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137-510: In historical Indian Buddhism , there were originally sixteen devas who were considered as dharmapalas . These devas, such as Shiva , Indra and Brahma , were originally deities from Hinduism and the Vedas who were syncretized into Indian Buddhism . However, more deities, namely Surya , Chandra , Yama and Sāgara , were later added to form a group of twenty. At a later date, the Kinnara King

274-599: A Middle Way between the extremes of self-indulgence and self-mortification , in which self-restraint and compassion are central elements. According to tradition, as recorded in the Pali Canon and the Agamas, Siddhārtha Gautama attained awakening sitting under a pipal tree, now known as the Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya , India. Gautama referred to himself as the tathagata , the "thus-gone";

411-483: A Nelumbo nucifera . In Chinese, she is known as Jíxiáng Tiānnǚ (吉祥天女), meaning "Auspicious Goddess", as well as Gōngdétiān (功德天), meaning "Meritous Deva". Originally from Hinduism, she is considered the goddess of wealth. In Buddhist iconographic form, based on her description in the Golden Light Sutra , she usually holds the cintāmaṇi jewel in her left hand and forms a mudra with her right hand. Her mantra,

548-503: A Buddhist monastery. With the Gupta dynasty (~4th to 6th century), the growth in ritualistic Mahayana Buddhism, mutual influence between Hinduism and Buddhism, The differences between Buddhism and Hinduism blurred, and Vaishnavism, Shaivism and other Hindu traditions became increasingly popular, and Brahmins developed a new relationship with the state. As the system grew, Buddhist monasteries gradually lost control of land revenue. In parallel,

685-491: A Marathi text, Dhamramrita, where he gives the names of 16 Buddhist orders. Vidyadhar Johrapurkar noted that among them, the names Sataghare, Dongare, Navaghare, Kavishvar, Vasanik and Ichchhabhojanik still survive in Maharashtra as family names. The mahavihara at Ratnagiri, Odisha seems to have continued with a reduced community, and some renovation of buildings, until the 16th century, perhaps funded by foreign pilgrims as it

822-431: A brownish coat. Lotus seeds can remain viable after long periods of dormancy. In 1994, a seed from a sacred lotus, dated at roughly 1,300 years old ± 270 years, was successfully germinated . The traditional sacred lotus is only distantly related to Nymphaea caerulea , but possesses similar chemistry. Both Nymphaea caerulea and Nelumbo nucifera contain the alkaloids nuciferine and aporphine . The genome of

959-577: A copying error where a deity was mistaken for a place. Under the kings of the Pala Empire (c. 730-1130), large mahavihars flourished in what is now Bihar and Bengal, with considerable royal patronage. Tantric Buddhism dominated in this region and period, and was spread to Tibet. According to Tibetan sources, five great Mahavihars stood out: Vikramashila , the premier university of the era; Nalanda , past its prime but still illustrious, Somapura , Odantapurā , and Jaggadala . The five monasteries formed

1096-625: A decline of the Buddhist Sangha , especially in the wake of the Hun invasion from central Asia. Xuanzang, the most famous of Chinese travellers, found "millions of monasteries" in north-western India reduced to ruins by the Huns. The Muslim conquest of the Indian subcontinent was the first great iconoclastic invasion into South Asia. By the end of the twelfth century, Buddhism had mostly disappeared, with

1233-589: A dry lakebed in northeastern China. Therefore, the Chinese regard the plant as a symbol of longevity . It has a very wide native distribution, ranging from central and northern India (at altitudes up to 1,400 m or 4,600 ft in the southern Himalayas ), through northern Indochina and East Asia (north to the Amur region ; the Russian populations have sometimes been referred to as Nelumbo komarovii , with isolated locations at

1370-751: A fast browning rate. Lotus root tea is consumed in Korea. Lotus root is a popular vegetable in Sri Lanka, where it is often cooked in coconut milk gravy. In India, lotus root (also known as kamala kakaṛī in Hindi ) is cooked as a dry curry or Sabzî . Japan is one of the primary users of the rhizomes, representing about 1% of all vegetables consumed. Japan grows its own lotus but still must import 18,000 tons of lotus rhizome each year, of which China provides 15,000 tons yearly. Rhizomes contain high amounts of starch (31.2%) without characteristic taste or odor. The texture

1507-665: A higher yield and higher quality rhizomes than seed or flower lotus cultivars. Furthermore, this group grows tall and produces few to no flowers. Cultivars can be classified by harvest time or by the depth of rhizomes into these types: The main popular Nelumbo nucifera cultivars in China are Elian 1, Elian 4, Elian 5, 9217, Xin 1, and 00–01. The average yield of these cultivars is 7.5–15 t/ha (3.3–6.7 tons/acre) of harvest in July and 30–45 t/ha (13–20 tons/acre) of harvest in September. In Australia,

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1644-469: A horizontal spread of 1 m (3 ft 3 in). The leaves may be as large as 80 cm (31 in) in diameter. The flowers are usually found on thick stems rising several centimeters above the leaves. They are showy and grow up to 35 cm (14 in) in diameter. Some cultivated varieties have extraordinary numbers of petals. For example, the Chinese variety qian ban lian ("thousand petals lotus") can have between 3000 and 4000 petals in

1781-653: A horse head with a male body. Some Buddhist also venerates him as their Kitchen God as an equivalent to the traditional Taoist Zao Jun . In the Shaolin tradition, he is conflated with Vajrapani (in his manifestation as Nārāyaṇa ) and is identified as an avatar of the Bodhisattva Guanyin , who manifested to defend the Shaolin monastery from bandits during the Yuan-era Red Turban Rebellion . In Chinese, he

1918-432: A long beard. He wears traditional judge robes and a judge's cap or a crown which bears the character for "king" (王). He has also been syncretized into Taoism and Chinese folk religion as a god of the dead as well, performing largely the same functions as his Chinese Buddhist counterpart. In Chinese, he is known as Jǐnnàluó Wáng (緊那羅王). In Buddhist iconographic form, depicted as either male or female. The male form has

2055-627: A network; "all of them were under state supervision" and there existed "a system of co-ordination among them . . it seems from the evidence that the different seats of Buddhist learning that functioned in eastern India under the Pāla were regarded together as forming a network, an interlinked group of institutions," and it was common for great scholars to move easily from position to position among them. During this period [Pala dynasty] Mahayana Buddhism reached its zenith of sophistication, while tantric Buddhism flourished throughout India and surrounding lands. This

2192-598: A part of branding strategy and to make it easier for voters, BJP started using lotus logo in black-and-white in most settings as Electronic Voting Machines (EVM) in India only allow black-and-white logos. The rhizomes of lotus ( Chinese : 蓮藕 ; pinyin : lián-ǒu , Japanese : 蓮根 , romanized :  renkon , Korean : 연근 or 蓮根 , romanized :  yeongun , Hindi : कमल ककड़ी , romanized :  kamala kakaṛī , Sindhi Beeh, Telugu : అల్లిదుంప , romanized :  alli'dumpa ) are consumed as

