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101-690: India Pakistan Afghanistan Vadda Ghalughara ( Punjabi : ਵੱਡਾ ਘੱਲੂਘਾਰਾ Punjabi pronunciation: [ʋəɖɖäː kəl˨luːkäː˨ɾäː] ; alternatively spelt as Wadda Ghalughara ) was the mass murder of Sikhs by the Afghan forces of the Durrani Empire during the years of Afghan influence in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent owing to the repeated incursions of Ahmad Shah Durrani in February 1762. It

202-535: A mun of 34 + 3 ⁄ 4  lb. av. (15.75 kg). One Koni was 4 muns. However, in yet another section of the Ain-i-Akbari , the dam is said to be "twenty mashas seven ruttees ": using this definition would imply an Imperial mass of about 47 lb. av. (21.3 kg) for the mun . Between these two values, the maund in Central India was often found to be around 40 lb. av. (18 kg) in

303-577: A dry stalk of grass". Charat Singh managed to wound Buland Khan in the ensuing fight. After doing so, Jahan Khan managed to wound Charat Singh but then Jassa Singh Ahluwalia managed to strike a wound on Jahan Khan. Bhangu recounts that many enemy cavalrymen were killed but their mounts remained living, so these horses were captured and used by the Sikhs in their defence. Wazir Shah Wali Khan wielded an army of 4,000 cavalry warriors whilst Zain Khan Sirhindi had

404-531: A force of 4,000 mounted archers . Zain Khan was also accompanied by Dewan Lachhmi Narayan. Some Sikhs surrendered during the hostilities in the Kup-Rahira region and were subsequently arrested. The reunited vahir convoy and their Dal Khalsa protectors held their ground more-or-less for an hour and a half from the harassing forces of their nemeses. However, Abdali then sent two armed contingents of his army to attack

505-399: A greater threat than he had previously and he began thinking that he needed to wipe out the Sikhs from Punjab in-order to firmly establish Afghani control over the territory. From June to September of 1761, the Sikhs had routed the forces of the faujdar of Jalandhar . The Sikhs proceeded to loot Sirhind and Malerkotla. After routing Afghan forces, they also briefly captured and occupied

606-498: A hen covers its chickens under its wings." More than once, the troops of the invader broke the cordon and mercilessly butchered the women, children and elderly inside, but each time the Sikh warriors regrouped and managed to push back the attackers. At some point during the trek, a major breakthrough of the cordon was achieved by the Afghan forces, where they proceeded to slaughter thousands upon thousands of Sikhs. The slaughter of Sikhs by

707-401: A joint-operation against the Sikhs. Jahan Khan, commander of Sirhind, was also present at Malerkotla at this time. When the Afghan leader came to know of the whereabouts of the Sikhs he sent word ahead to his allies, Zain Khan ( faujdar of Sirhind) and Bikhan Khan (chief or nawab of Malerkotla ) to stop their advance. Abdali instructed Zain Khan to attack the Sikhs with his forces from

808-572: A liberal approach. Through Persian, Punjabi also absorbed many Arabic-derived words like dukān , ġazal and more, as well as Turkic words like qēncī , sōġāt , etc. After the fall of the Sikh empire , Urdu was made the official language of Punjab under the British (in Pakistani Punjab , it is still the primary official language) and influenced the language as well. In the second millennium , Punjabi

909-454: A piece of land near Patti. This truce did not last long as in the next Afghan invasion the artillery of Lahore attacked the Sikhs of Dal Khalsa under Sukha Singh. The Sikh army left promptly after this attack, which led to the eventual defeat and fall of Lahore to Durrani. Kaura Mall was also eventually murdered by Adina Beg at the hands of a Pathan in the battle against the Afghans in 1752. Lahore

1010-405: A pitched battle, came to learn of the carnage enacted upon their kin and decided to send a jatha under the command of Sham Singh Karorsinghia , Karo Singh, Karam Singh, Nahar Singh, and some other sardars to assist the vāhir . The jatha was able to repel the armies of Zain Khan Sirhindi and Bikhan Khan temporarily and the convoy continued its journey to Barnala. They also managed to free

1111-569: A short distance from Malerkotla. This region was known as the juh (uncultivated, waste or open land used as a pasture). Dehlon was a Sikh-populated village at that time and the surrounding area consisted of a landscape of sand dunes and heavy forrestation. There was a large and dense jungle located near Gurm in-which the Sikhs took shelter within. Bikhan Khan, ruler of Malerkotla State, discovered that Sikh forces and their families were taking shelter in villages surrounding his city, to which he alerted Abdali about and reached out to Zain Khan for

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1212-427: A square silver rupee coin issued by Akbar, was said by the Ain-i-Akbari to be 11 + 1 ⁄ 4   mashas in weight: surviving jilály and other Mughal rupee coins weigh 170–175  Troy grains (11.02–11.34 g), so the masha , defined as eight ruttees , would be about 15 + 1 ⁄ 2  grains (1 g). Masha weights sent back to London in 1819 agree with this value. This basis gives

