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37-702: Tzamandos was built by the Byzantine Armenian general Melias in 908 in the former no-man's land between the Abbasid Caliphate and the Byzantine Empire . Tzamandos then became a kleisoura , which included the whole river valley of the Zamantı down to the neighbourhood of Hanköy and the Uzun Yayla, and most likely belonged to the theme of Lykandos which had been created in 914. The town became also soon

74-423: A Melitenian offensive in 909, while Vasak was accused of treason in 913, possibly due to his association with the failed usurpation of Constantine Doukas , and banished. Melias soon occupied the old and deserted fortress of Lykandos , refortified it and made it his seat. Emperor Leo soon raised it and its surrounding region to a kleisoura . Settled by Armenian immigrants, for the next decades, it would be one of

111-624: A large army under the generals Prokopios Krenites and Kourtikios, which included the Imperial Guard that consisted of Khazar mercenaries. In the ensuing battle in the Theme of Macedonia (modern Eastern Thrace ), probably around Adrianople , the Byzantines were defeated and their commanders perished. Most of the Khazars were captured and Simeon had their noses cut and "sent them in the capital for shame of

148-608: A result of this defeat, the Magyars had to move westwards and settle in Pannonia , where they later established the Kingdom of Hungary . When Simeon I returned to Preslav "proud of the victory", he broke the negotiations with Choirosphaktes and once again invaded Byzantine Thrace, further encouraged by the death of the capable general Nikephoros Phokas. The Byzantines transferred "all themes and tagmata ", i. e. all forces that were fighting

185-728: The Byzantine navy was used to ferry the Magyars across the Danube , despite the fact that the Bulgarians had barred the river with chains and ropes. Simeon I, who was at the Byzantine-Bulgarian border facing the general Nikephoros Phokas , had to march northwards to confront them. His army was defeated by the Magyars somewhere in Dobruja and Simeon himself had to flee to the strong fortress Drastar . The Magyars looted and pillaged unopposed, reaching

222-517: The Christianization of the country and the admission of the disciples of Saints Cyril and Methodius , which marked the beginning of the creation and consolidation of the medieval Bulgarian literature and alphabet. Despite a number of military setbacks against most neighbouring countries, Boris I managed to preserve Bulgarian territorial integrity. During the Council of Preslav in 893, assembled after

259-487: The kleisoura of Lykandos was raised to the status of a full theme, with Melias as its strategos with the rank of patrikios and later magistros . In the next year, Melias and his troops took part in the campaign against Bulgaria that led to yet another disastrous defeat at Acheloos on 20 August 917. Melias next reappears in the campaigns of John Kourkouas , where he played a prominent role. In 927, Kourkouas and Melias attacked Melitene, and succeeded in storming

296-618: The Arabs, to Europe. The army was commanded by the Domestic of the Schools Leo Katakalon, who lacked the ability of Phokas. The two armies clashed at Boulgarophygon in the summer of 896 and the Byzantines were thoroughly routed. A Byzantine historian wrote: ...the Romans were decisively defeated all down the line and they all perished. Among the casualties was the protovestiarios Theodosius,

333-752: The Byzantine army: another Melias is recorded as serving with John Tzimiskes , both during the reign of Emperor Nikephoros II Phokas (r. 963–969) and during Tzimiskes's own reign (r. 969–976). It has also been suggested that the memory of Melias has been preserved in the figure of the apelates Melementzes in the acritic epic Digenes Akritas . Battle of Bulgarophygon Krum 's campaigns Simeon I 's campaigns Sviatoslav's invasion of Bulgaria Byzantine conquest of Bulgaria Uprising of Peter Delyan Second Bulgarian Empire The Battle of Boulgarophygon ( Bulgarian : Битка при Булгарофигон ; Medieval Greek : Μάχη του Βουλγαρόφυγου )

370-597: The Great" in Armenian sources) was an Armenian prince who entered Byzantine service and became a distinguished general, founding the theme of Lykandos and participating in the campaigns of John Kourkouas against the Arabs . Melias was a member of the lower naxarar nobility, possibly from the Varazhnuni clan; he was possibly a grandson of Mliah, the prince of Varazhnunik, who

407-473: The Passes"). In 909 or 912, a major assault led by Rustam ibn Baradu was launched against him, but was repulsed. In 914/5, the Arabs of Tarsus launched an attack on Tzamandos, which they took and razed, but in retaliation Melias and his men raided Arab territory as far as Marash (Germanikeia, modern Kahramanmaraş ), reportedly bringing back 50,000 captives. In recognition for his success against Marash, in 916

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444-513: The Romans [i.e the Byzantines]". Since the main Byzantine forces were engaged in the east against the Arabs , Leo VI turned to the well-tried methods of Byzantine diplomacy and sent envoys with rich gifts to the Magyars , who in that time inhabited the steppes to the north-east of Bulgaria. When Simeon I refused to conclude peace and imprisoned the Byzantine envoy Konstantinakios, at the end of 894