2329-479: A part of the decline of Buddhist monasteries was because it was detached from everyday life in India and did not participate in the ritual social aspects such as the rites of passage (marriage, funeral, birth of child) like other religions. Lotus flower Nelumbo nucifera , also known as Padma ( Sanskrit : पद्म, romanized : Padmā , lit.   'Lotus') or Kamala ( Sanskrit : कमल, lit. 'Lotus'), sacred lotus , Indian lotus , or simply lotus ,

2466-467: A single blossom and the Japanese variety ohmi myoren ("strange lotus") can have between 2000 and 5000 petals, the greatest number recorded for any species of plant. Researchers report that the lotus has the remarkable ability to regulate the temperature of its flowers within a narrow range, just as humans and other warm-blooded animals do. Roger S. Seymour and Paul Schultze-Motel, physiologists at

2603-612: A small group of monks who were all known to each other. It was only by the fifth century that Mahayana elements began to appear in Buddha images although it is speculated that there were earlier Mahayana images in the third-century CE. These Mahayana sculptures didn't just depict the Buddha but also Bodhisattvas and other deities. Various classes of Vajrayana literature developed as a result of royal courts sponsoring both Buddhism and Shaivism . The Mañjusrimulakalpa , which later came to classified under Kriyatantra , states that mantras taught in

2740-417: A suitable stage for eating in approximately six to nine months. Early varieties are harvested in July until September and late varieties from October until March, after the ponds or fields are drained. The large, starch -rich rhizomes are easy to dig out of the drained soil. In small-scale production, they are harvested by hand using fork-like tools. In Japan and on bigger farms, manual labour harvesting

2877-582: A vegetable in Asian countries, extensively in China, Japan, India, Pakistan ( Sindh ), sold whole or in cut pieces, fresh, frozen, or canned. They are fried or cooked mostly in soups, soaked in syrup or pickled in vinegar (with sugar, chili and garlic). Lotus rhizomes have a crunchy texture and are a classic dish at many banquets, where they are deep-fried, stir-fried, or stuffed with meats or preserved fruits. Salads with prawns , sesame oil or coriander leaves are also popular. Fresh lotus root slices are limited by

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3014-560: A water vase and one arm forms a mudra . In Chinese, he is known as Dìshìtiān (帝釋天). Originally from Hinduism, he is considered the ruler of Trāyastriṃśa and sometimes conflated with the Jade Emperor in Chinese folk religion . In Buddhist iconographic form, he is portrayed in traditional Chinese Emperor robes and crown. Behind his figure stands three female attendants, one holding an umbrella, one holding Mount Meru and one sitting within

3151-410: A youth astride or sitting side-saddle atop a reclining mythical beast, holding a conch in his hands and dressed in trousers and a cape and wearing a tiara from which two objects, like insect feelers, project upwards. In Chinese, he is known as Dōngyuè Dàdì (東嶽大帝). Originally from Taoism, he is regarded as a god who resides at Mount Tai and judges what realm of Saṃsāra a person will be reborn in. He

3288-504: Is 1.05–1.9 t/ha (0.5–0.8 tons/acre) of dry seeds and weight of thousand seeds between 1,020 and 1,800 g (36 and 63 oz). Green Jade and Vietnam-Red are recommended cultivars for seed production in Australia. Flower lotus cultivars are used exclusively for ornamental purpose , producing many flowers and the lowest plant height. The seed production of flower lotus is typically poor regarding yield and quality. Flower types differ in

3425-448: Is Ucchuṣma. In a repentance ritual for the Śūraṅgama Sūtra , both Guhyapāda and Ucchusama were invoked as a pair. The two wrathful deities were also sometimes found standing opposite each other at the entrances of some monasteries. In Chinese, he is known as Sànzhī Dàjiàng (散脂大將). Originally from Hinduism, he is regarded as a yaksha and consort of Hārītī, whom he is often portrayed as standing next to in temple statues and iconography. He

3562-556: Is Wanlian. Also known as bowl lotus, wanlians are any miniature cultivars of N. nucifera sized between 5 and 8 centimetres (2.0 and 3.1 in). Bowl lotuses come in various colours and numbers of petals , and they bloom longer than other species of lotus. But together with the rhizome , their seeds are often too small or too hard to be edible. The sacred lotus may be crossed with the yellow lotus to produce interspecific hybrids . A few varieties have been produced with differing appearances. About 70% of lotus for human consumption

3699-574: Is a Chinese transcription of his name in Sanskrit. Originally regarded as a god of war in Hinduism, he is viewed as either a protective deva or as a Bodhisattva in Chinese Buddhism. His Buddhist iconography has been syncretized with Chinese elements to a large extent, so he is commonly depicted as wearing traditionary Chinese military armor and wielding a Chinese sword. According to a legend, a few days after

3836-483: Is adorned with the seven treasures and is filled with the song of innumerable birds. In Chinese, he is known as Yanluo Wang (閻羅王) or Yánmóluówáng (閻摩羅王). Originally from Hinduism, he is considered as one of the Ten Kings of Hell who judges the souls of the dead in a court in the realm of the underworld . In Buddhist iconographic form, he is usually portrayed as a large man with a scowling red face, bulging eyes, and

3973-505: Is also believed to be the leader of a large bureaucratic celestial ministry overseeing the maintenance of the Book of Life, a register of the due dates on which each and every human soul must be summoned before the Judges of Hell for judgement. In Chinese, he is known as Léigōng (雷公) or Léishén (雷神). Originally from Taoism, he is regarded as the god of thunder as well as a punisher of evil-doers who

4110-474: Is also sometimes regarded as one of the Eight Great Yakṣa Generals under the command of Vaiśravaṇa . In Buddhist iconographic form, he bears a demonic face with fangs in his mouth and fire emerging from his eyes. In Chinese, he is known as Wéituó Tiān (韋馱天) or Wéituó Púsà (韋馱菩薩), which is a corrupted form of his original Chinese name Jiàntuó Tiān (建陀天) or Jiàntuó Púsà (建陀菩薩), which in turn

4247-457: Is an ancient Indian religion , which arose in and around the ancient Kingdom of Magadha (now in Bihar , India ). It is based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha , who lived in the 6th or 5th century BCE and was deemed a " Buddha " ("Awakened One" ). However, Buddhist doctrine holds that there were other Buddhas before him. Buddhism spread outside of Magadha starting in the Buddha's lifetime. During

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4384-679: Is comparable to a raw potato. The binding and disintegration properties of isolated Nelumbo starch have been compared with maize and potato starch; Nelumbo starch is shown to be superior as an adjuvant in the preparation of tablets . When dried, N. nucifera is also made into flour , another popular use of this vegetable. Lotus pip tea is consumed in Korea. Fresh lotus seeds ( simplified Chinese : 莲子 ; traditional Chinese : 蓮子 ; pinyin : liánzǐ ; Cantonese Yale : lìhnjí ) are nutritious but also vulnerable to microbial contamination , especially fungal infections. Therefore, mostly dry lotus seed-based products are found on

