia. There, in June 1137, Lothair besieged and took Bari . At San Severino , after the victorious campaign, he and the pope jointly invested Ranulf as Duke of Apulia in August 1137, and the emperor then retired to Germany. Roger, freed from

4324-503: The city avoided being sacked. Roger's execution of the prince and his counsellors was perhaps the most violent act of his life. While his sons overcame pockets of resistance on the mainland, on 5 November 1139 Roger returned to Palermo to plan a great act of legislation: the Assizes of Ariano , an attempt to establish his dominions in southern Italy as a coherent state. He returned to check on his sons' progress in 1140 and then went to Ariano ,

4416-526: The city, Roger was unable to take it, and returned to Messina late in the year. In 1136, the long-awaited imperial army, led by Lothair and the Duke of Bavaria , Henry the Proud , descended the peninsula to support the three rebels. Henry, Robert, and Ranulf took a large contingent of troops to besiege the peninsular capital of the kingdom, Salerno . Roger remained in Sicily, leaving its mainland garrisons helpless under

4508-693: The complex local politics, where Lombards were fighting against the Byzantine Empire . As mercenaries they fought the enemies of the Italian city-states, sometimes fighting for the Byzantines and sometimes against them, but in the following century they gradually became the rulers of the major polities south of Rome. Roger I ruled the County of Sicily at the time of the birth of his youngest son, Roger, at Mileto , Calabria , in 1095. Roger I's nephew, Roger Borsa ,

4600-493: The concentrated spaces of capitals and round doorways as well as the tympanum under an arch. The "Norman arch" is the rounded, often with mouldings carved or incised onto it for decoration. chevron patterns , frequently termed "zig-zag mouldings ", were a frequent signature of the Normans. The cruciform churches often had deep chancels and a square crossing tower which has remained a feature of English ecclesiastical architecture . Hundreds of parish churches were built and

4692-491: The converted Moor, Zaida, who was baptized with the name of Isabella. In 1122, Duke William II of Apulia , who was fighting with Count Jordan of Ariano , offered to renounce his remaining claims to Sicily as well as part of Calabria . Roger, in exchange, provided William with 600 knights and access to money for his campaign. When William II of Apulia died childless in July 1127, Roger claimed all Hauteville family possessions in

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4784-462: The court of King Macbeth around 1050. His successor Máel Coluim III overthrew him with English and Norman assistance, and his queen, Margaret , encouraged the church. The Benedictine order founded a monastery at Dunfermline . Her sixth and youngest son, who became King David , built St. Margaret's Chapel at the start of the 12th century. The Normans first landed in Ireland in 1169. Within five years earthwork castles were springing up, and in

4876-537: The death of Robert Guiscard in 1085, the Mezzogiorno (peninsular southern Italy) experienced a series of civil wars and fell under the control of increasingly weaker princes. Revolts characterised the region until well into the twelfth century and minor lords sought to resist ducal or royal power from within their own castles. In the Molise , the Normans embarked on their most extensive castle-building programme and introduced

4968-474: The decision to make the throne room and chapel equal in the main part of the Cappella Palatina in order to send a message to the papacy and other rulers of Europe that he was going to stay in Sicily, and there was nothing they could do about it. 38°06′39″N 13°21′13″E  /  38.11083°N 13.35361°E  / 38.11083; 13.35361 Roger II of Sicily Roger II or Roger

5060-603: The dome consists of the Pantokrator , with rows of angels, prophets, evangelists and saints. The Byzantine motif ends abruptly with scenes from Christ's life along the south wall of the southern transept arm, while the north wall consists of warrior saints. Slobodan Ćurčić considers the Palatine Cappella a reflection of Middle Byzantine art. Illustrating architectural and artistic genius to juxtapose Sicily's "melting pot" culture. According to European historians, Roger II made

5152-436: The economic standing of Sicily and southern Italy . He was "very concerned to gain money, but hardly very prodigal in expending it". In 1140 at his assembly at Ariano he introduced new coinage including smaller denominations, to facilitate trade with the rest of the Mediterranean. However, although this new coinage made long-distance trade easier, it was detrimental to local trade, which spread "hatred throughout Italy". By

5244-481: The exact center of the south muqarnas , there are two paintings of crowned rulers. One of these is Roger II. There are also some Christian scenes on the muqarnas , but they portray everyday life situations not necessarily religious ones. In addition, the muqarnas celebrate battles, hunts, and all sorts of animals including elephants, deer, ibexes, gazelles, and antelopes. In Arab literature, animals serve as metaphors and possess layered meanings. The Cappella Palatina