1313-706: A word will be pronounced, and vice versa. Tone is often reduced or rarely deleted when words are said with emphasis or on their own as a form of more exact identification. Sequences with the consonant h have some additional gimmicks: The consonant h on its own is now silent or very weakly pronounced except word-initially. However, certain dialects which exert stronger tone, particularly more northern Punjabi varieties and Dogri , pronounce h as very faint (thus tonal) in all cases. E.g. hatth > àtth . The Jhangvi and Shahpuri dialects of Punjabi (as they transition into Saraiki ) show comparatively less realisation of tone than other Punjabi varieties, and do not induce

1414-534: Is 40 kg. In Nepal's southern plains one Mann equals 40 kilograms and is generally used to measure agricultural output. The Old English, 'maund' may also be the origin of Maundy Thursday. As a verb, 'maund' : to beg; as a noun, 'a maund' : a small basket held out for alms. During the reign of Alauddin Khalji of the Delhi Sultanate , 1 mann was roughly equivalent to 15 kg. Prinsep (1840) summarizes

1515-482: Is a tendency with speakers to insert /ɪ̯/ between adjacent "a"-vowels as a separator. This usually changes to /ʊ̯/ if either vowel is nasalised. Note: for the tonal stops, refer to the next section about Tone. The three retroflex consonants /ɳ, ɽ, ɭ/ do not occur initially, and the nasals [ŋ, ɲ] most commonly occur as allophones of /n/ in clusters with velars and palatals (there are few exceptions). The well-established phoneme /ʃ/ may be realised allophonically as

1616-436: Is always written as نگ . Like Hindustani , the diphthongs /əɪ/ and /əʊ/ have mostly disappeared, but are still retained in some dialects. Phonotactically , long vowels /aː, iː, uː/ are treated as doubles of their short vowel counterparts /ə, ɪ, ʊ/ rather than separate phonemes. Hence, diphthongs like ai and au get monophthongised into /eː/ and /oː/, and āi and āu into /ɛː/ and /ɔː/ respectively. The phoneme /j/

1717-748: Is defined physiographically by the Indus River and these five tributaries . One of the five, the Beas River , is a tributary of another, the Sutlej . Punjabi developed from Prakrit languages and later Apabhraṃśa ( Sanskrit : अपभ्रंश , 'deviated' or 'non-grammatical speech') From 600 BC, Sanskrit developed as the standard literary and administrative language and Prakrit languages evolved into many regional languages in different parts of India. All these languages are called Prakrit languages (Sanskrit: प्राकृत , prākṛta ) collectively. Paishachi Prakrit

1818-528: Is distinguished from the Chhota Ghalughara (the Smaller Massacre). Mostly non-combatants were killed in the event, and an estimated that 10,000 to 50,000 Sikhs were killed on 5 February 1762. The Vadda Ghalūghārā was a dramatic and bloody massacre during the campaign of Afghanistan's ( Durrani Empire ) provincial government based at Lahore to wipe out the Sikhs, an offensive that had begun with

1919-561: Is identical to the Urdu alphabet , however various attempts have been made to create certain, distinct characters from a modification of the Persian Nastaʿlīq characters to represent Punjabi phonology , not already found in the Urdu alphabet . In Pakistan, Punjabi loans technical words from Persian and Arabic , just like Urdu does. Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan ,

2020-451: Is termed 'Old Punjabi', whilst the stage between the 16th and 19th centuries is termed as 'Medieval Punjabi'. The Arabic and Modern Persian influence in the historical Punjab region began with the late first millennium Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent . Since then, many Persian words have been incorporated into Punjabi (such as zamīn , śahir etc.) and are used with

2121-502: Is very fluid in Punjabi. /j/ is only truly pronounced word-initially (even then it often becomes /d͡ʒ/), where it is otherwise /ɪ/ or /i/. Unusually for an Indo-Aryan language, Punjabi distinguishes lexical tones . Three tones are distinguished in Punjabi (some sources have described these as tone contours, given in parentheses): low (high-falling), high (low-rising), and level (neutral or middle). The transcriptions and tone annotations in

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2222-666: Is widely used in the TV and entertainment industry of Pakistan, which is mainly produced in Lahore . The Standard Punjabi used in India and Pakistan have slight differences. In India, it discludes many of the dialect-specific features of Majhi. In Pakistan, the standard is closer to the Majhi spoken in the urban parts of Lahore. "Eastern Punjabi" refers to the varieties of Punjabi spoken in Pakistani Punjab (specifically Northern Punjabi), most of Indian Punjab ,

2323-557: Is written using the Gurmukhi alphabet , based on the Indic scripts . Punjabi is unusual among the Indo-Aryan languages and the broader Indo-European language family in its usage of lexical tone . The word Punjabi (sometimes spelled Panjabi ) has been derived from the word Panj-āb , Persian for 'Five Waters', referring to the five major eastern tributaries of the Indus River . The name of

2424-721: The 2023 Pakistani census , and the 11th most widely-spoken in India, with 31.1 million native speakers, according to the 2011 census . It is spoken among a significant overseas diaspora , particularly in Canada , the United Kingdom , the United States , Australia , and the Gulf states . In Pakistan, Punjabi is written using the Shahmukhi alphabet , based on the Perso-Arabic script ; in India, it

2525-588: The Ain-i-Akbari that defines the mun also defines the dam as five tanks . A separate section defines the tank as twenty-four ruttees . However, by the 19th century, the tank was no longer a uniform unit across the former Mughal territories: Prinsep quotes values of 50 grains (3.24 g) in Darwar , 72 grains (4.67 g) in Bombay and 268 grains (17.37 g) in Ahmednugur . The jilály ,