4521-429: Is considered the goddess of knowledge and music as well as the sister of Yama . In Buddhist iconographic form, based on her description in the Golden Light Sutra , she is portrayed as having eight arms, one holding a bow, one holding arrows, one holding a knife, one holding a lance, one holding an axe, one holding a pestle, one holding an iron wheel, and one holding ropes. In another popular Buddhist iconographic form, she

4658-500: Is considered to be the creator god in Hinduism, he is not regarded as such in Buddhism, which rejects the notion of any creator deities. In Buddhist iconographic form, he is often portrayed as a man dressed in traditional Chinese Emperor robes and crown. In another iconographic form, he is portrayed as riding on a swan and as having four faces and four arms. One arm holds a lotus flower , one arm holds nianzhu (prayer beads) , one arm holds

4795-507: Is consumed in China and Vietnam. Young lotus stems are used as a salad ingredient in Vietnamese cuisine and as a vegetable ingredient for some soup and curry in Thailand, such as keang som sai bua ( Thai : แกงส้มสายบัว , lotus stem sour soup) and keang kati sai bua ( แกงกะทิสายบัว , lotus stem in coconut milk curry). In northern and eastern regions of India, the stalk of the flower

4932-418: Is dressed in the robes and cap of a Chinese minister and holds the sun in his hands. In Chinese, he is known as Yuètiān (月天) or Yuègōng Tiānzǐ (月宮天子). Originally from Hinduism, considered the moon god. In Buddhist iconographic form, he bears the full moon on his crown. On the moon, there is a jade rabbit. In another popular iconographic form, he is dressed in the robes and cap of a Chinese minister and holds

5069-481: Is feared as being particularly merciless towards those who oppress widows and orphans and those who kidnap children. His Buddhist iconographic form has been strongly influenced by that of Garuda from the Hindu pantheon to form a half-man and half-bird entity, bearing a pair of wings on his back and holding a hammer and a chisel in his hands as well as a sling of drums around his neck. The twenty-four deities are mentioned in

5206-464: Is fully replaced by machines. Lotus varieties have been classified according to their use into three types: rhizome lotus, seed lotus, and flower lotus. Varieties that show more than one of these characteristics are classified by the strongest feature. Regarding production area in China, rhizome lotus has the largest area with 200,000 ha (490,000 acres), followed by seed lotus with 20,000 ha (49,000 acres). Rhizome lotus cultivars produce

5343-503: Is known as Dìtiān (地天), meaning "Earth Devī", or Jiānláo Dìshén (堅牢地神) and Jiānláo Dìtiān (堅牢地天), both meaning "Firm earth goddess". Originally from Hinduism, she is considered a goddess of the earth and one of the four beings wielding thunderbolts in the Diamond Realm of Chinese Esoteric Buddhism . In Buddhist iconographic form, she has either four or two arms and wields a flower vase and farming tools in her hands. In Chinese, she

5480-547: Is known as Pútí Shùshén (菩提樹神). She is regarded as a goddess who guards the Bodhi Tree or a manifestation of the tree itself. In Buddhist iconographic form, she holds branches of the Bodhi tree in her hands. In Chinese, she is known as Guǐzǐmǔ (鬼子母). Originally from Hinduism, considered a demon consort of Pañcika who was converted to Buddhism by the Buddha. Considered a protector deity of children. According to Buddhist legends, Hārītī

5617-452: Is known as Zǐwēi Dàdì (紫微大帝). Originally from Taoism, he is a personification of the North Star and considered to be the keeper of the book of destiny as well as a dispeller of demons who is revered for his power to ward off evil influences and spirits. In one iconographic form, he is portrayed as a standard Chinese official sitting on a throne. In another iconographic form, he is portrayed as

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5754-631: Is near the coast accessible from South-East Asia. Buddhism also survived to the modern era in Himalayan regions such as Ladakh , with close ties to Tibet. A unique tradition survives in Nepal's Newar Buddhism . The most important Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India , in particular Bodh Gaya, continued to receive pilgrims from outside India throughout the medieval and modern periods, which are now greatly increased with easier air travel. In Bihar and Bengal, many Buddhist shrines and temples have remained intact with

5891-478: Is not linked to Brahmins or the caste system, since Buddhism was "not a reaction to the caste system", but aimed at the salvation of those who joined its monastic order. The 11th-century Persian traveller Al-Biruni writes that there was 'cordial hatred' between the Brahmins and Sramana Buddhists. Buddhism was also weakened by rival Hindu philosophies such as Advaita Vedanta , growth in temples and an innovation of

6028-456: Is often confused with the true water lilies of the genus Nymphaea , in particular N. caerulea , the "blue lotus." In fact, several older systems, such as the Bentham & Hooker system (which is widely used in the Indian subcontinent), refer to the lotus by its old synonym, Nymphaea nelumbo . While all modern plant taxonomy systems agree that this species belongs in the genus Nelumbo ,

6165-486: Is often portrayed as standing with a child or several children or as holding a child in her arm. In Chinese, she is known as Mólìzhītiān (摩利支天). She is sometimes regarded as a goddess and sometimes regarded as a Bodhisattva. In Chinese Buddhism, she is sometimes considered an incarnation of the Bodhisattva Cundī , with whom she shares similar iconography. She is also worshiped as the goddess of light and warfare and as

6302-450: Is one of two extant species of aquatic plant in the family Nelumbonaceae . It is sometimes colloquially called a water lily, though this more often refers to members of the family Nymphaeaceae . Lotus plants are adapted to grow in the flood plains of slow-moving rivers and delta areas. Stands of lotus drop hundreds of thousands of seeds every year to the bottom of the pond. While some sprout immediately and most are eaten by wildlife,

6439-467: Is portrayed as sitting down and playing a pipa , a Chinese lute-like instrument. In Chinese, he is known as Duōwén Tiānwáng (多聞天王), meaning "Heavenly King who listens to many teachings" in reference to the belief that he guards the place where the Buddha teaches and hence listens to many of the Buddhist teachings, as well as Píshāméntiān (毗沙門天), which is a Chinese transcription of his name in Sanskrit. He

6576-525: Is portrayed sitting down holding a fan. In Chinese folk religion and Taoism , she is sometimes identified as the goddess Doumu (斗母元君; Dǒumǔ Yuánjūn ), who is the personification of the Big Dipper as well as the feminine aspect of the cosmic God of Heaven . In Chinese, he is known as Suōjiéluó Lóngwáng (娑竭羅龍王). In Chinese Buddhism, he is regarded as one of the Eight Dragon Kings who presides over

6713-475: Is produced in China. In 2005, the cultivation area in China was estimated at 300,000 hectares (740,000 acres). A majority of lotus production takes place in managed farming systems in ponds or flooded fields like rice . The most widely used system is crop rotation with rice and vegetables . This system is applicable if the propagule (small piece of rhizome) can be planted early in the year. The rhizomes are harvested in July, after which rice can be planted in

6850-483: Is regarded as one of the Four Heavenly Kings who guards the east. In Buddhist iconographic form, he holds a pipa . In Chinese, he is known as Guǎngmù Tiānwáng (廣目天王), meaning "Heavenly King with broad eyes" in reference to the belief that he is very far-sighted, as well as Bílóubóchā (毘楼博叉), which is a Chinese transcription of his name in Sanskrit. He is regarded as one of the Four Heavenly Kings who guards