481-582: The Western Balkans. Simeon also learned the lesson of how vulnerable Bulgaria was to the northern tribes neighbouring his realm, when they were influenced by Byzantine diplomacy. That experience paid off in 917, when Simeon managed to counter the Byzantine efforts to ally with the Serbs or the Pechenegs , and forced them to fight alone in the battle of Achelous , where the Byzantines were soundly defeated in one of

518-510: The Wise (r. 886–912) in 905, however, Melias and many other Armenian nobles were forced to flee to the Arab border emirate of Melitene to escape retribution. In 907 or 908, however, through the intervention of the strategos Eustathios Argyros , the Armenian refugees were pardoned by Emperor Leo and granted the border provinces as quasi-fiefs: the three brothers Vasak, Grigorik and Pazunes settled in

555-503: The city, although the citadel held out. As a result, Melitene pledged vassalage to the Byzantine Empire. In the event, Melitene soon renounced this treaty, and was placed again under siege by the Byzantines. According to an Arab account, Melias tried to infiltrate the city by disguising some of his troops as artisans , but the ploy was foiled. Nevertheless, the city soon after agreed to host a Byzantine garrison. In 930, Melias raided

592-592: The first decisive victory of the young and ambitious Bulgarian ruler Simeon I against the Byzantine Empire. Simeon would go on to inflict a number of defeats on the Byzantines in pursuit of his ultimate goal, the throne in Constantinople . The peace treaty that was signed as a result of the battle confirmed the Bulgarian domination in the Balkans . During the rule of Boris I (r. 852–889), Bulgaria underwent major changes –

629-521: The former King of Vaspurakan , was invested with Sebasteia , Larissa and Abara. Tzamandos was latter taken away from the Artsrunis and given to Gagik of Kars after he was forced to abdicate in 1065. The Armenian Catholicos resided in the town from 1065 until 1069 when he moved to Tablur . Tzamandos was attacked by the Seljuks in 1068 and 1070. Upon Gagik's death, he was succeeded by his daughter Maria, who

666-555: The fortress of Larissa, which formed a border tourma of the theme of Sebasteia and now became a kleisoura (a fortified frontier district), Ismael (possibly an Arab-Armenian) took over the deserted area of Symposion, and Melias was appointed " tourmarches of Euphrateia, the Passes ( Trypia , from Arabic al-Durub ) and the wasteland", covering the mountainous frontier zone around the Pass of Hadath . Of these petty border-lords, Melias alone would hold his position for long: Ismael died in

703-473: The internal affairs of Bulgaria. It was also decided that his third son Simeon, born after the Christianization and called child of peace , was to become the next Prince of Bulgaria. These events ruined the Byzantine hopes to exert influence over the newly Christianized country, and Emperor Leo VI (r. 886–912) soon had a chance to retaliate. Some members of the Byzantine court had an interest in moving

740-459: The larger part of the Byzantine force. Melias escaped death and returned to his service at the Byzantine eastern frontier, where, according to Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos , he led a group of fellow Armenians in the Byzantine border wars with the Arabs as akritai , sharing their time between raids against the Arabs and outright brigandage. After participating in the failed aristocratic rebellion of Andronikos Doukas against Emperor Leo VI

777-423: The main Byzantine bases of attack against the Arabs. In a similar manner, Melias proceeded to occupy the mountainous regions of Tzamandos and Symposion, which became a kleisoura and a tourma respectively. The threat that this new province and Melias's activities posed on the Arab emirates of the frontier zone ( Thughur ) is recognized in Arab sources, where Melias is mentioned as sahib al-Durub ("Lord of

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814-509: The market of the Bulgarian goods from Constantinople to Thessaloniki , which meant that the Bulgarian merchants would have to pay higher taxes. That move affected not only private interests but also the international commercial importance of Bulgaria, regulated with the Byzantine–Bulgarian Treaty of 716 . The ousting of the merchants from Constantinople, which was a major destination of trade routes from all over Europe and Asia,

851-572: The outskirts of the capital Preslav , and after they sold the captives to the Byzantines they retreated to the north of the Danube. Then Simeon pretended that he wanted to negotiate and put forward the issue of prisoner exchange. The Byzantines sent Leo Choirosphaktes in Preslav to negotiate the terms. As Simeon needed time to address the Magyar threat, he deliberately prolonged the negotiations and Choirosphaktes

888-573: The region fell to his son Mughis ad-Din Tughrul . Seljuk building activity in the region did not start until the 1230s, when the trade passing by Tzamandos and Elbistan led to rebuilding of the fortress of Tzamandos which was now also used as a prison. The fortress became then known as Melik Gazi and the main settlement was dispersed probably in the early Ottoman period so that just a small village remained. Melias Melias ( Greek : Μελίας ) or Mleh ( Armenian : Մլեհ , often Mleh-mec , "Mleh