2626-505: The Dal Khalsa forces decided to enact the same methods used in the earlier Chotta Ghalughara , where 2½ gash steps were used to tackle the army. The tactic is as follows: first gash attacks the opposing force quickly when the hostile forces are under full control, second gash consists of a quick withdrawal, and the half gash was essentially to die in battle rather than being captured by your opponent. Sukhdial Singh surreally describes

2727-515: The East India Company survey of 1821. A Maund was 55.5 British pounds mass under Akbar. The maund of India may as a genus be divided into four different species : There are, however many other varieties of maund, from 15 to 64 seers in weight; which it is unnecessary to particularize. Prinsep's values for the maund come from a survey organized by the East India Company in 1821. The Company's agents were asked to send back examples of

2828-461: The Hazara region , most of Azad Kashmir and small parts of Indian Punjab such as Fazilka . These include groups of dialects like Saraiki , Pahari-Pothwari , Hindko and the extinct Inku ; common dialects like Jhangvi , Shahpuri , Dhanni and Thali which are usually grouped under the term Jatki Punjabi; and the mixed variety of Punjabi and Sindhi called Khetrani . Depending on context,

2929-732: The Majha region of the Punjab. In India , Punjabi is written in the Gurmukhī script in offices, schools, and media. Gurmukhi is the official standard script for Punjabi, though it is often unofficially written in the Latin scripts due to influence from English , one of India's two primary official languages at the Union -level. In Pakistan, Punjabi is generally written using the Shahmukhī script, which in literary standards,

3030-457: The Nath Yogi -era from 9th to 14th century. The language of these compositions is morphologically closer to Shauraseni Apbhramsa , though vocabulary and rhythm is surcharged with extreme colloquialism and folklore. Writing in 1317–1318, Amir Khusrau referred to the language spoken by locals around the area of Lahore as Lahauri . The precursor stage of Punjabi between the 10th and 16th centuries

3131-413: The h consonant itself and any voiced consonants appended with [h] (Gurmukhi: ੍ਹ "perī̃ hāhā" , Shahmukhi: ھ "dō-caśmī hē" ); usually ṛh , mh , nh , rh and lh . The five tonal plosives also become voiceless word-initially. E.g. ghar > kàr "house", ḍhōl > ṭṑl "drum" etc. Tonogenesis in Punjabi forfeits the sound of [h] for tone. Thus, the more [h] is realised, the less "tonal"

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3232-495: The rohi (uncultivated land) of the Sirhind region. They consisted of 50,000–60,000 able-bodied fighting men (both infantry and cavalry), with the larger remainder being their accompanying families. At Malerkotla, Zain Khan camped out with a force of 10,000–15,000 men, of both infantry and mounted-types, under his command. Eventually Abdali was only within 15–20 kilometres from the main Sikh body. When his army embarked away from

3333-498: The voiceless retroflex fricative [ʂ] in learned clusters with retroflexes. Due to its foreign origin, it is often also realised as [s] , in e.g. shalwār /salᵊ.ʋaːɾᵊ/ . The phonemic status of the consonants /f, z, x, ɣ, q/ varies with familiarity with Hindustani norms, more so with the Gurmukhi script, with the pairs /f, pʰ/ , /z, d͡ʒ/ , /x, kʰ/ , /ɣ, g/ , and /q, k/ systematically distinguished in educated speech, /q/ being

3434-561: The vāhir convoy in the region of Kup-Rahira. Whilst withdrawing from the battlefield near the Sutlej to reunite with the vahir convoy, the Sikh army continued attacking the main force of Abdali even when in retreat, whilst Zain Khan and Bikhan Khan attempted to attack the vahir convoy from the frontward direction. Sukhdial Singh described the actions of the Sikh forces as follows: "... the Dal Khalsa had drifted away Abdali's forces as if they were

3535-447: The vāhir convoy to protect it from enemy attack, and head in the direction of Barnala , which was forty kilometres southwest of their current location. They expected their ally Ala Singh and the guides of his Phulkian Misl to come to their rescue once they arrived near their intended destination. If that failed, they expected to lose their enemy in the parched, waterless, arid areas of Bathinda . As per Tahmas Khan Miskin's account,

3636-714: The 1981 and 2017 censuses respectively, speakers of the Western Punjabi 's Saraiki and Hindko varieties were no longer included in the total numbers for Punjabi, which explains the apparent decrease. Pothwari speakers however are included in the total numbers for Punjabi. Punjabi is the official language of the Indian state of Punjab , and has the status of an additional official language in Haryana and Delhi. Some of its major urban centres in northern India are Amritsar , Ludhiana , Chandigarh , Jalandhar , Ambala , Patiala , Bathinda , Hoshiarpur , Firozpur and Delhi . In

3737-467: The 19th century from the Medieval Punjabi stage. Modern Punjabi has two main varieties, Western Punjabi and Eastern Punjabi , which have many dialects and forms, altogether spoken by over 150 million people. The Majhi dialect , which is transitional between the two main varieties, has been adopted as standard Punjabi in India and Pakistan for education and mass media. The Majhi dialect originated in