5336-499: The exterior roof with more wood. The chapel combines harmoniously a variety of styles: the Norman architecture and door decor, the Arabic arches and ceiling designs and script adorning the roof, the Byzantine dome and mosaics. For instance, clusters of four eight-pointed stars , typical for Muslim design, are arranged on the ceiling so as to form a Christian cross . The Cappella Palatina

5428-498: The first Romanesque building in England, Westminster Abbey . In 1051 he brought in Norman knights who built "motte" castles as a defence against the Welsh. Following the invasion, Normans rapidly constructed motte-and-bailey castles along with churches, abbeys , and more elaborate fortifications such as Norman stone keeps . The buildings show massive proportions in simple geometries using small bands of sculpture. Paying attention to

5520-406: The fulfillment of desires and hopes, the pleasure of days and nights, without cease or change, of glory, devotion, preservation of protection, luck, salvation, victory and capability, in the capital of Sicily, in the year 528 H. [1133–1134]" This mantle was made to promote status, bring the wearer good fortune, and to emphasize Roger II's regal power. In addition to its lavish decoration and color,

5612-474: The great English cathedrals were founded from 1083. After a fire damaged Canterbury Cathedral in 1174 Norman masons introduced the new Gothic architecture . Around 1191 Wells Cathedral and Lincoln Cathedral brought in the English Gothic style, and Norman became increasingly a modest style of provincial building. Bibliography Scotland also came under early Norman influence with Norman nobles at

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5704-551: The greatest kings in Europe. At Palermo, he gathered round him distinguished men from a variety of ethnicities and cultures, such as the famous Arab geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi and the Byzantine Greek historian Nilus Doxopatrius or Neilos Doxapatres . Sicily, in the center of the Mediterranean and a natural stopping point for people traveling across it, had been run by several different groups in its history, and Roger welcomed

5796-412: The leading theory is that the Fatimids are the originators of the Sicilian muqarnas , but there is a lack of tangible evidence. At the most, there is some written correspondence between Norman Palermo and the Fatimids, but this does not mention artisans or trading of styles. Therefore, the origins of muqarnas in Sicily are still unclear. The muqarnas ceiling surmounts the three-aisled basilica hall in

5888-552: The learned and practiced tolerance toward the several religions, ethnicities and languages of his realm. To administer his domain he hired many Greeks and Arabs , who were trained in long-established traditions of centralized government. He was served by men of several nationalities, such as the Englishman Thomas Brun , a kaid of the Curia , and in the fleet by two Greeks, first Christodulus and then George of Antioch , whom he made in 1132 ammiratus ammiratorum or "Emir of Emirs", in effect prime vizier . (This title later became

5980-405: The mantle uses striking imagery to convey Roger II's power and victory over the previous dynasty. In a scene evoking domination through primal violence, two lions, a heraldic symbol of a powerful, male ruler, each attack a camel, addorsed on either side of a central palm tree. The lions are stylized rather than realistically portrayed. There are also evocations of the cosmos and constellations in

6072-456: The mouth of the river Seine in Normandy in 911, at a time when Franks were fighting on horseback and Frankish lords were building castles. Over the next century the population of the territory ceded to the Vikings (now called Normans ) adopted these customs as well as Christianity and the langue d'oïl . Norman barons built timber castles on earthen mounds, beginning the development of motte-and-bailey castles , and great stone churches in

6164-417: The nave in the north and South. These outlines are accompanied by oval medallions and cartouches.  In the East and West, the decoration is similar to the muqarnas ceiling but is missing some molding for the borders of the ceiling. As an expression of Norman culture, St. Dionysius and St. Martin are represented in the sanctuary. Mosaics are of Byzantine culture in their composition and subjects. The apex of

6256-478: The nave. The main features of the ceiling are 20 eight-pointed stars which are formed by overlaying two squares rotated at 45-degree angles. These stars are inscribed within octagons separated by rhomboidal bosses. Smaller octagonal eight-pointed sears are placed between the stars and frame. There is an interplay of spatial volumes and planes with bold structural outlines that bend and manipulate light. The muqarnas serve no structural purpose; they are suspended beneath

6348-702: The peninsula as well as the overlordship of the Principality of Capua , which had been nominally given to Apulia almost thirty years earlier. However, the union of Sicily and Apulia was resisted by Pope Honorius II and by the subjects of the duchy itself. The popes had long been suspicious of the growth of Norman power in southern Italy, and at Capua in December, the pope preached a crusade against Roger, setting Robert II of Capua and Ranulf II of Alife (his own brother-in-law) against him. After this coalition failed, in August 1128 Honorius invested Roger at Benevento as Duke of Apulia. The baronial resistance, backed by Naples , Bari , Salerno , and other cities whose aim