6987-429: Is regarded as one of the Four Heavenly Kings who guards the north. In Buddhist iconographic form, he holds a pagoda in his right hand and a trident in his left hand. In Chinese, he is known as Zēngzhǎng Tiānwáng (增長天王), meaning "Heavenly King of growth" in reference to his ability to teach sentient beings to grow in compassion, as well as Bílóulèchā (毘楼勒叉), which is a Chinese transcription of his name in Sanskrit. He

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7124-432: Is regarded as one of the Four Heavenly Kings who guards the south. In Buddhist iconographic form, he is usually colored green or blue and brandishes a sword. In Chinese, he is known as Chíguó Tiānwáng (持國天王), meaning "Heavenly King who holds a country" in reference to the belief that he can help support a country against enemies, as well as Títóulàizhā (提頭頼吒), which is a Chinese transcription of his name in Sanskrit. He

7261-463: Is sometimes classified as a part of Mahayana Buddhism, but some scholars consider it to be a different branch altogether. The practice of Buddhism lost influence in India around the 7th century CE, after the collapse of the Gupta Empire . The last large state to support Buddhism—the Pala Empire —fell in the 12th century. By the end of the 12th century, Buddhism had largely disappeared from India with

7398-695: Is used as the main ingredient in dishes with coconut milk. The stems and petals can be bought in markets when in season. In China and Korea, lotus leaf tea ( Korean : 연잎차 , romanized :  yeon'ip-cha ) is made from the leaves of the lotus. It is also used as a wrap for steaming rice and sticky rice and other steamed dishes in Southeast Asian cuisine, such as lo mai gai in Chinese cuisine or kao hor bai bua ( Thai : ข้าวห่อใบบัว ), fried rice wrapped in lotus leaf in Thai cuisine. Vietnamese also use lotus leaves to wrap green young rice, cốm , which

7535-500: Is used to prepare a soup, kamala gaṭṭē kī sabzī ( Hindi : कमल गट्टे की सब्ज़ी ) and an appetizer, kamala kakaṛī pakauṛē ( Hindi : कमल ककड़ी पकौड़े ). In South Indian states, the lotus stem is sliced, marinated with salt to dry, and the dried slices are fried and used as a side dish. In Kerala ( Malayalam : താമര ) and Tamil Nadu , this end product is called thamara vathal . In the Philippines , an indigenous variety called tukal

7672-474: The Caspian Sea . Today, the species also occurs in southern India, Sri Lanka, virtually all of Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and northern and eastern Australia, but this is probably the result of human translocations. It has a very long history ( c. 3,000 years) of being cultivated for its edible seeds and is commonly cultivated in water gardens . It is the national flower of India and Vietnam. The lotus

7809-454: The Chinese occupation of Tibet in 1950. According to the 2011 Census there are 8.4 million Buddhists in India (0.70% of the total population). The Buddha was born to a Kapilvastu head of the Shakya republic named Suddhodana . He employed sramana practices in a specific way, denouncing extreme asceticism and sole concentration-meditation, which were sramanic practices. Instead, he propagated

7946-623: The Kinnara King are excluded from the list and the remaining devas are venerated as the Twenty Protective Deities ( Chinese : 二十諸天; pinyin : Èrshí Zhūtiān ). The list of deities consist of Maheśvara (Shiva), Brahma, Indra, Lakshmi, Saraswati, the Four Heavenly Kings, Surya, Chandra, Guhyapāda, Pañcika, Skanda, Prthivi, Spirit of the Bodhi Tree, Hārītī, Mārīcī, Sāgara, Yama, the Kinnara King, Emperor Zi Wei, Emperor Dongyue and

8083-555: The Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya (T. 1442). Also preserved are a set of Āgamas ( Sūtra Piṭaka ), a complete Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma Piṭaka, and many other texts of the early Buddhist schools. Early Buddhist schools in India often divided modes of Buddhist practice into several "vehicles" ( yāna ). For example, the Vaibhāṣika Sarvāstivādins are known to have employed the outlook of Buddhist practice as consisting of

8220-596: The University of Adelaide in Australia, found that lotus flowers blooming in the Adelaide Botanic Gardens maintained a temperature of 30–35 °C (86–95 °F), even when the air temperature dropped to 10 °C (50 °F). They suspect the flowers may be doing this to attract cold-blooded insect pollinators . Studies published in the journals Nature and Philosophical Transactions: Biological Sciences in 1996 and 1998 were important contributions in

8357-502: The bhakti movement. This rivalry undercut Buddhist patronage and popular support. The period between 400 CE and 1000 CE thus saw gains by the Vedanta school of Hinduism over Buddhism and Buddhism had vanished from Afghanistan and north India by the early 11th century as a result of the Muslim conquests of Afghanistan and incursions into India. According to some scholars such as Lars Fogelin,

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8494-558: The mud 10–15 cm ( 3 + 7 ⁄ 8 – 5 + 7 ⁄ 8  in) below the soil surface . The stolon is ready to harvest two to three months after planting. It must be harvested before flowering. Harvesting the stolon is done by manual labor. For this step, the field is not drained. The stolon is pulled out of the water by pulling and shaking the young leaves in the shallow water. The first leaves and flowers can be harvested three months after planting. Flowers can be picked every two days during summer and every three days during

8631-421: The "ha" or "ah" sound, which is the beginning character of the vocalization of the first grapheme of Sanskrit Devanāgarī (ॐ ) representing the word Om . In Chinese folk religion and Taoism , he is also known as General Ha (哈将 Hā Jiāng ) in reference to this iconographic detail. In Chinese Buddhist temples, his statue is usually built opposite that of another Vajra-holding god (who is known as Nārāyaṇa) and

8768-614: The 16th century Ming dynasty novel Journey to the West (one of the Four Classic Chinese Novels ) as attendants of the Bodhisattva Guanyin (the Chinese form of Avalokitesvara ) who reside on her bodhimaṇḍa on the island of Mount Potalaka . In the novel, they serve as disciples who listen to Guanyin expound the Buddhist teachings as well as guardian protectors of her island. History of Buddhism in India Buddhism

8905-639: The 8th through 15th centuries, who were forced to flee to escape the invading Muslim army, after which the site decayed over the Islamic rule in India that followed. The last empire to support Buddhism, the Pala dynasty, fell in the 12th century, and Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji , a general of the early Delhi Sultanate , destroyed monasteries and monuments and spread Islam in Bengal. According to Randall Collins, Buddhism

9042-499: The 9th day of the 1st month of the Chinese calendar, commemorating the traditional feast day of the Jade Emperor of Taoism. This ceremony was started during the Sui dynasty by Zhiyi of the Tiantai tradition according to the rites prescribed in the Golden Light Sutra and has been carried down through tradition to the present day. In some temples, the three syncretized Taoist deities as well as

9179-458: The APG IV classification, the closest relatives of Nelumbo include the sycamores ( Platanaceae ). The lotus roots are planted in pond or river bottom soil, while the leaves float on the water's surface or are held well above it. The leaf stalks (petioles) can be up to 200 cm (6 ft 7 in) long, allowing the plant to grow in water to that depth. The peltate leaf blade or lamina can have