3838-666: The 2011 census of India, 31.14 million reported their language as Punjabi. The census publications group this with speakers of related "mother tongues" like Bagri and Bhateali to arrive at the figure of 33.12 million. Punjabi is also spoken as a minority language in several other countries where Punjabi people have emigrated in large numbers, such as the United States, Australia, the United Kingdom, and Canada. There were 670,000 native Punjabi speakers in Canada in 2021, 300,000 in

3939-457: The Afghans brought heavy artillery with them, which the Sikhs completely lacked. It was decided by the Sikhs that they should fight even if they would all perish as a result. The tactic devised was that the Sikh fighters would form a cordon around the slow-moving baggage train ( vāhir ) consisting of women, children and old men. The vāhir began in the villages of Dehlon and Gurm and would travel to Barnala. The Sikh leaders decided to traverse in

4040-435: The Afghans started in the twilight hours and continued until the afternoon. After the incident involving the death of Jassa Singh Ahluwalia's horse, the Sikhs reached the villages of Kutba and Bahmania (both villages are approximately 1½ km apart from each-other), whose local Hindu and Sikh residents had long vacated the localities and only Muslim residents were remaining. The Muslim residents of these places fiercely attacked

4141-460: The Afghans were returning to their native country with the spoils of war, including 2,200 imprisoned unwed Hindu Marathi girls and women. Whilst the Afghans were crossing the Sutlej River, suddenly Sikh forces fell upon them and rescued the captured Marathi women, saving them from their captors, and returning them to their parents and families. The act of valour made Abdali consider the Sikhs as

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4242-633: The Doab. They were as a rule killed with the strokes of wooden hammers." Mir Mannu explicitly ordered his troops to seize and torture the Sikh women and children. The women were seized from their homes and forced to grind grain in prison with the detainees forced to grind about 1.25 maunds of grain (46 kilograms of grain) to grind in a day. According to a Sikh account, "Many of the women were given merciless lashing, working all day exhausted from thirst and hunger, they plied their stone-mills and while they plied their stone-mills they sang their Guru's hymns. The Hindu or

4343-467: The Malwa region, he set about on a rapid march, covering the distance of 240 kilometres (150 mi) and including two river crossings in less than 48 hours. On 4 February, he sent word to Zain Khan that he would arrive tomorrow with his forces and that their two forces should launch a joint attack on the Sikhs in the early morning the following day. At that time, an estimated 150,000 Sikhs had set up bivouac in

4444-574: The Mughals and lasted several decades. In the 18 years following the Chhota Ghalughara , Punjab was roiled with five invasions and had several years of rebellions and civil war. Under these unsettled circumstances, it was difficult for any authority to carry on a campaign of oppression against the Sikhs; instead the Sikhs were often sought and valued as useful allies in the various struggles for power. In these times of relative calm, however, Shah Nawaz,

4545-453: The Muslim, or in fact anyone who saw them and listened to their songs was utterly astonished. As their children, hungry and thirsty, wailed and writhed on the ground for a morsel, the helpless prisoners in the hands of the prisoners could do little except solace them with their affection until wearied from crying the hungry children would go to sleep." Mir Mannu's cruel reign, however, did not stop

4646-456: The Sikhs did not relent their moving convoy towards Barnala, fighting village-to-village along the way. Early 19th century Sikh writer, Rattan Singh Bhangu , records eyewitness testimonies on the events of that day, sourced from his father and uncle who partook in the defence against the Afghans: "... fighting while moving and moving while fighting ... they kept the vahir marching, covering it as

4747-414: The Sikhs form a square formation , with forces of four misls facing the front directly in line with the enemy whilst the forces of two misls would protect the flanks of the convoy and the remainder acting as reserve. Jassa Singh Ahluwalia turned down Charat's suggestion and thought it was better if all the misls united as a single, mobile fighting body against the enemy, with the Sikh warriors cordoned around

4848-563: The Sikhs living at Damdama Sahib , 160 kilometres (99 mi) south of Amritsar, was stirred to action. As the leader of one of the Sikh divisions entrusted with the care of the temple, he felt responsible for the damage that had been done to it and announced his intention of rebuilding the Harmandir Sahib. He set out his forces Sikhs toward the Amritsar and along the way, many other Sikhs joined, eventually numbering about 5,000 when they reached

4949-523: The Sikhs were inside them to burn them alive. Punjabi language Europe North America Oceania Punjabi , sometimes spelled Panjabi , is an Indo-Aryan language native to the Punjab region of Pakistan and India . It is one of the most widely spoken native languages in the world with approximately 150 million native speakers. Punjabi is the most widely-spoken first language in Pakistan, with 88.9 million native speakers according to

5050-592: The Sikhs who numbered about 30,000 at Kup village alone, with most of them noncombatants being women, children, and elderly men. Also present in the group of Sikhs were 11 Misldars (leader of a Misl) of the Sikh Confederacy , including Jassa Singh Ahluwalia of the Ahluwalia Misl and Charat Singh of the Sukerchakia Misl . The officials of the Sikh chiefdoms of the Malwa region were also present. Abdali gave

5151-408: The Sikhs who sought help and shelter from them to escape their slaughter, with the Muslim residents killing many of these pleading Sikhs in the process. Local residents from many villages along the route, such as Qutab-Bahmani and Gahal, attacked the Sikhs who attempted to seek shelter with them as the locals fear retaliation by the Afghans and becoming a target themselves. All the local residents of

