178-406: The Turing test , originally called the imitation game by Alan Turing in 1949, is a test of a machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behaviour equivalent to, or indistinguishable from, that of a human. Turing proposed that a human evaluator would judge natural language conversations between a human and a machine designed to generate human-like responses. The evaluator would be aware that one of
356-409: A malware program, preys on Internet users by convincing them to "reveal information about their identities or to lead them to visit a web site that will deliver malicious content to their computers". The program has emerged as a "Valentine-risk" flirting with people "seeking relationships online in order to collect their personal data". The question of whether it is possible for machines to think has
534-459: A paper tape , and a tape transmitter for sending the message from the punched tape. At the receiving end of the line, a printing mechanism would print on a paper tape, and/or a reperforator could be used to make a perforated copy of the message. As there was no longer a direct correlation between the operator's hand movement and the bits transmitted, there was no concern about arranging the code to minimize operator fatigue, and instead Murray designed
712-415: A "60 speed" machine is geared at 45.5 baud (22.0 ms per bit), a "66 speed" machine is geared at 50.0 baud (20.0 ms per bit), a "75 speed" machine is geared at 56.9 baud (17.5 ms per bit), a "100 speed" machine is geared at 74.2 baud (13.5 ms per bit), and a "133 speed" machine is geared at 100.0 baud (10.0 ms per bit). 60 speed became the de facto standard for amateur radio RTTY operation because of
890-507: A "FLASH PRIORITY" tape into a reader while it was still coming out of the punch. Routine traffic often had to wait hours for relay. Many teleprinters had built-in paper tape readers and punches, allowing messages to be saved in machine-readable form and edited off-line . Communication by radio, known as radioteletype or RTTY (pronounced ritty ), was also common, especially among military users. Ships, command posts (mobile, stationary, and even airborne) and logistics units took advantage of
1068-531: A 'type wheel printing telegraph machine' which was issued in August, 1907. In 1906 Charles Krum's son, Howard Krum, joined his father in this work. It was Howard who developed and patented the start-stop synchronizing method for code telegraph systems, which made possible the practical teleprinter. In 1908, a working teleprinter was produced by the Morkrum Company (formed between Joy Morton and Charles Krum), called
1246-406: A Turing machine will ever halt. This paper has been called "easily the most influential math paper in history". Although Turing's proof was published shortly after Church's equivalent proof using his lambda calculus , Turing's approach is considerably more accessible and intuitive than Church's. It also included a notion of a 'Universal Machine' (now known as a universal Turing machine ), with
1424-442: A Turing-test criterion, though with the important implicit limiting assumption maintained, of the participants being natural living beings, rather than considering created artifacts: If they find a parrot who could answer to everything, I would claim it to be an intelligent being without hesitation. This does not mean he agrees with this, but that it was already a common argument of materialists at that time. According to dualism,
1602-781: A ban) was used in cryptanalysis of the Lorenz cipher . Turing travelled to the United States in November 1942 and worked with US Navy cryptanalysts on the naval Enigma and bombe construction in Washington. He also visited their Computing Machine Laboratory in Dayton, Ohio . Turing's reaction to the American bombe design was far from enthusiastic: The American Bombe programme was to produce 336 Bombes, one for each wheel order. I used to smile inwardly at
1780-503: A campaign in 2009, British prime minister Gordon Brown made an official public apology for "the appalling way [Turing] was treated". Queen Elizabeth II granted a pardon in 2013. The term " Alan Turing law " is used informally to refer to a 2017 law in the UK that retroactively pardoned men cautioned or convicted under historical legislation that outlawed homosexual acts. Turing left an extensive legacy in mathematics and computing which today
1958-421: A central object of study in theory of computation . From September 1936 to July 1938, Turing spent most of his time studying under Church at Princeton University , in the second year as a Jane Eliza Procter Visiting Fellow . In addition to his purely mathematical work, he studied cryptology and also built three of four stages of an electro-mechanical binary multiplier . In June 1938, he obtained his PhD from
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#17328587166482136-594: A chatbot called ' Eugene Goostman '. On 7 July 2014, it became the first chatbot which appeared to pass the Turing test in an event at the University of Reading marking the 60th death anniversary of Alan Turing. Thirty-three percent of the event judges thought that Goostman was human; the event organiser Kevin Warwick considered it to have passed Turing's test. It was portrayed as a thirteen year old boy from Odesa, Ukraine , who has
2314-448: A computer is able to fool an interrogator into believing that it is a human, but rather whether a computer could imitate a human. While there is some dispute whether this interpretation was intended by Turing, Sterrett believes that it was and thus conflates the second version with this one, while others, such as Traiger, do not – this has nevertheless led to what can be viewed as the "standard interpretation". In this version, player A
2492-578: A corporeal kind, which brings about a change in its organs; for instance, if touched in a particular part it may ask what we wish to say to it; if in another part it may exclaim that it is being hurt, and so on. But it never happens that it arranges its speech in various ways, in order to reply appropriately to everything that may be said in its presence, as even the lowest type of man can do. Here Descartes notes that automata are capable of responding to human interactions but argues that such automata cannot respond appropriately to things said in their presence in
2670-744: A crucial role in cracking intercepted messages that enabled the Allies to defeat the Axis powers in many engagements, including the Battle of the Atlantic . After the war, Turing worked at the National Physical Laboratory , where he designed the Automatic Computing Engine , one of the first designs for a stored-program computer. In 1948, Turing joined Max Newman 's Computing Machine Laboratory at
2848-428: A cryptanalyst who worked with Turing, said of his colleague: In the first week of June each year he would get a bad attack of hay fever, and he would cycle to the office wearing a service gas mask to keep the pollen off. His bicycle had a fault: the chain would come off at regular intervals. Instead of having it mended he would count the number of times the pedals went round and would get off the bicycle in time to adjust
3026-757: A different design of teleprinter. In 1944 Kleinschmidt demonstrated their lightweight unit to the Signal Corps and in 1949 their design was adopted for the Army's portable needs. In 1956, Kleinschmidt Labs merged with Smith-Corona , which then merged with the Marchant Calculating Machine Co. , forming the SCM Corporation. By 1979, the Kleinschmidt division was turning to Electronic Data Interchange and away from mechanical products. Kleinschmidt machines, with
3204-469: A drum covered with a sheet of paper and moved it slowly upwards so that the type-wheel printed its signals in a spiral. The critical issue was to have the sending and receiving elements working synchronously. Bain attempted to achieve this using centrifugal governors to closely regulate the speed of the clockwork. It was patented, along with other devices, on April 21, 1841. By 1846, the Morse telegraph service