9316-538: The Buddha in most Buddhist temples. Lotus is also widely used in Varamala (hindu wedding garland). Lotus is the national flower of the Republic of India . Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) , the largest political party in the world with around 200 million active members, uses lotus as its party symbol. BJP, in the past, have used lotuses in multiple colors - pink,white,blue,red and saffron, in their party flag. In recent times, as

9453-471: The Buddha or Bodhisattva inside, being appropriated and worshipped as a Brahmanical deity. Around the neighbourhood of Nalanda, the remains of votive stupas are worshipped as Shiva lingas . An image of the Buddha in bhūmisparśa mudrā at the village of Telhara receives full-fledged pūjā as Hanuman during Rama Navami . A sculpture of the Buddha has ended up as Vāsudeva at Gunaighar in Comilla . Abul Fazl ,

9590-484: The Buddha's passing and cremation, evil demons stole his tooth relic . In response, Wéituó made a vow to protect the Buddhist Dharma and followed it up by defeating the evil demons and returning the relics. In Chinese Buddhist Temples, he is often enshrined together with his counterpart, Sangharama (personified as the historical general Guan Yu ), protecting a third statue of a Buddha or a Bodhisattva. In Chinese, she

9727-618: The Deer Park in Sarnath near Vārāṇasī in northern India, Buddha set in motion the Wheel of Dharma by delivering his first sermon to the group of five companions with whom he had previously sought liberation. They, together with the Buddha, formed the first Saṅgha , the company of Buddhist monks, and hence, the first formation of the Triple Gem (Buddha, Dharma and Sangha ) was completed. For

9864-851: The Dharmaguptaka vinaya and ordination lineage for bhikṣus and bhikṣuṇīs . During the early period of Chinese Buddhism , the Indian Buddhist sects recognized as important, and whose texts were studied, were the Dharmaguptakas, Mahīśāsakas , Kāśyapīyas Sarvāstivādins, and the Mahāsāṃghikas. Complete vinayas preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon include the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya (T. 1421), Mahāsāṃghika Vinaya (T. 1425), Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (T. 1428), Sarvāstivāda Vinaya (T. 1435), and

10001-803: The Gangetic plains or among small monastic communities on the fringes of the subcontinent in the South and the North East. The number of monasteries that supported Mahayana Buddhism gradually started to increase. In the Gangetic plains, Nalanda mahavihara emerged and gradually became a centre of Mahayana Buddhism receiving patronisation not just from Indian rulers but also from foreign monarchs and monks. Within Nalanda, numerous scholars of note have been associated with it including Shantideva , Aryadeva , Dharmakirti and Chandrakirti . Another important centre during this period

10138-421: The Gupta kings built Buddhist temples such as the one at Kushinagara, and monastic universities such as those at Nalanda, as evidenced by records left by three Chinese visitors to India. According to Hazra, Buddhism declined in part because of the rise of the Brahmins and their influence in socio-political process. According to Randall Collins, Richard Gombrich and other scholars, Buddhism's rise or decline

10275-582: The Mauryan empire through commercial connections and along trade routes. In this way, Buddhism also spread through the silk route into central Asia. The Mauryan Empire reached its peak at the time of emperor Ashoka, who converted to Buddhism after the Battle of Kalinga . This heralded a long period of stability under the Buddhist emperor. The power of the empire was vast—ambassadors were sent to other countries to propagate Buddhism . Greek envoy Megasthenes describes

10412-512: The Muslim power. Recent evidence has uncovered the existence of many late Indian Buddhist travellers and scholars who were active into the 15th and 16th centuries. The last abbot of the Bodh Gaya mahavihara in Bihar was Śāriputra who was active into the 1400s when he left India to travel in Tibet and China . Dhyānabhadra was another figure who was previously a student at Nalanda and left India in

10549-697: The Rites of the Vajra-being of Impure Traces for Binding the Hundred Transformations"; T. 1229), Ucchuṣma’s Chinese name Huìjì Jīngāng was changed to Mìjī Jīngāng due to negative connotations associated with the former name. In the Chongbian Zhutian Zhuan ( 重編諸天傳; lit "Recompiled Biographies of Devas and Devīs") from the Southern Song period, one of the Sanskrit transliterations given for Guhyapāda

10686-533: The Shaiva, Garuda and Vaishnava tantras will be effective if applied by Buddhists since they were all taught originally by Manjushri . The Guhyasiddhi of Padmavajra, a work associated with the Guhyasamaja tradition , prescribes acting as a Shaiva guru and initiating members into Shaiva Siddhanta scriptures and mandalas. The Samvara tantra texts adopted the pitha list from the Shaiva text Tantrasadbhava , introducing

10823-598: The Sri Devi Dharani (大吉祥天女咒; Dà Jíxiáng Tiānnǚ Zhòu ) is classified as one of the Ten Small Mantras (十小咒; Shí xiǎo zhòu ), which are a collection of dharanis that are commonly recited in Chinese Buddhist temples in during morning liturgical services. In Chinese, she is known as Biàncáitiān (辯才天), meaning "Eloquent Devī", and Miàoyīntiān (妙音天), meaning "Devī of Wonderful Sounds". Originally from Hinduism, she

10960-541: The Three Vehicles: In the sixth and fifth centuries BC, economic development made the merchant class increasingly important. Merchants were attracted to Buddhist teachings, which contrasted with existing Brahmin religious practices. The latter focussed on the social position of the Brahmin caste to the exclusion of the interests of other classes. Buddhism became prominent in merchant communities and then spread throughout

11097-460: The Thunder God (Leigong). In Chinese, he is known as Dàzìzàitiān (大自在天), meaning "Great self-existent deva", as well as Móxīshǒuluótiān (摩醯首羅天), which is a Chinese transcription of "Maheśvara" in Sanskrit. Originally from Hinduism, he is considered the ruler of the three realms . He is described under two forms, one as the prince of demons, the other as a divine Bodhisattva. As a Piśāca, head of

11234-444: The air; when kept underwater in soil, the energy-rich tubers can overwinter temperatures below 0 °C (32 °F). If the plants are taken out of the water for wintertime storage (mostly in exceptionally cold climates), the tubers and roots must be stored in a stable, frost-free location, such as a garage, preferably in a cardboard box or container filled completely with vermiculite or perlite . Care must be taken to fully insulate

11371-527: The ancient history and was inaugurated in December of 2018 by Prime Minister Narendra Modi . Menander was the most famous Bactrian king. He ruled from Taxila and later from Sagala (Sialkot). He rebuilt Taxila ( Sirkap ) and Puṣkalavatī. He became Buddhist and is remembered in Buddhist records due to his discussions with a great Buddhist philosopher in the book Milinda Pañha . By 90 BC, Parthians took control of eastern Iran and around 50 BC put an end to