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5252-436: The Sikhs, it eventually fell to them. Mir Mannu then stationed detachments of troops in all parts of Punjab with any Sikh inhabitants with orders to capture them and shave their heads and beards. His oppression was such that large numbers of Sikhs moved to relatively inaccessible mountains and forests. The governor ordered the apprehending of Sikhs who were sent in irons to Lahore. Hundreds were thus taken to Lahore and executed in

5353-418: The Sikhs. The army of Shah Wali Khan slew a lot of Sikh non-combatants, with many women and children being taken as prisoners. At-first, a pitched battle ensued in the first phase of hostilities between the Sikh army and Abdali's army near the banks of the Sutlej, whilst the vāhir convoy, consisting of Sikh non-combatants, had distanced themselves 10–12 kilometres from the battlefield and were passing through

5454-439: The Sikhs. The envoys of Aqil met with Abdali at Rohtas when the latter was advancing to begin his sixth invasion, with the goal of annihilating the Sikhs. After coming to learn of the trouble his ally was in, Abdali's forces hurried to Lahore and the next day reached Jandiala to relieve the siege, but by the time they arrived the siege had been lifted and the Sikh besiegers were already gone. The Sikh fighters had retreated with

5555-518: The Singhs decreased this number by killing them? You also have the army of Malle Riya pathans of Lachchmi Narayan. Even then you have not been able to encircle these kafirs [non-believers in God or Islam]. If you can hold them out only for four gharian (two hours) I will finish them all. Without surrounding them, it is not possible to kill them'. Zain Khan then responded: "it is not possible to besiege them from

5656-459: The United Kingdom in 2011, 280,000 in the United States and smaller numbers in other countries. Standard Punjabi (sometimes referred to as Majhi) is the standard form of Punjabi used commonly in education and news broadcasting , and is based on the Majhi dialect . Such as the variety used on Google Translate , Standard Punjabi is also often used in official online services that employ Punjabi. It

5757-565: The United States found no evidence of a separate falling tone following a medial consonant. It is considered that these tones arose when voiced aspirated consonants ( gh, jh, ḍh, dh, bh ) lost their aspiration. In Punjabi, tone is induced by the loss of [h] in tonal consonants. Tonal consonants are any voiced aspirates /ʱ/ and the voiced glottal fricative /ɦ/ . These include the five voiced aspirated plosives bh , dh , ḍh , jh and gh (which are represented by their own letters in Gurmukhi),

5858-409: The captured Sikh women and children abducted by the army of Shah Wali Khan. Shah Wali Khan decided to give-up on capturing the Sikh women and children and the faction of the army he commanded re-joined the main Afghan army. The main Dal Khalsa forced withdrew from the pitched battle near the Sutlej as they now knew their women, children, and elderly were vulnerable to further attacks so they reunited with

5959-559: The city of Lahore. The annual Diwali convening of the Sarbat Khalsa at Amritsar on 27 October 1761 had passed a gurmatta that supporters of the Durranis must be eliminated, beginning with Aqil Das (based in Jandiala), to prepare to establish independence of the region from invading and occupying Afghan forces. After coming to know about this judgement made against him, Aqil Das sought out

6060-419: The convoy and the Sikhs began to slip up in their defence and exposure points opened. Sukhdial Singh describes that when the Sikh armies engaged their enemy one-on-one, they discovered the advancing vahir had left them behind, which made the convoy vulnerable, so they had to catch-up with the convoy and were unable to stay stationary. Eventually, after one hour of heavy combat, the Sikhs were able to repel even

6161-595: The devoicing of the main five tonal consonants ( bh , dh , ḍh , jh , gh ). The Gurmukhi script which was developed in the 16th century has separate letters for voiced aspirated sounds, so it is thought that the change in pronunciation of the consonants and development of tones may have taken place since that time. Some other languages in Pakistan have also been found to have tonal distinctions, including Burushaski , Gujari , Hindko , Kalami , Shina , and Torwali , though these (besides Hindko) seem to be independent of Punjabi. Maund (unit) In British India,

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6262-411: The direction of Barnala because Barnala was Sikh-dominated in population and they would assist in repelling the Afghans. Three Sikhs who were Malwa chieftains, them namely being Bhai Sangu Singh Vakil of Bhai Ke Daraj, Bhai Sekhu Singh of Humblke Waas Wala (official of Ala Singh ) and Bhai Buddha Singh, were chosen to lead the vāhir from the front through the use of large cloths, called a chaadra , at

6363-455: The dock on the Sutlej, they were immediately attacked by Sikhs and a battle ensued. Zain Khan also agitated to attack the SIkhs on early 5 February. The Sikhs came to learn of this design and therefore started marching towards the Sutlej. Zain Khan dispatched a scouting party to follow the Sikhs, consisting of Kasim Khan and Tahmas Khan Miskin, the latter giving this account in his writing: "I

6464-462: The eleventh-most widely spoken in India , and also present in the Punjabi diaspora in various countries. Approximate distribution of native Punjabi speakers (inc. Lahndic dialects ) (assuming a rounded total of 157 million) worldwide. Punjabi is the most widely spoken language in Pakistan , being the native language of 88.9 million people, or approximately 37% of the country's population. Beginning with