3382-466: A drum. This sequence could also be transmitted automatically upon receipt of an ENQ (control E) signal, if enabled. This was commonly used to identify a station; the operator could press the key to send the station identifier to the other end, or the remote station could trigger its transmission by sending the ENQ character, essentially asking "who are you?" British Creed & Company built teleprinters for
3560-447: A few control characters, such as carriage return and line feed, have retained their original functions (although they are often implemented in software rather than activating electromechanical mechanisms to move a physical printer carriage) but many others are no longer required and are used for other purposes. Some teleprinters had a "Here is" key, which transmitted a fixed sequence of 20 or 22 characters, programmable by breaking tabs off
3738-418: A form of punched tape . The last Silent 700 was the 1987 700/1200 BPS, which was sold into the early 1990s. A global teleprinter network called Telex was developed in the late 1920s, and was used through most of the 20th century for business communications. The main difference from a standard teleprinter is that Telex includes a switched routing network, originally based on pulse-telephone dialing, which in
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#17328587166483916-536: A little the same about me ... I know I must put as much energy if not as much interest into my work as if he were alive, because that is what he would like me to do. Turing's relationship with Morcom's mother continued long after Morcom's death, with her sending gifts to Turing, and him sending letters, typically on Morcom's birthday. A day before the third anniversary of Morcom's death (13 February 1933), he wrote to Mrs. Morcom: I expect you will be thinking of Chris when this reaches you. I shall too, and this letter
4094-509: A long history, which is firmly entrenched in the distinction between dualist and materialist views of the mind. René Descartes prefigures aspects of the Turing test in his 1637 Discourse on the Method when he writes: [H]ow many different automata or moving machines could be made by the industry of man ... For we can easily understand a machine's being constituted so that it can utter words, and even emit some responses to action on it of
4272-413: A machine with a human, both questioned in parallel by an interrogator. Alan Turing Alan Mathison Turing ( / ˈ tj ʊər ɪ ŋ / ; 23 June 1912 – 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician, computer scientist , logician , cryptanalyst , philosopher and theoretical biologist . He was highly influential in the development of theoretical computer science , providing a formalisation of
4450-530: A man and a woman in another room in order to determine the correct sex of the two players. Turing's new question is: "Are there imaginable digital computers which would do well in the imitation game ?" This question, Turing believed, was one that could actually be answered. In the remainder of the paper, he argued against all the major objections to the proposition that "machines can think". Since Turing introduced his test, it has been both highly influential and widely criticized, and has become an important concept in
4628-572: A man and a woman?" These questions replace our original, "Can machines think?" The second version appeared later in Turing's 1950 paper. Similar to the original imitation game test, the role of player A is performed by a computer. However, the role of player B is performed by a man rather than a woman. Let us fix our attention on one particular digital computer C. Is it true that by modifying this computer to have an adequate storage, suitably increasing its speed of action, and providing it with an appropriate programme, C can be made to play satisfactorily
4806-544: A misreading of his paper, these three versions are not regarded as equivalent, and their strengths and weaknesses are distinct. Turing's original article describes a simple party game involving three players. Player A is a man, player B is a woman and player C (who plays the role of the interrogator) is of either gender. In the imitation game, player C is unable to see either player A or player B, and can communicate with them only through written notes. By asking questions of player A and player B, player C tries to determine which of
4984-421: A new one, "which is closely related to it and is expressed in relatively unambiguous words". In essence he proposes to change the question from "Can machines think?" to "Can machines do what we (as thinking entities) can do?" The advantage of the new question, Turing argues, is that it draws "a fairly sharp line between the physical and intellectual capacities of a man". To demonstrate this approach Turing proposes
5162-428: A not very bad game of chess. Now get three men A, B and C as subjects for the experiment. A and C are to be rather poor chess players, B is the operator who works the paper machine. ... Two rooms are used with some arrangement for communicating moves, and a game is played between C and either A or the paper machine. C may find it quite difficult to tell which he is playing. " Computing Machinery and Intelligence " ( 1950 )
5340-511: A paper ribbon, which was then cut and glued into telegram forms. Siemens & Halske , later Siemens , a German company, founded in 1847. The Teletype Corporation , a part of American Telephone and Telegraph Company 's Western Electric manufacturing arm since 1930, was founded in 1906 as the Morkrum Company. In 1925, a merger between Morkrum and Kleinschmidt Electric Company created the Morkrum-Kleinschmidt Company. The name
5518-482: A paper tape punch ("reperforator") was installed at subscriber newspaper sites. Originally these machines would simply punch paper tapes and these tapes could be read by a tape reader attached to a "Teletypesetter operating unit" installed on a Linotype machine . The "operating unit" was essentially a tape reader which actuated a mechanical box, which in turn operated the Linotype's keyboard and other controls, in response to
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5696-560: A patent. In 1924 Britain's Creed & Company , founded by Frederick G. Creed , entered the teleprinter field with their Model 1P, a page printer, which was soon superseded by the improved Model 2P. In 1925 Creed acquired the patents for Donald Murray's Murray code, a rationalised Baudot code. The Model 3 tape printer, Creed’s first combined start-stop machine, was introduced in 1927 for the Post Office telegram service. This machine printed received messages directly on to gummed paper tape at
5874-596: A pet guinea pig and a father who is gynaecologist . The choice of age was intentional so that it induces people who "converse" with him to forgive minor grammatical errors in his responses. In June 2022 the Google LaMDA (Language Model for Dialog Applications) chatbot received widespread coverage regarding claims about it having achieved sentience. Initially in an article in The Economist Google Research Fellow Blaise Agüera y Arcas said
6052-511: A print head, very similar to the 14 elements on a modern fourteen-segment display , each one selected independently by one of the 14 bits during transmission. Because it does not use a fixed character set, but instead builds up characters from smaller elements, the ETK printing element does not require modification to switch between Latin, Cyrillic, and Greek characters. In 1931, American inventor Edward Kleinschmidt formed Kleinschmidt Labs to pursue