11508-496: The case of Buddhism, this support was particularly important because of its high level of organization and the reliance of monks on donations from the laity. State patronage of Buddhism took the form of land grant foundations. Numerous copper plate inscriptions from India as well as Tibetan and Chinese texts suggest that the patronage of Buddhism and Buddhist monasteries in medieval India was interrupted in periods of war and political change, but broadly continued in Hindu kingdoms from

11645-403: The colder season. Four months after planting, the production of flowers has its climax. The harvest of flowers is usually done by hand for three to four months. Seeds and seed pods can be harvested when they turn black four to eight months after planting. After sun drying for two to three days, they are processed by mechanical tools to separate seed coats and embryos. The rhizomes mature to

11782-554: The compounds of monasteries. Politically much of North India was under the Gupta Empire and the Southern regions were under the Vakataka dynasty . Both of the kingdoms continued the patronisation of Buddhism along with nascent Hinduism and Jainism, with the fifth-century Vakataka king, Harishena , being a patron of the Ajanta caves . Mahayana Buddhism began to gain prominence in India around

11919-664: The courtier of the Mughal emperor Akbar , states, "For a long time past scarce any trace of them (the Buddhists) has existed in Hindustan." When he visited Kashmir in 1597, he met with a few old men professing Buddhism, however he 'saw none among the learned'. This is can also be seen from the fact that Buddhist priests were not present amidst learned divines that came to the Ibadat Khana of Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri . Some scholars suggest that

12056-584: The cultivar grown for the fresh rhizome market in Guangdong and Japan , the common rhizome cultivars are Tenno and Bitchu. The characteristics of seed lotus cultivars are a large number of carpels and seed sets as well as large seeds with better nutritional properties. Roots of these varieties are thin, fibrous, and do not form good rhizomes. The main popular cultivars for seed production in China are Cunsanlian, Xianglian 1, Zilian 2, Jianlian, Ganlian 62, and Taikong 36. The average yield of these cultivars in China

12193-457: The decline of Buddhism may be related to economic reasons, wherein the Buddhist monasteries with large land grants focused on non-material pursuits, self-isolation of the monasteries, loss in internal discipline in the sangha , and a failure to efficiently operate the land they owned. Chinese scholars travelling through the region between the 5th and 8th centuries, such as Faxian , Xuanzang , I-ching , Hui-sheng, and Sung-Yun, began to speak of

12330-467: The deities are mostly enshrined in the Mahavira Hall , or a temporary altar to the twenty-four devas are erected outside the threshold, pointed toward the heavens. A puja called the "Gōngfó Zhāitiān" (供佛齋天) or just "Zhāitiān" (齋天), meaning "Offering to Buddhas and Celestial Guardians", where the twenty-four deities are venerated (but not worshipped), is customarily performed in Chinese Buddhist temples on

12467-416: The demons, he is represented in Buddhist iconography with three eyes and eight arms, and riding on a white bull; a bull or a linga being his symbol. As a Śuddhāvāsa, or Pure dwelling, he is described as a bodhisattva of the tenth or highest degree, on the point of entering Buddhahood. In Chinese, he is known as Dàfàntiān (大梵天), meaning "Brahma-deva", and Sìmiànshén (四面神), meaning "Four-faced god". While he

12604-421: The destruction of monasteries and stupas in medieval northwest and western India (now Pakistan and north India). In the north-western parts of medieval India, the Himalayan regions, as well as regions bordering central Asia, Buddhism had facilitated trade relations, states Lars Fogelin. With the Islamic invasion and expansion, and central Asians adopting Islam, the trade route-derived financial support sources and

12741-406: The developing tradition later regarded him to be as a Samyaksambuddha , a "Perfectly Self-Awakened One." According to tradition, he found patronage in the ruler of Magadha , emperor Bimbisāra . The emperor accepted Buddhism as a personal faith and allowed the establishment of many Buddhist " Vihāras ." This eventually led to the renaming of the entire region as Bihar. According to tradition, in

12878-470: The early 1300s to travel to China and Korea . Other names of later Indian Buddhist figures include Vanaratna and Buddhaguptanatha. Many Indian Buddhists fled south. It is known that Buddhists continued to exist in India even after the 14th century from texts such as the Chaitanya Charitamrita . This text outlines an episode in the life of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486–1533), a Vaishnava saint, who

13015-484: The early centuries of the 2nd millennium. The Islamic invasion plundered wealth and destroyed Buddhist images, and consequent take over of land holdings of Buddhist monasteries removed one source of necessary support for the Buddhists, while the economic upheaval and new taxes on laity sapped the laity support of Buddhist monks. Monasteries and institutions such as Nalanda were abandoned by Buddhist monks or destroyed from

13152-473: The economic foundations of Buddhist monasteries declined, on which the survival and growth of Buddhism was based. The arrival of Islam removed the royal patronage to the monastic tradition of Buddhism, and the replacement of Buddhists in long-distance trade by the Muslims eroded the related sources of patronage. In the Gangetic plains, Odisha, northeast and the southern regions of India, Buddhism survived through

13289-700: The exception of the Himalayan region and isolated remnants in parts of south India. However, since the 19th century, modern revivals of Buddhism have included the Maha Bodhi Society , the Vipassana movement , and the Dalit Buddhist movement spearheaded by B. R. Ambedkar . There has also been a growth in Tibetan Buddhism with the arrival of Tibetan refugees and the Tibetan government in exile to India, following

13426-433: The field of thermoregulation in plants. Two other species known to be able to regulate their temperature include Symplocarpus foetidus and Thaumatophyllum bipinnatifidum . The red tiger lotus is native to West Africa, including Nigeria and Cameroon, and thrives in slow-moving water. A fertilized lotus flower bears fruit that contains a cluster of 10 to 30 seeds. Each seed is ovoid 1–2.5 cm wide by 1–1.5 cm long with

13563-452: The fifth century CE. Mahayana innovated on early Buddhism by adding several incarnations to the life of the Buddha while also revering Bodhisattvas . This contrasted with the early Buddhists who mainly revered the Buddha himself. A range of bodhisattvas were worshipped during this period including Avalokiteśvara , Tara and Manjushri among others. Faxian who had travelled to India in the fifth century noted that Mahayana Buddhists lived in

13700-398: The forms of paste , fermented milk, rice wine, ice cream, popcorn ( phool makhana ), and others, with lotus seeds as the main raw material. Traditional Chinese medicine claims that fresh lotus seed wine has thirst-quenching, spleen-healing, and anti-diarrheal advantages after drinking, attributed to unspecified bioactive compounds. Lotus seed tea is consumed in Korea, and lotus embryo tea

13837-514: The future to produce high volumes of uniform, true-to-type , disease-free materials. The first step of the cultivation is to plough the dry field. One round of manure is applied after ten days, before flooding the field. To support a quick initial growth, the water level is relatively low and increases when plants grow. Then a maximum of approximately 4,000 per hectare (1,600/acre) with grid spacing of 1.2 by 2 metres (3 ft 11 in × 6 ft 7 in) are used to plant directly into

13974-470: The guardian of all nations, whom she protects from the fury of war. In addition, she is also identified with Mahēśvarī ( Parvati ), the consort of Maheśvara , and therefore has the title Mātrikā (佛母 Fo mǔ ), Mother of the Myriad Buddhas. In Buddhist iconographic form, she has eight arms, each holding different types of weapons, and rides on a chariot drawn by eight boars. In another iconographic form, she