6565-516: The evidence as to the weight of the mun (later "maund") during the reign (1556–1605) of Akbar the Great , which comes from the Ain-i-Akbari written by the vizier Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak (anglicized as "Abul Fuzl"). The principal definition is that the mun is forty seers ; and that each seer is thirty dams . The problem arises in assigning the values of the smaller units. The section of

6666-480: The examples below are based on those provided in Punjabi University, Patiala 's Punjabi-English Dictionary . Level tone is found in about 75% of words and is described by some as absence of tone. There are also some words which are said to have rising tone in the first syllable and falling in the second. (Some writers describe this as a fourth tone.) However, a recent acoustic study of six Punjabi speakers in

6767-418: The far-north of Rajasthan and on the northwestern border of Haryana . It includes the dialects of Majhi , Malwai , Doabi , Puadhi and the extinct Lubanki . Sometimes, Dogri and Kangri are grouped into this category. "Western Punjabi" or "Lahnda" ( لہندا , lit.   ' western ' ) is the name given to the diverse group of Punjabi varieties spoken in the majority of Pakistani Punjab ,

6868-431: The front whilst Abdali would attack them from the rear. The attacks of Zain and Bikhan against the Sikhs were ineffective but the main force of Abdali was yet to arrive on the scene. Abdali further gave orders to Zain Khan that his troops, who were local Indians, should hang green leaves from their turbans to distinguish themselves from the Sikhs to prevent friendly-fire . Durrani departed on 3 February from Lahore to reach

6969-406: The front. To look at they seem very few but I don't know why during the fight they seem too many". Zain Khan then advised Abdali to also attack the vahir convoy from the frontward direction, which the latter started doing. Abdali would attack the Sikh convoy from the front whilst the vahir traversed a distance of six kilometres. Charat Singh Sukerchakia was managing the defence of the convoy from

7070-402: The frontward direction and came face-to-face with the army of Abdali. At some point, Jassa Singh Ahluwalia's own horse was slain by the enemy so he had to take the horse of another fellow Sikh. This led to Sikh warriors going backward to protect the life of Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, who was in a vulnerable position. Abdali wanted to halt the Sikh mobility and fight them in a pitched battle but

7171-432: The governor at Lahore in 1747 and his Afghan allies resumed their genocidal campaigns against the Sikhs. This period was characterised by the desecration of Sikh places of worship and the organised capture, torture and merciless execution of tens of thousands of Sikh men, women and children. Mir Mannu (Mu'in ul-Mulk) became governor of Lahore and the surrounding provinces in 1748 and, continued to hold that position for

7272-426: The gunmen to the task of chastising the Sikhs. They ran after these wretches up to 67 kilometers (42 mi) a day and slew them wherever they stood up to oppose them. Anybody who brought a Sikh head received a reward of ten rupees per head." According to that same account: "The Sikhs who were captured alive were sent to hell by being beaten with wooden mallets. At times, Adina Beg Khan sent 40 to 50 Sikh captives from

7373-404: The help of Abdali. Another decision passed in the gurmatta was that Sikhs should take Lahore and occupy it. Sikhs shortly after would attack Lahore. During this attack the local ruler of Lahore, Ubaid Khan, locked himself in the fort of the city to avoid the Sikhs. This allowed the Sikh forces to take control of the outer areas of the city. Nawab Kapur Singh then placed Jassa Singh Ahluwalia on

7474-425: The horse market before crowds of onlookers. According to the historian Nur Ahmed Chishti, Mir Mannu ordered the execution of more than 1,100 Sikhs at the horse market of Shahidganj during Eid . Partly through the influence of his Hindu minister, Kaura Mall, who was sympathetic to the Sikhs, and partly because of the threat of another Afghan invasion, Mir Mannu made peace with the Sikhs the next year. They were granted

7575-619: The latter three arise natively. Later, the letters ਜ਼ / ز , ਸ਼ / ش and ਫ਼ / ف began being used in English borrowings, with ਸ਼ / ش also used in Sanskrit borrowings . Punjabi has also had minor influence from and on neighbouring languages such as Sindhi , Haryanvi , Pashto and Hindustani . Note: In more formal contexts, hypercorrect Sanskritized versions of these words (ਪ੍ਰਧਾਨ pradhān for ਪਰਧਾਨ pardhān and ਪਰਿਵਾਰ parivār for ਪਰਵਾਰ parvār ) may be used. Modern Punjabi emerged in

7676-622: The maund was first standardized in the Bengal Presidency in 1833, where it was set equal to 100  Troy pounds (82.28  lbs. av. ). This standard spread throughout the British Raj . After the independence of India and Pakistan , the definition formed the basis for metrication , one maund becoming exactly 37.3242  kilograms . A similar metric definition is used in Bangladesh and Nepal . Throughout Bangladesh, one মণ/mun/mann

7777-597: The most rarely pronounced. The retroflex lateral is most commonly analysed as an approximant as opposed to a flap . Some speakers soften the voiceless aspirates /t͡ʃʰ, pʰ, kʰ/ into fricatives /ɕ, f, x/ respectively. In rare cases, the /ɲ/ and /ŋ/ phonemes in Shahmukhi may be represented with letters from Sindhi . The /ɲ/ phoneme, which is more common than /ŋ/, is written as نی or نج depending on its phonetic preservation, e.g. نیاݨا /ɲaːɳaː/ (preserved ñ ) as opposed to کنج /kiɲd͡ʒ/ (assimilated into nj ). /ŋ/