6230-811: A printing telegraph with the Postal Telegraph Company in Boston and New York in 1910. It became popular with railroads, and the Associated Press adopted it in 1914 for their wire service . Morkrum merged with their competitor Kleinschmidt Electric Company to become Morkrum-Kleinschmidt Corporation shortly before being renamed the Teletype Corporation. Italian office equipment maker Olivetti (est. 1908) started to manufacture teleprinters in order to provide Italian post offices with modern equipment to send and receive telegrams. The first models typed on
6408-475: A program described as "ELIZA with attitude". It attempted to model the behaviour of a paranoid schizophrenic , using a similar (if more advanced) approach to that employed by Weizenbaum. To validate the work, PARRY was tested in the early 1970s using a variation of the Turing test. A group of experienced psychiatrists analysed a combination of real patients and computers running PARRY through teleprinters . Another group of 33 psychiatrists were shown transcripts of
6586-565: A rate of 65 words per minute. Creed created his first keyboard perforator, which used compressed air to punch the holes. He also created a reperforator (receiving perforator) and a printer. The reperforator punched incoming Morse signals on to paper tape and the printer decoded this tape to produce alphanumeric characters on plain paper. This was the origin of the Creed High Speed Automatic Printing System, which could run at an unprecedented 200 words per minute. His system
6764-543: A receiving teleprinter to cycle continuously, even in the absence of stop bits. It prints nothing because the characters received are all zeros, the ITA2 blank (or ASCII ) null character . Teleprinter circuits were generally leased from a communications common carrier and consisted of ordinary telephone cables that extended from the teleprinter located at the customer location to the common carrier central office . These teleprinter circuits were connected to switching equipment at
6942-417: A renewed discussion of the viability of the Turing test and the value of pursuing it, in both the popular press and academia. The first contest was won by a mindless program with no identifiable intelligence that managed to fool naïve interrogators into making the wrong identification. This highlighted several of the shortcomings of the Turing test (discussed below ): The winner won, at least in part, because it
7120-489: A sensibility of such profundity and originality that one is filled with wonder and excitement. Alan Turing was such a genius, and those, like myself, who had the astonishing and unexpected opportunity, created by the strange exigencies of the Second World War, to be able to count Turing as colleague and friend will never forget that experience, nor can we ever lose its immense benefit to us. Hilton echoed similar thoughts in
7298-528: A single topic, thus the interrogators were restricted to one line of questioning per entity interaction. The restricted conversation rule was lifted for the 1995 Loebner Prize. Interaction duration between judge and entity has varied in Loebner Prizes. In Loebner 2003, at the University of Surrey, each interrogator was allowed five minutes to interact with an entity, machine or hidden-human. Between 2004 and 2007,
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7476-401: A teleprinter is a simple series DC circuit that is interrupted, much as a rotary dial interrupts a telephone signal. The marking condition is when the circuit is closed (current is flowing), the spacing condition is when the circuit is open (no current is flowing). The "idle" condition of the circuit is a continuous marking state, with the start of a character signalled by a "start bit", which
7654-422: A test inspired by a party game , known as the "imitation game", in which a man and a woman go into separate rooms and guests try to tell them apart by writing a series of questions and reading the typewritten answers sent back. In this game, both the man and the woman aim to convince the guests that they are the other. (Huma Shah argues that this two-human version of the game was presented by Turing only to introduce
7832-507: A time if properly lubricated. The Model 15 stands out as one of a few machines that remained in production for many years. It was introduced in 1930 and remained in production until 1963, a total of 33 years of continuous production. Very few complex machines can match that record. The production run was stretched somewhat by World War II—the Model 28 was scheduled to replace the Model 15 in the mid-1940s, but Teletype built so many factories to produce
8010-409: A user's typed comments for keywords. If a keyword is found, a rule that transforms the user's comments is applied, and the resulting sentence is returned. If a keyword is not found, ELIZA responds either with a generic riposte or by repeating one of the earlier comments. In addition, Weizenbaum developed ELIZA to replicate the behaviour of a Rogerian psychotherapist , allowing ELIZA to be "free to assume
8188-562: A version of the central limit theorem . It was finally accepted on 16 March 1935. By spring of that same year, Turing started his master's course (Part III)—which he completed in 1937—and, at the same time, he published his first paper, a one-page article called Equivalence of left and right almost periodicity (sent on 23 April), featured in the tenth volume of the Journal of the London Mathematical Society . Later that year, Turing
8366-509: Is a computer and player B a person of either sex. The role of the interrogator is not to determine which is male and which is female, but which is a computer and which is a human. The fundamental issue with the standard interpretation is that the interrogator cannot differentiate which responder is human, and which is machine. There are issues about duration, but the standard interpretation generally considers this limitation as something that should be reasonable. Controversy has arisen over which of
8544-590: Is a genius". Between January 1922 and 1926, Turing was educated at Hazelhurst Preparatory School, an independent school in the village of Frant in Sussex (now East Sussex ). In 1926, at the age of 13, he went on to Sherborne School , an independent boarding school in the market town of Sherborne in Dorset, where he boarded at Westcott House. The first day of term coincided with the 1926 General Strike , in Britain, but Turing
8722-412: Is always a space. Following the start bit, the character is represented by a fixed number of bits, such as 5 bits in the ITA2 code, each either a mark or a space to denote the specific character or machine function. After the character's bits, the sending machine sends one or more stop bits. The stop bits are marking, so as to be distinct from the subsequent start bit. If the sender has nothing more to send,
8900-642: Is an electromechanical device that can be used to send and receive typed messages through various communications channels, in both point-to-point and point-to-multipoint configurations. Initially, from 1887 at the earliest, teleprinters were used in telegraphy . Electrical telegraphy had been developed decades earlier in the late 1830s and 1840s, then using simpler Morse key equipment and telegraph operators . The introduction of teleprinters automated much of this work and eventually largely replaced skilled operators versed in Morse code with typists and machines communicating faster via Baudot code . With
9078-403: Is determined". (This suggestion is very similar to the Turing test, but it is not certain that Ayer's popular philosophical classic was familiar to Turing.) In other words, a thing is not conscious if it fails the consciousness test. A rudimentary idea of the Turing test appears in the 1726 novel Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift . When Gulliver is brought before the king of Brobdingnag ,