14111-399: The higher the zone's number, the greater the adaptability of the plants. In the growing season , from April to September (in the northern hemisphere ), the average daytime temperature needed is 23 to 27 °C (73 to 81 °F). In regions with low light levels in winter, the sacred lotus has a period of dormancy . The tubers are not cold-resistant, if removed from water, and exposed to

14248-428: The important sects relatively even-handedly. This consisted of building monasteries and religious monuments, donating property such as the income of villages for the support of monks, and exempting donated property from taxation. Donations were most often made by private persons such as wealthy merchants and female relatives of the royal family, but there were periods when the state also gave its support and protection. In

14385-423: The instructions he had left. The teachings of the Buddha existed only in oral traditions. The Sangha held a number of Buddhist councils in order to reach consensus on matters of Buddhist doctrine and practice. The Early Buddhist Schools were the various schools in which pre-sectarian Buddhism split in the first few centuries after the passing away of the Buddha (in about the 5th century BC). The earliest division

14522-573: The last remnants of Greek rule in Afghanistan. By around 7 AD, an Indo-Parthian dynasty succeeded in taking control of Gandhāra . Parthians continued to support Greek artistic traditions in Gandhara. The start of the Gandhāran Greco-Buddhist art is dated to the period between 50 BC and 75 AD. The Kusana or Kushan Empire ruled large parts of north India from about 60 to 270 AD, as well as

14659-578: The market. Traditional sun baking combined with charcoal processing dries the seeds but results in a loss of nutrients. Freeze-dried lotus seeds have a longer shelf life and maintain original nutrients, while no differences in flavour are found after rehydration compared to fresh lotus seeds. Dry stored lotus seeds are sensitive to moisture and mold infestation ; researchers continue to explore new ways to preserve fresh lotus seeds, such as radiation processing . Lotus seeds can be processed into fillings for moon cake , lotus seed noodles and food in

14796-401: The moon in his hands. In Chinese, he is known as Mìjī Jīngāng (密跡金剛) or Jīngāng Mìjī (金剛密跡) both meaning "The Vajra-being of Secret Traces". He is a vajra-holding protector deity from Buddhist scripture. In Buddhist iconographic form, he wields a vajra mallet " vajra-pāṇi " (a diamond club, thunderbolt stick, or sun symbol) and bares his teeth. His mouth is depicted as being open to form

14933-410: The next major dynasty, the Gupta Empire , with its peak c. 319 to 467, were Hindus, and the decline of Buddhism, especially in the west of north India, probably began in this period. The first half of the millennium saw the increasing isolation of the Buddhist sangha from the general public as mahaviharas looked to become more self-sufficient. A new development was also the use of Buddha images with

15070-457: The north and Balochistan in the west, to Bengal and Assam in the east, and as far south as Mysore . According to legend, emperor Ashoka was overwhelmed by guilt after the conquest of Kalinga , following which he accepted Buddhism as a personal faith with the help of his Brahmin mentors Radhasvami and Manjushri. Ashoka established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Śakyamuni Buddha , and according to Buddhist tradition

15207-404: The number of petals (single petals, double petals, or multi-petals) and their colours range from single colour in white, yellow, pink, and red to bi-colour, most often of white petals with pink tips or highlights. The flowers are capable of producing ink used by artists such as Morrison Polkinghorne to produce abstract images of the landscapes of southern Asia. One example of a flower lotus

15344-470: The pair usually stand guarding temple entrance gates called Shānmén (山門). In Chinese Buddhist belief, the two vajra-wielders Guhyapāda and Nārāyaṇa are manifestations of the bodhisattva Vajrapani . In addition, Guhyapada is also sometimes paired or identified with the Wisdom King Ucchuṣma , who is commonly known as Huìjì Jīngāng (穢跡金剛). In a thirteenth-century Chinese long gāthā elaborating on

15481-790: The reign of the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka , the Buddhist community split into two branches: the Mahāsāṃghika and the Sthaviravāda , each of which spread throughout India and split into numerous sub-sects. In modern times, two major branches of Buddhism exist: the Theravada in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia , and the Mahayana throughout the Himalayas and East Asia. The Buddhist tradition of Vajrayana

15618-444: The remaining seeds can remain dormant for an extensive period of time as the pond silts in and dries out. During flood conditions, sediments containing these seeds are broken open, and the dormant seeds rehydrate and begin a new lotus colony. Under favorable circumstances, the seeds of this aquatic perennial may remain viable for many years, with the oldest recorded lotus germination being from seeds 1,300 years old recovered from

15755-680: The remaining years of his life, the Buddha is said to have travelled in the Gangetic Plain of Northern India and other regions. Buddha died in Kushinagar , Uttar Pradesh , India. Modern historians place his death, according to tradition at the age of 80, in the decades around 400 BC, several decades later than the date in Buddhist tradition. Followers of Buddhism called Buddhists in English, referred to themselves as Saugata . Other terms were Sakyan s or Sakyabhiksu in ancient India. Sakyaputto

15892-721: The rhizomes into the drained field . The rhizomes are then harvested next March. A third way is to plant lotus in ponds or fields and raise aquatic animals such as fish , shrimp , or crab in the same field. A more efficient use of the water for both, the aquatic animals and lotus production has been identified with this planting pattern. Lotus flowers are widely used as offerings to most female deities, especially Lakshmi , in Hindu temples. Among male deities, lotuses are offered to Vishnu for prosperity and to Shiva for salvation. Garlands made of lotuses are used for adorning deities and lotus petals are used in puja . Lotus seeds are also used in prayer beads. Lotuses are also offered to

16029-771: The sacred lotus was sequenced in May 2013. A dedicated genome database lists additional genome assemblies sequenced since then. The sacred lotus grows in water up to 2.5 m (8 ft) deep. The minimum water depth is about 30 cm (12 in). In colder climates, having a deeper water level protects the tubers more effectively, and overall is helpful for better growth and flowering . The sacred lotus germinates at temperatures above 13 °C (55 °F). Most varieties are not naturally cold-hardy, but may readily adapt to living outdoors year-round in USDA hardiness zones 6 through 11 (with some growers having success in zones as low as 4 or 5);

16166-455: The same field. Rice is then harvested in October. From November until March, the field stays either free or terricolous vegetables, such as cabbage or spinach , are planted. Alternatively, the vegetable can also be planted after the harvest of the lotus. Another alternative way is not to harvest the lotus rhizome , even though it is already ripe. A terricolous vegetable is planted between

16303-524: The same monasteries as early Buddhists and they were present to varying extents in most regions. An important early philosopher of the Mahayana school was the philosopher Nagarjuna and although most details of his life are uncertain, most biographies agree that he lived in the first/second centuries in South India . There is an ongoing debate as to the exact geographic origins of Mahayana Buddhism ranging from