7878-436: The next five years until 1753 through his exploits in battle against the Afghan army. His first act as governor was to take control of Ram Rauni, the Sikh fort at Amritsar , where 500 Sikhs had taken shelter. To take control of the fort and defeat the Sikhs, Mir sent word to Adina Beg, the commander of the army of Jalandhar. Both the armies of Lahore and Jalandhar eventually laid siege to the fort, and despite much resistance from

7979-517: The order to his forces to slaughter anyone found wearing " Indian clothing ". Abdali split his army into two factions: one commanded by him and the other commanded by Shah Wali Khan. The army of Shah Wali Khan was ordered to attack the encamped Sikh famalies. The first person to attack the Sikhs was Qasim Khan. At Kup village alone, several thousand Sikhs were killed, with most of the fatalities being women and children. Abdali then ordered two other generals of his forces, Jahan Khan and Buland Khan, to attack

8080-452: The outskirts of Amritsar. In the nearby town of Tarn Taran Sahib they prepared themselves for martyrdom by sprinkling saffron on each other's turbans. When word reached Lahore that a large body of Sikhs had arrived near Amritsar a Janam Khan mobilised an army of 20,000 soldiers. Two large forces were sent. Approaching Amritsar, Baba Deep Singh and his companions encountered them and a fierce battle ensued. The Sikh forces battled valiantly but

8181-541: The periphery of the pool." On hearing the talk of the Sikh, he held his head with his left hand and removing the enemies from his way with the strokes of his 15 kg (33 lb) khanda "with his right hand, reached the periphery of Harmandir Sahib where he breathed his last. The Singhs celebrated the Bandi Chhor Divas of 1757 in Harmandir Sahib". On 14 January 1761, in the aftermath of the Third Battle of Panipat ,

8282-625: The region was introduced by the Turko-Persian conquerors of South Asia and was a translation of the Sanskrit name, Panchanada , which means 'Land of the Five Rivers'. Panj is cognate with Sanskrit pañca ( पञ्च ), Greek pénte ( πέντε ), and Lithuanian Penki , all of which meaning 'five'; āb is cognate with Sanskrit áp ( अप् ) and with the Av- of Avon . The historical Punjab region , now divided between India and Pakistan,

8383-447: The sort of landscape the mobile slaughter and battle occurred in: sandy mounds, little or no bodies of water to re-hydrate oneself, Sikh stragglers who fell behind were abandoned. If a Sikh fell down in battle, he would be trampled by the hoofs of horses. When the Sikh warriors witnessed their women, children, and elders being mercilessly slaughtered when the convoy's defence was breached, it reinvigorated their fighting spirit to protect

8484-483: The spread of Sikhism. According to a popular saying of that time "Mannu is our sickle, We the fodder for him to mow. The more he cuts, the more we grow." The continued harassment by Mir Mannu only helped strengthen the numbers and faith of the Sikhs. In 1756 Ahmad Shah Durrani started his fourth raid on India for plunder. He managed to successfully raid the city of Delhi and captured gold, jewellery and thousands of Hindu women as slaves. But on his way back his baggage train

8585-542: The standard weights and measures used in the places they were stationed, and these were compared with the English standards in London by Patrick Kelly , the leading British metrologist of the time. The results were published as an appendix to the second edition of Kelly's Universal Cambist (1831), and later as a separate book entitled Oriental Metrology (1832). It will be seen from Kelly's results below that Prinsep's generalizations are only partially correct. The Gujarat maund

8686-461: The stronghold of the heretical Hindali sect led by Aqil Das. The place was the home of Aqil Das, the head of the heretical Nirinjania ( Hindali ) sect, an ally of the Afghans, and an inveterate enemy of the Sikhs. He was a known informant for the Islamic governments working against the Sikhs. Due to his past actions, many Sikhs had been killed. Aqil sent messengers to Durrani pleading for his help against

8787-438: The superior numbers of the enemies and continuous reinforcements led to their eventual defeat. Wielding his khanda (double-edged sword) , the 75-year-old Sikh sustained many wounds but managed to kill the general Janam Khan beheading him in the process. Deep Singh was also mortally wounded with a blow to the neck, but not completely decapitated. After receiving this blow, a Sikh reminded Baba Deep Singh, "You had resolved to reach

8888-443: The survivors from the same fate. Abdali is said to have been surprised by how gravely and mortally injured Sikhs, who were drenched in blood, would continue to fight-on. As per Bhangu, Abdali then reprimanded Zain Khan Sirhindi for his failure at breaching the convoy from the front: "... as yet you have not done what you had promised. You have not been able to besiege the Singhs from the front. You have 20,000 horse riders. Have

8989-539: The terms Eastern and Western Punjabi can simply refer to all the Punjabi varieties spoken in India and Pakistan respectively, whether or not they are linguistically Eastern/Western. While a vowel length distinction between short and long vowels exists, reflected in modern Gurmukhi orthographical conventions, it is secondary to the vowel quality contrast between centralised vowels /ɪ ə ʊ/ and peripheral vowels /iː eː ɛː aː ɔː oː uː/ in terms of phonetic significance. The peripheral vowels have nasal analogues . There