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#17328587166489256-492: Is just to tell you that I shall be thinking of Chris and of you tomorrow. I am sure that he is as happy now as he was when he was here. Your affectionate Alan. Some have speculated that Morcom's death was the cause of Turing's atheism and materialism . Apparently, at this point in his life he still believed in such concepts as a spirit, independent of the body and surviving death. In a later letter, also written to Morcom's mother, Turing wrote: Personally, I believe that spirit
9434-404: Is possible that he managed to deduce Einstein's questioning of Newton's laws of motion from a text in which this was never made explicit. At Sherborne, Turing formed a significant friendship with fellow pupil Christopher Collan Morcom (13 July 1911 – 13 February 1930), who has been described as Turing's first love. Their relationship provided inspiration in Turing's future endeavours, but it
9612-456: Is present. Selective fading causes the mark signal amplitude to be randomly different from the space signal amplitude. Selective fading, or Rayleigh fading can cause two carriers to randomly and independently fade to different depths. Since modern computer equipment cannot easily generate 1.42 bits for the stop period, common practice is to either approximate this with 1.5 bits, or to send 2.0 bits while accepting 1.0 bits receiving. For example,
9790-403: Is really eternally connected with matter but certainly not by the same kind of body ... as regards the actual connection between spirit and body I consider that the body can hold on to a 'spirit', whilst the body is alive and awake the two are firmly connected. When the body is asleep I cannot guess what happens but when the body dies, the 'mechanism' of the body, holding the spirit is gone and
9968-524: Is recognised more widely, with statues and many things named after him , including an annual award for computing innovation. His portrait appears on the Bank of England £50 note , first released on 23 June 2021 to coincide with his birthday. The audience vote in a 2019 BBC series named Turing the greatest person of the 20th century. Turing was born in Maida Vale , London, while his father, Julius Mathison Turing,
10146-406: Is referred to as the "Standard Turing Test", noting that Sterrett equates this with the "standard interpretation" rather than the second version of the imitation game. Sterrett agrees that the standard Turing test (STT) has the problems that its critics cite but feels that, in contrast, the original imitation game test (OIG test) so defined is immune to many of them, due to a crucial difference: Unlike
10324-449: Is to make a significant proportion of the jury believe that it is really a man. Turing's paper considered nine putative objections, which include some of the major arguments against artificial intelligence that have been raised in the years since the paper was published (see " Computing Machinery and Intelligence "). John Searle 's 1980 paper Minds, Brains, and Programs proposed the " Chinese room " thought experiment and argued that
10502-422: Is to stay at public school, he must aim at becoming educated . If he is to be solely a Scientific Specialist , he is wasting his time at a public school". Despite this, Turing continued to show remarkable ability in the studies he loved, solving advanced problems in 1927 without having studied even elementary calculus . In 1928, aged 16, Turing encountered Albert Einstein 's work; not only did he grasp it, but it
10680-492: The Ancient Greek myth of Pygmalion who creates a sculpture of a woman that is animated by Aphrodite , Carlo Collodi 's novel The Adventures of Pinocchio , about a puppet who wants to become a real boy, and E. T. A. Hoffmann 's 1816 story " The Sandman ," where the protagonist falls in love with an automaton. In all these examples, people are fooled by artificial beings that - up to a point - pass as human. Researchers in
10858-467: The Department of Mathematics at Princeton; his dissertation, Systems of Logic Based on Ordinals , introduced the concept of ordinal logic and the notion of relative computing , in which Turing machines are augmented with so-called oracles , allowing the study of problems that cannot be solved by Turing machines. John von Neumann wanted to hire him as his postdoctoral assistant , but he went back to
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#173285871664811036-580: The GPO 's teleprinter service. The Gretag ETK-47 teleprinter developed in Switzerland by Edgar Gretener in 1947 uses a 14-bit start-stop transmission method similar to the 5-bit code used by other teleprinters. However, instead of a more-or-less arbitrary mapping between 5-bit codes and letters in the Latin alphabet , all characters (letters, digits, and punctuation) printed by the ETK are built from 14 basic elements on
11214-531: The Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park , Britain's codebreaking centre that produced Ultra intelligence. He led Hut 8 , the section responsible for German naval cryptanalysis. Turing devised techniques for speeding the breaking of German ciphers , including improvements to the pre-war Polish bomba method, an electromechanical machine that could find settings for the Enigma machine . He played
11392-525: The Mathematical Tripos , with extra courses at the end of the third year, as Part III only emerged as a separate degree in 1934) from February 1931 to November 1934 at King's College, Cambridge , where he was awarded first-class honours in mathematics. His dissertation, On the Gaussian error function , written during his senior year and delivered in November 1934 (with a deadline date of 6 December) proved
11570-458: The Morkrum company obtained their patent for a start-stop synchronizing method for code telegraph systems, which made possible the practical teleprinter, Kleinschmidt filed an application titled "Method of and Apparatus for Operating Printing Telegraphs" which included an improved start-stop method. The basic start-stop procedure, however, is much older than the Kleinschmidt and Morkrum inventions. It
11748-484: The Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society journal in two parts, the first on 30 November and the second on 23 December. In this paper, Turing reformulated Kurt Gödel 's 1931 results on the limits of proof and computation, replacing Gödel's universal arithmetic-based formal language with the formal and simple hypothetical devices that became known as Turing machines . The Entscheidungsproblem (decision problem)
11926-521: The Turing baronets . Turing's father's civil service commission was still active during Turing's childhood years, and his parents travelled between Hastings in the United Kingdom and India, leaving their two sons to stay with a retired Army couple. At Hastings, Turing stayed at Baston Lodge , Upper Maze Hill, St Leonards-on-Sea , now marked with a blue plaque. The plaque was unveiled on 23 June 2012,
12104-444: The University of Manchester . It opens with the words: "I propose to consider the question, 'Can machines think? ' " Because "thinking" is difficult to define, Turing chooses to "replace the question by another, which is closely related to it and is expressed in relatively unambiguous words". Turing describes the new form of the problem in terms of a three-person game called the "imitation game", in which an interrogator asks questions of
12282-599: The Victoria University of Manchester , where he helped develop the Manchester computers and became interested in mathematical biology . Turing wrote on the chemical basis of morphogenesis and predicted oscillating chemical reactions such as the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction , first observed in the 1960s. Despite these accomplishments, he was never fully recognised during his lifetime because much of his work
12460-424: The mind is non-physical (or, at the very least, has non-physical properties ) and, therefore, cannot be explained in purely physical terms. According to materialism, the mind can be explained physically, which leaves open the possibility of minds that are produced artificially. In 1936, philosopher Alfred Ayer considered the standard philosophical question of other minds : how do we know that other people have