6440-473: The potential Fatimid origins who used this script. The inscriptions were hard to read because of the overlying art and intricate geometry of the muqarnas . However, viewers could discern a word or two that could trigger a verse from the Quran. The iconography of muqarnas continues to emphasize the idea of paradise in heaven and on Earth. The images refer to the pleasures and habits in the king’s court. There are hunters, drinkers, dancers, and musicians adorning

6532-549: The precise intent of avoiding a pitched battle and of dispersing Ranulf's army with a series of marches through difficult terrain. While the Count of Alife hesitated, Roger, now supported by Benevento, destroyed all the rebels' castles in the region, capturing an immense booty. In April 1139, at the Second Council of the Lateran, Innocent II declared Roger excommunicated. Ranulf himself, who had taken refuge in his capital Troia, died of malarial fever on 30 April 1139. Roger exhumed his body from his grave in Troia cathedral and threw it in

6624-516: The rebels and only Capua resisted, under the royal chancellor, Guarin . On 5 June, however, Roger disembarked in Salerno, much to the surprise of all the mainland provinces. The royal army, split into several forces, easily conquered Aversa and even Alife, the base of the natural rebel leader, Ranulf. Most of the rebels took refuge in Naples , which was besieged in July, but despite poor health conditions within

6716-595: The restitution of both wife and countship. Both were denied, and Ranulf left Rome against orders, with Robert following. First Roger dealt with a rebellion in Apulia, where he defeated and deposed Grimoald, Prince of Bari , replacing him with his second son Tancred . Meanwhile, Robert and Ranulf took papal Benevento . Roger went to meet them but was defeated at the Battle of Nocera on 25 July 1132. He retreated to Salerno. The next year, Lothair III came down to Rome for his imperial coronation. The rebel leaders met him there, but they were refused help because Lothair's force

6808-472: The royal throne sets against the west wall of the nave. There are six steps leading up to where the throne would be, along with two heraldic lions in two roundels upon the spandrels over the throne frame gable. Part of the nave of the Cappella Palatina The nave had different forms of decoration from the north and south to the east and west. Intricate lacing from the ceiling mold outline the arches of

6900-561: The shrine at Monte Sant'Angelo and built a mausoleum to the Hauteville family at Venosa . They also built many new Latin monasteries, including the famous foundation of Sant'Eufemia Lamezia . Other examples of great importance are the portal of the Shrine of Mary Queen of Anglona and the ambulatory and radiating chapels of the Aversa Cathedral . Here is a list of Norman architecture in

6992-491: The star shapes on the lions' heads. The mantle's pan-Mediterranean influence is brought out in the materials used to create it, the way it was made, and its design. Roger's backing of Anacletus plunged him into a ten-year war. Bernard of Clairvaux , Innocent's champion, organized a coalition against Anacletus and his "half-heathen king". He was joined by Louis VI of France , Henry I of England , and Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor . Meanwhile, southern Italy revolted. In 1130,

7084-647: The style. These Romanesque styles originated in Normandy and became widespread in northwestern Europe, particularly in England, which contributed considerable development and where the largest number of examples survived. At about the same time, a Norman dynasty that ruled in Sicily produced a distinctive variation–incorporating Byzantine and Saracen influences–also known as Norman architecture (or alternatively Sicilian Romanesque). The term Norman may have originated with eighteenth-century antiquarians , but its usage in

7176-619: The tax burden of the imperial government), welcoming the Normans as their liberators. Leaving a garrison of 1,000 men, George sailed on to the Peloponnesus . He sacked Athens and quickly moved on to the Aegean Islands . He ravaged the coast all along Euboea and the Gulf of Corinth and penetrated as far as Thebes , where he pillaged the silk factories and carried off the damask, brocade, and silk weavers, taking them back to Palermo where they formed

7268-639: The title of protonobilissimos in recognition of his knowledge of the Byzantine court. In the summer of 1110, Roger was visited by the Norwegian king Sigurd the Crusader , who was on his way to Jerusalem . The story in Icelandic sources suggests that Sigurd called Roger the king of Sicily twenty years before the latter actually obtained this title. In 1112, at the age of sixteen, Roger began his personal rule, being named "now knight, now count of Sicily and Calabria" in

7360-594: The utmost danger, immediately disembarked in Calabria, at Tropea , with 400 knights and other troops, probably mostly Muslims . After having been welcomed by the Salernitans, he recovered ground in Campania , sacking Pozzuoli , Alife, Capua, and Avellino. Sergius was forced to acknowledge him as overlord of Naples and switch his allegiance to Anacletus. This moment marked the fall of an independent Neapolitan duchy, and thereafter