9090-453: The throne at Lahore, proclaiming him as the emperor. Thereafter, Sikhs began to refer to him as a king. Sikhs also gained control of the local Lahori mint and issued their own coinage. The Sikhs could not establish an enduring occupation of the city so they decided to leave and attack Jandiala next. In January 1762, Sikh fighters then converged onto Jandiala, 18 kilometres (11 mi) east of Amritsar . The Sikh forces were laying siege against

9191-423: The top of their spears. This was to provide a sense of direction and order to the convoy of Sikh families behind them. The Sikh forces could not make use of their usual guerilla hit-and-run tactics due to the presence of their non-combatants amongst them, which made them vulnerable. A stationary battle would be suicidal for the Sikhs as they were vastly outnumbered and out-equipped. Charat Singh suggested that

9292-461: The two armed contingents sent by Abdali so the Afghan king decided to engage the convoy directly with his own reserve army and be directly present in the carnage. Abdali's army consisted of four contingents, which included 12,000 armed men in total. This attack by Abdali managed to separate the main defending body of Sikh warriors from the vahir convoy, which left it exposed. The Sikhs were outnumbered four-to-one, facing three hostile armies, and

9393-460: The view of taking their families to safety in the Malwa desert before returning to confront the invader. Another reason for the Sikh retreat is they left to avenge the recent death of Dyal Singh Brar at the hands of Zain Khan of Sirhind. The Sikhs began to encamp at the villages of Raipur and Gujjarawal. At this time, the Sikhs were encamped at Kup, Rahira, Dehlon, and Gurm villages, with all of them just

9494-421: The village Kup. In the meantime those Sikhs had disappeared". The forces of Miskin were ineffective in battle against the Sikhs in the early hours of February 5 and Kasim Khan had abandoned the mission for now and camped at Malerkotla. Abdali caught up with the encamped Sikhs at Kup-Rahira, approximately twelve kilometres north of Malerkotla . In the twilight of 5 February 1762, Durrani and his allies surprised

9595-421: The villages (Kup, Rahira, Kutba, Bahmania, and Hathur) the Sikhs sought help and shelter from were populated by Muslims at that time, aside from Gehal village. Some Sikh women, children, and elders tried to escape their certain doom by hiding out in the minarets of cow dung, jawar (sorghum ) , millet, and corn located outside these villages. The hostile forces and Muslim locals set these minarets on fire whilst

9696-464: The villages of Kup and Rahira (these two localities are distanced apart from each-other by around 4 km and were both Muslim-dominated demographically in this period of time). Suddenly whilst the convoy were passing through this area, the two armies of Zain Khan Sirhindi and Bhikhan Khan of Malerkotla fell upon them unexpectedly. Many Sikh children and women were slaughtered in the ensuing drama. The Dal Khalsa forces, whom were engaging Abdali's army in

9797-514: Was lexically influenced by Portuguese (words like almārī ), Greek (words like dām ), Japanese (words like rikśā ), Chinese (words like cāh , līcī , lukāṭh ) and English (words like jajj , apīl , māsṭar ), though these influences have been minor in comparison to Persian and Arabic. In fact, the sounds / z / (ਜ਼ / ز ژ ذ ض ظ ), / ɣ / (ਗ਼ / غ ), / q / (ਕ਼ / ق ), / ʃ / (ਸ਼ / ش ), / x / (ਖ਼ / خ ) and / f / (ਫ਼ / ف ) are all borrowed from Persian, but in some instances

9898-466: Was also in the contingent of Kasim Khan. When we went in front of the Sikhs they ran away. We followed them for half a koh (2 kms). All of a sudden the Sikhs who were running stopped quickly and returned towards us and attacked us. Kasim Khan could not counter them and ran away, although I asked him not to run away. He did not accept my suggestion. Taking his army along with him he ran away towards Malerkotla and encamped there. I (Miskeen) alone went towards

9999-402: Was one of these Prakrit languages, which was spoken in north and north-western India and Punjabi developed from this Prakrit. Later in northern India Paishachi Prakrit gave rise to Paishachi Apabhraṃśa , a descendant of Prakrit. Punjabi emerged as an Apabhramsha, a degenerated form of Prakrit, in the 7th century AD and became stable by the 10th century. The earliest writings in Punjabi belong to

10100-534: Was repetitively ambushed and attacked by the Sikh forces, who liberated the slaves and returned the plunder. Durrani managed to escape and vowed to take revenge against the Sikhs. Because Durrani could not lay his hands on the elusive bands of Sikhs, he determined to attack their holy city Amritsar , the Harimandir Sahib was blown up, and the surrounding pool filled with the entrails of slaughtered cows. Hearing of this event Baba Deep Singh , an elderly scholar of

10201-417: Was soon surrendered to the invader Ahmad Shah Durrani . The land given to the Sikhs was also seized back from them. In his new role as governor for the Afghans, Mir Mannu was able to resume his persecution of the Sikhs. Moreover, he had arranged for new artillery to be forged and a unit of 900 men assigned especially to the hunting down of the "infidels". In the words of an eyewitness: "Muin appointed most of

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