12638-412: The philosophy of artificial intelligence . Philosopher John Searle would comment on the Turing test in his Chinese room argument , a thought experiment that stipulates that a machine cannot have a " mind ", " understanding ", or " consciousness ", regardless of how intelligently or human-like the program may make the computer behave. Searle criticizes Turing's test and claims it is insufficient to detect
12816-499: The "most human" conversational behaviour among that year's entries. Artificial Linguistic Internet Computer Entity (A.L.I.C.E.) has won the bronze award on three occasions in recent times (2000, 2001, 2004). Learning AI Jabberwacky won in 2005 and 2006. The Loebner Prize tests conversational intelligence; winners are typically chatterbot programs, or Artificial Conversational Entities (ACE)s . Early Loebner Prize rules restricted conversations: Each entry and hidden-human conversed on
12994-411: The 1975 Model 745 and 1983 Model 707 were even small enough to be sold as portable units. Certain models came with acoustic couplers and some had internal storage, initially cassette tape in the 1973 Models 732/733 ASR and later bubble memory in the 1977 Models 763/765, the first and one of the few commercial products to use the technology. In these units their storage capability essentially acted as
13172-479: The 5 bit ITA2 code and generally worked at 60 to 100 words per minute. Later teleprinters, specifically the Teletype Model 33 , used ASCII code, an innovation that came into widespread use in the 1960s as computers became more widely available. "Speed", intended to be roughly comparable to words per minute , is the standard term introduced by Western Union for a mechanical teleprinter data transmission rate using
13350-780: The 5-bit Baudot code and the much later seven-bit ASCII code, there was a six-bit code known as the Teletypesetter code (TTS) used by news wire services. It was first demonstrated in 1928 and began to see widespread use in the 1950s. Through the use of "shift in" and "shift out" codes, this six-bit code could represent a full set of upper and lower case characters, digits, symbols commonly used in newspapers, and typesetting instructions such as "flush left" or "center", and even "auxiliary font", to switch to italics or bold type, and back to roman ("upper rail"). The TTS produces aligned text, taking into consideration character widths and column width, or line length. A Model 20 Teletype machine with
13528-399: The 5-bit ITA2 code that was popular in the 1940s and for several decades thereafter. Such a machine would send 1 start bit, 5 data bits, and 1.42 stop bits. This unusual stop bit time is actually a rest period to allow the mechanical printing mechanism to synchronize in the event that a garbled signal is received. This is true especially on high frequency radio circuits where selective fading
13706-476: The Atlantic Ocean. In 1835 Samuel Morse devised a recording telegraph, and Morse code was born. Morse's instrument used a current to displace the armature of an electromagnet, which moved a marker, therefore recording the breaks in the current. Cooke & Wheatstone received a British patent covering telegraphy in 1837 and a second one in 1840 which described a type-printing telegraph with steel type fixed at
13884-499: The Baudot system for use on a simplex circuit between London and Paris in 1897, and subsequently made considerable use of duplex Baudot systems on their Inland Telegraph Services. During 1901, Baudot's code was modified by Donald Murray (1865–1945, originally from New Zealand), prompted by his development of a typewriter-like keyboard. The Murray system employed an intermediate step, a keyboard perforator, which allowed an operator to punch
14062-466: The DEL code. NULL/BLANK was used as an idle code for when no messages were being sent. In the United States in 1902, electrical engineer Frank Pearne approached Joy Morton , head of Morton Salt , seeking a sponsor for research into the practicalities of developing a printing telegraph system. Joy Morton needed to determine whether this was worthwhile and so consulted mechanical engineer Charles L. Krum , who
14240-497: The Deaf (TDDs) are used by the hearing impaired for typed communications over ordinary telephone lines. The teleprinter evolved through a series of inventions by a number of engineers, including Samuel Morse , Alexander Bain , Royal Earl House , David Edward Hughes , Emile Baudot , Donald Murray , Charles L. Krum , Edward Kleinschmidt and Frederick G. Creed . Teleprinters were invented in order to send and receive messages without
14418-655: The Enigma cipher machine used by Nazi Germany , together with Dilly Knox , a senior GC&CS codebreaker. Soon after the July 1939 meeting near Warsaw at which the Polish Cipher Bureau gave the British and French details of the wiring of Enigma machine's rotors and their method of decrypting Enigma machine 's messages, Turing and Knox developed a broader solution. The Polish method relied on an insecure indicator procedure that
14596-575: The Germans were likely to change, which they in fact did in May 1940. Turing's approach was more general, using crib-based decryption for which he produced the functional specification of the bombe (an improvement on the Polish Bomba ). On 4 September 1939, the day after the UK declared war on Germany, Turing reported to Bletchley Park, the wartime station of GC&CS. Like all others who came to Bletchley, he
14774-637: The ICS brought the family to British India, where his grandfather had been a general in the Bengal Army . However, both Julius and Ethel wanted their children to be brought up in Britain, so they moved to Maida Vale , London, where Alan Turing was born on 23 June 1912, as recorded by a blue plaque on the outside of the house of his birth, later the Colonnade Hotel . Turing had an elder brother, John Ferrier Turing, father of Sir John Dermot Turing , 12th Baronet of
14952-577: The Model 15 during World War II, it was more economical to continue mass production of the Model 15. The Model 15, in its receive only, no keyboard, version was the classic "news Teletype" for decades. Several different high-speed printers like the "Ink-tronic" etc. Texas Instruments developed its own line of teletypes in 1971, the Silent 700 . Their name came from the use of a thermal printer head to emit copy, making them substantially quieter than contemporary teletypes using impact printing , and some such as
15130-546: The Morkrum Printing Telegraph, which was field tested with the Alton Railroad. In 1910, the Morkrum Company designed and installed the first commercial teletypewriter system on Postal Telegraph Company lines between Boston and New York City using the "Blue Code Version" of the Morkrum Printing Telegraph. In 1916, Edward Kleinschmidt filed a patent application for a typebar page printer. In 1919, shortly after
15308-568: The Nova PBS documentary Decoding Nazi Secrets . While working at Bletchley, Turing, who was a talented long-distance runner , occasionally ran the 40 miles (64 km) to London when he was needed for meetings, and he was capable of world-class marathon standards. Turing tried out for the 1948 British Olympic team , but he was hampered by an injury. His tryout time for the marathon was only 11 minutes slower than British silver medallist Thomas Richards ' Olympic race time of 2 hours 35 minutes. He
15486-486: The OIG test could even be used with non-verbal versions of imitation games. According to Huma Shah, Turing himself was concerned with whether a machine could think and was providing a simple method to examine this: through human-machine question-answer sessions. Shah argues the imitation game which Turing described could be practicalized in two different ways: a) one-to-one interrogator-machine test, and b) simultaneous comparison of