925-524: The return of allegedly 120,000 captured Byzantine soldiers and civilians. Under the treaty, the Byzantines also ceded an area between the Black Sea and Strandzha to the Bulgarian Empire, while the Bulgarians also promised not to invade Byzantine territory. Simeon I was content with the results and considered that he had superiority over the Byzantine Empire. Despite the success, he realized that there

962-479: The seat of a Byzantine bishop. The new region was repopulated by the Byzantine authorities primarily with Armenians and Syrians, which resulted in the establishing of the Syrian Orthodox bishopric of Simandu in 955, which lasted until 1180. When Bardas Skleros revolted in 976, the fortress joined his efforts. In 1022, the kleisoura of Tzamandos was given as property to Davit while his father Senacherim ,

999-506: The second-in-command of the army, while Leo Katakalon managed to escape with a few other survivors. The Byzantine defeat was so grave that one of their soldiers retired from society and became an ascetic under the name of Luke the Stylite . Gaining the upper hand, Simeon I led the Bulgarian troops to Constantinople, burning villages en route . According to the Muslim historian al-Tabari , Leo VI

1036-537: The territory near Samosata , but was defeated by the Arab general Nedjm, and one of his sons was captured and taken to Baghdad . He is last known to have participated in the opening stages of the campaign that led to the final capture of Melitene on 19 May 934, but neither Arab nor Byzantine sources mention him during or after this event, making it probable that he died at about this time. Melias's descendants, however, continued to play an important role in Lykandos and in

1073-422: The unsuccessful attempt of Boris I's eldest son Vladimir-Rasate to restore Paganism, it was decided that Old Bulgarian was to replace Greek as a language of the church and the Byzantine clergy was to be banished and replaced with Bulgarians. The Council sealed Boris I's ambitions for cultural and religious independence and calmed down the concerns among the nobility, who feared any strong Byzantine influence in

1110-459: Was a heavy blow for Bulgarian economic interests. The merchants complained to Simeon I, who in turn raised the issue with Leo VI, but the appeal was left unanswered. Simeon, who was seeking a pretext to declare war and begin implementing his plans, launched an invasion of Byzantine Thrace, resulting in what has sometimes been called the first commercial war in Europe. The Byzantines hastily assembled

1147-453: Was desperate after the consecutive refusals of peace, and was forced to gather an army of Arab prisoners of war and send them against the Bulgarians with the promise of freedom. The Bulgarians were stopped just outside Constantinople and Simeon I agreed to negotiate. The war ended with a peace treaty which formally lasted until around Leo VI's death in 912, and under which Byzantium was obliged to pay Bulgaria an annual tribute in exchange for

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1184-487: Was fought in the summer of 896 near the town of Boulgarophygon (modern Babaeski , Turkey ) between the Byzantine Empire and the First Bulgarian Empire . The result was an annihilation of the Byzantine army which determined the Bulgarian victory in the trade war of 894–896 . Despite the initial difficulties in the war against the Magyars , who acted as Byzantine allies, the battle of Boulgarophygon proved to be

1221-519: Was grouped together with Kayseri . Though Kayseri later became the more important regional center, there is no need to think of Tzamandos as having a lower population at the time. In 1168, the Seljuk Kilij Arslan II drove out Dhu'l-Nun of his possessions and Tzamandos thus fell under the Sultanate of Rum as an appanage of Kayseri. When Kilij Arslan II divided his sultanate between his sons,

1258-585: Was in possession of the fortress possibly until 1085. According to the Saljuq-nama , Tzamandos (which it called Zamandū ) became part of the principality of the Danishmendids after the 1071 battle of Manzikert . Around 1143/1144, the Danishmendid possessions were split up and Tzamandos fell, possibly together with Larissa, to Dhu'l-Nun . It is not certain whether Tzamandos was its own fief ( iqta' or

1295-518: Was killed by the Arabs in 853. Melias first appears in historical sources as a vassal of Ashot the Long-armed, an Armenian prince (possibly a Bagratid from Taron ) who entered Byzantine imperial service in circa 890. As part of Ashot's Armenian contingent, he fought on the Byzantine side at the disastrous Battle of Bulgarophygon against the Bulgarians . Ashot himself perished in this battle, along with

1332-419: Was repeatedly refused an audience. In the meantime Simeon allied with the Pechenegs , while the people even appealed to his father Boris I, who had become a monk, to assume the command of the army. In the decisive battle the Magyars suffered a devastating defeat, but the victorious Bulgarians were themselves said to have lost 20,000 riders. That was the only victory on the battlefield Boris I ever achieved. As

1369-477: Was still a lot to do before prevailing over the Empire for good. He needed his own political and ideological base, and he consequently launched an ambitious construction program in Preslav so that it could rival Constantinople. In the meanwhile, Simeon I had also imposed his authority over Serbia in return for recognizing Petar Gojniković as its ruler. That was an important move towards reducing Byzantine influence over

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