16440-461: The start of the common era through early 2nd millennium CE. Modern scholarship and recent translations of Tibetan and Sanskrit Buddhist text archives, preserved in Tibetan monasteries, suggest that through much of the 1st millennium CE in medieval India (and Tibet as well as other parts of China), Buddhist monks owned property and were actively involved in trade and other economic activity, after joining

16577-596: The strongly Buddhist region of Gandhara, including much of modern Afghanistan and Pakistan . Kushan rulers were supporters of Buddhist institutions and built numerous stupas and monasteries. Some of their coins showed an image of Buddha. During this period, Gandharan Buddhism spread through the trade routes protected by the Kushans, out through the Khyber Pass into Central Asia. Gandharan Buddhist art styles also spread outward from Gandhara to other parts of Asia. The monarchs of

16714-614: The systems disagree as to which family Nelumbo should be placed in or whether the genus should belong in its own unique family and order. According to the APG IV system, N. nucifera , N. lutea , and their extinct relatives belong in Proteales with the protea flowers due to genetic comparisons. Older systems, such as the Cronquist system , place N. nucifera and its relatives in the order Nymphaeles based on anatomical similarities. According to

16851-411: The tubers. The sacred lotus requires a nutrient -rich and loamy soil. In the beginning of the summer period (from March until May in the northern hemisphere), a small part of rhizome with at least one eye is either planted in ponds or directly into a flooded field. There are several other propagation ways via seeds or buds . Furthermore, tissue culture is a promising propagation method for

16988-756: The two major scriptures relating to Ucchusama, the Huiji Jin’gang Shuo Shentong Daman Tuoluoni Fashu Lingyao Men (穢跡金剛說神通大滿陀羅尼法術靈要 門經; lit "The Scripture of the Numinous and Essential Gate to the Ritual Techniques of the Great Perfection Dhāraṇī of Supernatural Power as Spoken by the Vajra-being of Impure Traces"; T. 1228), and the Huiji Jin’gang Jin Baibian Fajing (穢跡金剛禁百變法經; "The Scripture of

17125-431: The universe, Hārītī finally appealed to the Buddha for help. The Buddha pointed out that she was suffering because she lost one of hundreds of children, and asked if she could imagine the suffering of parents whose only child had been devoured. She then repented and vowed to protect all children. In doing so, Hārītī became regarded as the protector of children and women in childbirth. In Chinese Buddhist iconographic form, she

17262-547: The wealth of the Mauryan capital. Stupas , pillars , and edicts on stone remain at Sanchi , Sarnath, and Mathura , indicating the extent of the empire. Emperor Ashoka the Great (304 BC–232 BC) was the ruler of the Mauryan Empire from 273 BC to 232 BC. Ashoka reigned over most of India after a series of military campaigns. Emperor Ashoka's kingdom stretched from South Asia and beyond, from present-day parts of Afghanistan in

17399-404: The west. In Buddhist iconographic form, he holds a red naga or a red lasso in his hands. In Chinese, he is known as Rìtiān (日天) or Rìgōng Tiānzǐ (日宮天子). Originally from Hinduism, considered the sun god. In Buddhist iconographic form, he holds a lotus flower in his hands. He sits in a chariot drawn by eight horses with two female attendants at his side. In another popular iconographic form, he

17536-554: The world's supply of rain, as well as one of sixteen Nāga that are spared from the assault of the garudas . He is also regarded as one of the Twenty-Eight Guardian deities of the thousand-armed manifestation of the Bodhisattva Guanyin. In some Mahayana sutras , his palace is said to lie at the bottom of the ocean and is 84,000 yojanas in length and width with an array of decorations that are seven-fold, including walls, banisters, jeweled nets and seven rows of trees. The palace

17673-546: Was Nagarjunakonda which emerged in the region of modern-day Andhra Pradesh where numerous Buddhist monasteries have been discovered. The earliest Buddha images in India were sculpted in Mathura and spread to Sarnath , Sravasti and Kausambi in the second and third centuries CE. These images generally depicted scenes from the life of the Buddha and were more linked with the early schools of Buddhism than with Mahayana. Inscriptions on these images show that they were sculpted by

17810-401: Was already declining in India before the 12th century, but with the pillage by Muslim invaders it nearly became extinct in India in the 1200s. In the 13th century, states Craig Lockard, Buddhist monks in India escaped to Tibet to escape Islamic persecution; while the monks in western India, states Peter Harvey, escaped persecution by moving to south Indian Hindu kingdoms that were able to resist

17947-454: Was also a key period for the consolidation of the epistemological-logical ( pramana ) school of Buddhist philosophy. Apart from the many foreign pilgrims who came to India at this time, especially from China and Tibet, there was a smaller but important flow of Indian pandits who made their way to Tibet... The decline of Buddhism has been attributed to various factors. Regardless of the religious beliefs of their kings, states usually treated all

18084-529: Was also added. Upon Buddhism's arrival in China, it became syncretized with the native culture. Three Taoist gods, namely the Emperor Zi Wei , Emperor Dongyue and the Thunder God , were added to the grouping as well, forming the modern list of twenty-four deities. Veneration of the twenty-four deities has continued into modern Chinese Buddhist traditions . In Chinese Buddhist temples and monasteries, statues of

18221-482: Was another term used by Buddhists, as well as Ariyasavako and Jinaputto . Buddhist scholar Donald S. Lopez states they also used the term Bauddha . The scholar Richard Cohen in his discussion about the 5th-century Ajanta Caves , states that Bauddha is not attested therein, and was used by outsiders to describe Buddhists, except for occasional use as an adjective. The Buddha did not appoint any successor and asked his followers to work toward liberation following

18358-413: Was between the majority Mahāsāṃghika and the minority Sthaviravāda. Some existing Buddhist traditions follow the vinayas of early Buddhist schools. The Dharmaguptakas made more efforts than any other sect to spread Buddhism outside India, to areas such as Afghanistan, Central Asia , and China, and they had great success in doing so. Therefore, most countries which adopted Buddhism from China, also adopted

18495-702: Was closely involved in the preservation and transmission of Buddhism. In 2018, excavations in Lalitgiri in Odisha by the Archaeological Survey of India revealed four monasteries along with ancient seals and inscriptions which show cultural continuity from post-Mauryan period to 13 century AD. In Ratnagiri and Konark in Odisha, Buddhist history as discovered in Lalitagiri is also shared. A museum has been made to preserve

18632-454: Was originally a rākṣasī of Rajgir at the same time that Gautama Buddha also lived there. She had hundreds of children of her own, whom she loved and doted upon, but to feed them, she abducted and killed the children of others. The bereaved mothers of her victims pleaded to the Buddha to save them. So, the Buddha stole the most beloved of her sons, and hid him under his rice bowl. After having desperately searched for her missing son throughout

18769-526: Was said to have entered into a debate with Buddhists in Tamil Nadu . The Tibetan Taranatha (1575–1634) wrote a history of Indian Buddhism, which mentions Buddhism as having survived in some pockets of India during his time. He mentions the Buddhist sangha as having survived in Konkana, Kalinga, Mewad, Chittor, Abu, Saurastra, Vindhya mountains, Ratnagiri, Karnataka etc. The Jain author Gunakirti (1450-1470) wrote

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