15664-509: The STT, it does not make similarity to human performance the criterion, even though it employs human performance in setting a criterion for machine intelligence. A man can fail the OIG test, but it is argued that it is a virtue of a test of intelligence that failure indicates a lack of resourcefulness: The OIG test requires the resourcefulness associated with intelligence and not merely "simulation of human conversational behaviour". The general structure of
15842-446: The Second World War, Turing was a leading participant in the breaking of German ciphers at Bletchley Park . The historian and wartime codebreaker Asa Briggs has said, "You needed exceptional talent, you needed genius at Bletchley and Turing's was that genius." From September 1938, Turing worked part-time with the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS), the British codebreaking organisation. He concentrated on cryptanalysis of
16020-532: The TWX service was provided by the same telephone central office that handled voice calls, using class of service to prevent POTS customers from connecting to TWX customers. Telex is still in use in some countries for certain applications such as shipping, news, weather reporting and military command. Many business applications have moved to the Internet as most countries have discontinued telex/TWX services. In addition to
16198-528: The Teletype Corporation ceased in 1990, bringing to a close the dedicated teleprinter business. Despite its long-lasting trademark status, the word Teletype went into common generic usage in the news and telecommunications industries. Records of the United States Patent and Trademark Office indicate the trademark has expired and is considered dead. Teletype machines tended to be large, heavy, and extremely robust, capable of running non-stop for months at
16376-402: The Turing test could not be used to determine if a machine could think. Searle noted that software (such as ELIZA) could pass the Turing test simply by manipulating symbols of which they had no understanding. Without understanding, they could not be described as "thinking" in the same sense people did. Therefore, Searle concluded, the Turing test could not prove that machines could think. Much like
16554-438: The Turing test itself, Searle's argument has been both widely criticised and endorsed. Arguments such as Searle's and others working on the philosophy of mind sparked off a more intense debate about the nature of intelligence, the possibility of machines with a conscious mind and the value of the Turing test that continued through the 1980s and 1990s. The Loebner Prize provides an annual platform for practical Turing tests with
16732-488: The United Kingdom had been exploring "machine intelligence" for up to ten years prior to the founding of the field of artificial intelligence ( AI ) research in 1956. It was a common topic among the members of the Ratio Club , an informal group of British cybernetics and electronics researchers that included Alan Turing. Turing, in particular, had been running the notion of machine intelligence since at least 1941 and one of
16910-493: The United Kingdom. When Turing returned to Cambridge, he attended lectures given in 1939 by Ludwig Wittgenstein about the foundations of mathematics . The lectures have been reconstructed verbatim, including interjections from Turing and other students, from students' notes. Turing and Wittgenstein argued and disagreed, with Turing defending formalism and Wittgenstein propounding his view that mathematics does not discover any absolute truths, but rather invents them. During
17088-410: The United States was provided by Western Union. AT&T developed a competing network called " TWX " which initially also used rotary dialing and Baudot code, carried to the customer premises as pulses of DC on a metallic copper pair. TWX later added a second ASCII-based service using Bell 103 type modems served over lines whose physical interface was identical to regular telephone lines. In many cases,
17266-550: The ability of operators to send reliable and accurate information with a minimum of training. Amateur radio operators continue to use this mode of communication today, though most use computer-interface sound generators, rather than legacy hardware teleprinter equipment. Numerous modes are in use within the "ham radio" community, from the original ITA2 format to more modern, faster modes, which include error-checking of characters. A typewriter or electromechanical printer can print characters on paper, and execute operations such as move
17444-405: The alternative formulations of the test Turing intended. Sterrett argues that two distinct tests can be extracted from his 1950 paper and that, pace Turing's remark, they are not equivalent. The test that employs the party game and compares frequencies of success is referred to as the "Original Imitation Game Test", whereas the test consisting of a human judge conversing with a human and a machine
17622-416: The background and no challenges appear, which filters out most basic bots. Saul Traiger argues that there are at least three primary versions of the Turing test, two of which are offered in "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" and one that he describes as the "Standard Interpretation". While there is some debate regarding whether the "Standard Interpretation" is that described by Turing or, instead, based on
17800-414: The bombe performed a chain of logical deductions based on the crib, implemented electromechanically . The bombe detected when a contradiction had occurred and ruled out that setting, moving on to the next. Most of the possible settings would cause contradictions and be discarded, leaving only a few to be investigated in detail. A contradiction would occur when an enciphered letter would be turned back into
17978-497: The bombes; developing a procedure dubbed Turingery for working out the cam settings of the wheels of the Lorenz SZ 40/42 ( Tunny ) cipher machine and, towards the end of the war, the development of a portable secure voice scrambler at Hanslope Park that was codenamed Delilah . By using statistical techniques to optimise the trial of different possibilities in the code breaking process, Turing made an innovative contribution to
18156-462: The carriage back to the left margin of the same line ( carriage return ), advance to the same column of the next line ( line feed ), and so on. Commands to control non-printing operations were transmitted in exactly the same way as printable characters by sending control characters with defined functions (e.g., the line feed character forced the carriage to move to the same position on the next line) to teleprinters. In modern computing and communications
18334-505: The centenary of Turing's birth. Very early in life, Turing's parents purchased a house in Guildford in 1927, and Turing lived there during school holidays. The location is also marked with a blue plaque. Turing's parents enrolled him at St Michael's, a primary school at 20 Charles Road, St Leonards-on-Sea , from the age of six to nine. The headmistress recognised his talent, noting that she "...had clever boys and hardworking boys, but Alan
18512-488: The central office for Telex and TWX service. Private line teleprinter circuits were not directly connected to switching equipment. Instead, these private line circuits were connected to network hubs and repeaters configured to provide point to point or point to multipoint service. More than two teleprinters could be connected to the same wire circuit by means of a current loop . Earlier teleprinters had three rows of keys and only supported upper case letters. They used