7452-409: The wall. Interestingly, the images on the ceiling do not create any coherent narrative. On the muqarnas ceiling’s eastern end, there is an image of revelers singing, dancing, and drinking. These appear to be part of a banquet honoring the patrons of the royal chapel. These individuals are carrying special drinking chalices which appear all over the muqarnas. Then, on the 3rd register on either side of

7544-452: The western part of the building. The ceiling represents the cultural diversity of Roger II’s kingdom and his ability to unify the land around him. Some scholars also claim that Roger had the ceiling constructed of wood to allude to Solomon’s palace in Jerusalem, therefore claiming a divine right to rule. The iconography helps reinforce Roger and the Norman dynasty’s royalty. The art is related to

7636-521: The years (especially after the 1693 Sicily earthquake which destroyed many old Norman buildings), however some fortresses and houses still exist in Mdina and Vittoriosa . As master masons developed the style and experimented with ways of overcoming the geometric difficulties of groin vaulted ceilings, they introduced features such as the pointed arch that were later characterised as being Gothic in style. Architectural historians and scholars consider that

7728-462: The younger Roger and his father, with Sergius of Naples, met the defensive army of Duke Ranulf. It was the greatest defeat of Roger II's career. Sergius died and Roger fled to Salerno. It capped Ranulf's meteoric career: twice victor over Roger. Anacletus II died in January 1138, but Innocent II refused to reconcile with the king. In spring 1138, the royal army invaded the Principality of Capua , with

7820-454: Was a crown, and, on 27 September 1130, Anacletus' papal bull made Roger king of Sicily. He was crowned in Palermo on Christmas Day 1130. Roger II's elaborate royal mantle bears the year 528 of the Islamic calendar (1133–34); therefore it could not have been used for his coronation. This lavish item, made for special events to show power and regality, was most likely worn as a symbol of

7912-501: Was buried in the Cathedral of Palermo . He was succeeded by his fourth son, William . Roger is the subject of King Roger , a 1926 opera by Polish composer Karol Szymanowski . The last months of his life are also featured in Tariq Ali 's book A Sultan in Palermo . Studiorum Universitas Ruggero II, a private non-traditional university connected to Accademia Normanna was incorporated in

8004-462: Was captured in 1146 and Cape Bona in 1148. These conquests were lost in the reign of Roger's successor William, however, and never formed an integral part of the kingdom in southern Italy. The Second Crusade (1147–1148) offered Roger an opportunity to revive attacks on the Byzantine Empire , the traditional Norman enemy to the East. It also afforded him an opportunity, through the agency of Theodwin ,

8096-464: Was civic freedom, gave way. In September 1129 Roger was generally recognized as duke of Apulia by Sergius VII of Naples , Robert of Capua, and the rest. He began at once to enforce order in the duchy, where ducal power had long been fading. On the death of Pope Honorius in February 1130 there were two claimants to the papal throne. Roger supported Antipope Anacletus II against Innocent II . The reward

8188-498: Was decorated with gold, pearls, porphyry, silk and marble. The chapel has been considered a union of a Byzantine church sanctuary and a Western basilica nave. The sanctuary, is of an "Eastern" artistic nature, while the nave reflects "Western" influences. The nave, constructed under Roger II, did not contain any Christian images. These were added later by Roger II's successors, William I and William II . The nave's ceiling consists of Arab, Greek and Latin inscriptions. The frame for

8280-560: Was likely imported from elsewhere. Scholars are not confident about where this art derives from, but theories range from North Africa, Egypt, Syria, Persia or even locally. Some call upon the similarities between Zirid architecture fragments from the Qal’a Beni Hammad in Algeria and the Cappella Palatina roofs as examples of North African roots. There are also muqarnas in Tunisia that resemble

8372-596: Was the Duke of Apulia and Calabria , and his great nephew, Richard II of Capua , was the Prince of Capua . Alongside these three major rulers were a large number of minor counts , who effectively exercised sovereign power in their own localities. These counts at least nominally owed allegiance to one of these three Norman rulers, but such allegiance was usually weak and often ignored. When Roger I died in 1101, his young son Simon became count, with his mother Adelaide del Vasto as regent . Simon died four years later in 1105 at

8464-453: Was too small. With the emperor's departure, divisions in his opponents' ranks allowed Roger to reverse his fortunes. By July 1134, his troops had forced Ranulf, Sergius, and the other ringleaders to submit. Robert was expelled from Capua and Roger installed his third son, Alfonso of Hauteville , as Prince of Capua. Roger II's eldest son Roger was given the title of Duke of Apulia. Meanwhile, Lothair's contemplated attack upon Roger had gained

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