18690-516: The chain by hand. Another of his eccentricities is that he chained his mug to the radiator pipes to prevent it being stolen. Peter Hilton recounted his experience working with Turing in Hut 8 in his "Reminiscences of Bletchley Park" from A Century of Mathematics in America: It is a rare experience to meet an authentic genius. Those of us privileged to inhabit the world of scholarship are familiar with
18868-462: The chatbot had demonstrated a degree of understanding of social relationships. Several days later, Google engineer Blake Lemoine claimed in an interview with the Washington Post that LaMDA had achieved sentience. Lemoine had been placed on leave by Google for internal assertions to this effect. Agüera y Arcas (a Google Vice President) and Jen Gennai (head of Responsible Innovation) had investigated
19046-464: The chief of the secret service reported that every possible measure was being taken. The cryptographers at Bletchley Park did not know of the Prime Minister's response, but as Milner-Barry recalled, "All that we did notice was that almost from that day the rough ways began miraculously to be made smooth." More than two hundred bombes were in operation by the end of the war. Turing decided to tackle
19224-449: The claims but dismissed them. Lemoine's assertion was roundly rejected by other experts in the field, pointing out that a language model appearing to mimic human conversation does not indicate that any intelligence is present behind it, despite seeming to pass the Turing test. Widespread discussion from proponents for and against the claim that LaMDA has reached sentience has sparked discussion across social-media platforms, to include defining
19402-497: The code to minimize wear on the machinery, assigning the code combinations with the fewest punched holes to the most frequently used characters . The Murray code also introduced what became known as "format effectors" or " control characters " – the CR (Carriage Return) and LF (Line Feed) codes. A few of Baudot's codes moved to the positions where they have stayed ever since: the NULL or BLANK and
19580-399: The committee went so far as to say that if Turing's work had been published before Lindeberg's, it would have been "an important event in the mathematical literature of that year". Between the springs of 1935 and 1936, at the same time as Alonzo Church , Turing worked on the decidability of problems, starting from Gödel's incompleteness theorems . In mid-April 1936, Turing sent Max Newman
19758-519: The conception of Bombe hut routine implied by this programme, but thought that no particular purpose would be served by pointing out that we would not really use them in that way. Their test (of commutators) can hardly be considered conclusive as they were not testing for the bounce with electronic stop finding devices. Nobody seems to be told about rods or offiziers or banburismus unless they are really going to do something about it. Teleprinter A teleprinter ( teletypewriter , teletype or TTY )
19936-483: The concepts of algorithm and computation with the Turing machine , which can be considered a model of a general-purpose computer . Turing is widely considered to be the father of theoretical computer science. Born in London, Turing was raised in southern England . He graduated from King's College, Cambridge , and in 1938, earned a doctorate degree from Princeton University . During World War II , Turing worked for
20114-560: The conversations. The two groups were then asked to identify which of the "patients" were human and which were computer programs. The psychiatrists were able to make the correct identification only 52 percent of the time– a figure consistent with random guessing. In 2001, in St. Petersburg, Russia , a group of three programmers, the Russian-born Vladimir Veselov, Ukrainian-born Eugene Demchenko, and Russian-born Sergey Ulasen, developed
20292-477: The development of early computers in the 1950s, teleprinters were adapted to allow typed data to be sent to a computer, and responses printed. Some teleprinter models could also be used to create punched tape for data storage (either from typed input or from data received from a remote source) and to read back such tape for local printing or transmission. A teleprinter attached to a modem could also communicate through telephone lines . This latter configuration
20470-399: The earliest-known mentions of "computer intelligence" was made by him in 1947. In Turing's report, "Intelligent Machinery," he investigated "the question of whether or not it is possible for machinery to show intelligent behaviour" and, as part of that investigation, proposed what may be considered the forerunner to his later tests: It is not difficult to devise a paper machine which will play
20648-545: The first competition held in November 1991. It is underwritten by Hugh Loebner . The Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies in Massachusetts , United States, organised the prizes up to and including the 2003 contest. As Loebner described it, one reason the competition was created is to advance the state of AI research, at least in part, because no one had taken steps to implement the Turing test despite 40 years of discussing it. The first Loebner Prize competition in 1991 led to
20826-464: The first draft typescript of his investigations. That same month, Church published his An Unsolvable Problem of Elementary Number Theory , with similar conclusions to Turing's then-yet unpublished work. Finally, on 28 May of that year, he finished and delivered his 36-page paper for publication called " On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem ". It was published in
21004-478: The first named. They emphasised how small their need was compared with the vast expenditure of men and money by the forces and compared with the level of assistance they could offer to the forces. As Andrew Hodges , biographer of Turing, later wrote, "This letter had an electric effect." Churchill wrote a memo to General Ismay , which read: "ACTION THIS DAY. Make sure they have all they want on extreme priority and report to me that this has been done." On 18 November,
21182-460: The idea that such a machine could perform the tasks of any other computation machine (as indeed could Church's lambda calculus). According to the Church–Turing thesis , Turing machines and the lambda calculus are capable of computing anything that is computable. John von Neumann acknowledged that the central concept of the modern computer was due to Turing's paper. To this day, Turing machines are
21360-414: The intellectual stimulation furnished by talented colleagues. We can admire the ideas they share with us and are usually able to understand their source; we may even often believe that we ourselves could have created such concepts and originated such thoughts. However, the experience of sharing the intellectual life of a genius is entirely different; one realizes that one is in the presence of an intelligence,
21538-417: The interaction time allowed in Loebner Prizes was more than twenty minutes. CAPTCHA (Completely Automated Public Turing test to tell Computers and Humans Apart) is one of the oldest concepts for artificial intelligence. The CAPTCHA system is commonly used online to tell humans and bots apart on the internet. It is based on the Turing test. Displaying distorted letters and numbers, it asks the user to identify
21716-448: The king became satisfied that Gulliver was not a machine. Tests where a human judges whether a computer or an alien is intelligent were an established convention in science fiction by the 1940s, and it is likely that Turing would have been aware of these. Stanley G. Weinbaum 's " A Martian Odyssey " (1934) provides an example of how nuanced such tests could be. Earlier examples of machines or automatons attempting to pass as human include
21894-421: The king thinks at first that Gulliver might be a "a piece of clock-work (which is in that country arrived to a very great perfection) contrived by some ingenious artist". Even when he hears Gulliver speaking, the king still doubts whether Gulliver was taught "a set of words" to make him "sell at a better price". Gulliver tells that only after "he put several other questions to me, and still received rational answers"
22072-439: The letters and numbers and type them into a field, which bots struggle to do. The reCaptcha is a CAPTCHA system owned by Google . The reCaptcha v1 and v2 both used to operate by asking the user to match distorted pictures or identify distorted letters and numbers. The reCaptcha v3 is designed to not interrupt users and run automatically when pages are loaded or buttons are clicked. This "invisible" CAPTCHA verification happens in
22250-405: The line simply remains in the marking state (as if a continuing series of stop bits) until a later space denotes the start of the next character. The time between characters need not be an integral multiple of a bit time, but it must be at least the minimum number of stop bits required by the receiving machine. When the line is broken, the continuous spacing (open circuit, no current flowing) causes
22428-440: The machine's ability to give correct answers to questions , only on how closely its answers resembled those a human would give. Since the Turing test is a test of indistinguishability in performance capacity, the verbal version generalizes naturally to all of human performance capacity, verbal as well as nonverbal (robotic). The test was introduced by Turing in his 1950 paper " Computing Machinery and Intelligence " while working at
22606-904: The meaning of sentience as well as what it means to be human. OpenAI 's chatbot, ChatGPT, released in November 2022, is based on GPT-3.5 and GPT-4 large language models . Celeste Biever wrote in a Nature article that "ChatGPT broke the Turing test". Stanford researchers reported that ChatGPT passes the test; they found that ChatGPT-4 "passes a rigorous Turing test, diverging from average human behavior chiefly to be more cooperative". Virtual assistants are also AI-powered software agents designed to respond to commands or questions and perform tasks electronically, either with text or verbal commands, so naturally they incorporate chatbot capabilities. Prominent virtual assistants for direct consumer use include Apple 's Siri , Amazon Alexa , Google Assistant , Samsung 's Bixby and Microsoft Copilot . Versions of these programs continue to fool people. "CyberLover",
22784-443: The military as their primary customer, used standard military designations for their machines. The teleprinter was identified with designations such as a TT-4/FG, while communication "sets" to which a teleprinter might be a part generally used the standard Army/Navy designation system such as AN/FGC-25. This includes Kleinschmidt teleprinter TT-117/FG and tape reperforator TT-179/FG. Morkrum made their first commercial installation of
22962-432: The more likely settings so that they can be tried as quickly as possible". ... Richard said that GCHQ had now "squeezed the juice" out of the two papers and was "happy for them to be released into the public domain". Turing had a reputation for eccentricity at Bletchley Park. He was known to his colleagues as "Prof" and his treatise on Enigma was known as the "Prof's Book". According to historian Ronald Lewin , Jack Good ,
23140-458: The nature of ionospheric propagation kept many users at 60 and 66 speed. Most audio recordings in existence today are of teleprinters operating at 60 words per minute, and mostly of the Teletype Model 15. Another measure of the speed of a teletypewriter was in total "operations per minute (OPM)". For example, 60 speed was usually 368 OPM, 66 speed was 404 OPM, 75 speed was 460 OPM, and 100 speed
23318-466: The naval Enigma, "though I was not sure that it would work in practice, and was not, in fact, sure until some days had actually broken". For this, he invented a measure of weight of evidence that he called the ban . Banburismus could rule out certain sequences of the Enigma rotors, substantially reducing the time needed to test settings on the bombes. Later this sequential process of accumulating sufficient weight of evidence using decibans (one tenth of
23496-400: The need for operators trained in the use of Morse code. A system of two teleprinters, with one operator trained to use a keyboard, replaced two trained Morse code operators. The teleprinter system improved message speed and delivery time, making it possible for messages to be flashed across a country with little manual intervention. There were a number of parallel developments on both sides of
23674-410: The paper, Turing suggests an "equivalent" alternative formulation involving a judge conversing only with a computer and a man. While neither of these formulations precisely matches the version of the Turing test that is more generally known today, he proposed a third in 1952. In this version, which Turing discussed in a BBC radio broadcast, a jury asks questions of a computer and the role of the computer
23852-412: The part of A in the imitation game, the part of B being taken by a man? In this version, both player A (the computer) and player B are trying to trick the interrogator into making an incorrect decision. The standard interpretation is not included in the original paper, but is both accepted and debated. Common understanding has it that the purpose of the Turing test is not specifically to determine whether
24030-556: The particularly difficult problem of cracking the German naval use of Enigma "because no one else was doing anything about it and I could have it to myself". In December 1939, Turing solved the essential part of the naval indicator system, which was more complex than the indicator systems used by the other services. That same night, he also conceived of the idea of Banburismus , a sequential statistical technique (what Abraham Wald later called sequential analysis ) to assist in breaking
24208-499: The pose of knowing almost nothing of the real world". With these techniques, Weizenbaum's program was able to fool some people into believing that they were talking to a real person, with some subjects being "very hard to convince that ELIZA [...] is not human". Thus, ELIZA is claimed by some to be one of the programs (perhaps the first) able to pass the Turing test, even though this view is highly contentious (see Naïveté of interrogators below). Kenneth Colby created PARRY in 1972,
24386-437: The presence of consciousness. The Turing Test later led to the development of ' chatbots ', AI software entities developed for the sole purpose of conducting text chat sessions with people. Today, chatbots have a more inclusive definition; a computer program that can hold a conversation with a person, usually over the internet. OED In 1966, Joseph Weizenbaum created a program called ELIZA . The program worked by examining
24564-420: The primary tools, and the major automated one, used to attack Enigma-enciphered messages. The bombe searched for possible correct settings used for an Enigma message (i.e., rotor order, rotor settings and plugboard settings) using a suitable crib : a fragment of probable plaintext . For each possible setting of the rotors (which had on the order of 10 states, or 10 states for the four-rotor U-boat variant),
24742-514: The public telephone network ( telex ), and radio and microwave links (telex-on-radio, or TOR). There were at least five major types of teleprinter networks: Before the computer revolution (and information processing performance improvements thanks to Moore's law ) made it possible to securely encrypt voice and video calls , teleprinters were long used in combination with electromechanical or electronic cryptographic devices to provide secure communication channels . Being limited to text only
24920-418: The reader to the machine-human question-answer test.) Turing described his new version of the game as follows: We now ask the question, "What will happen when a machine takes the part of A in this game?" Will the interrogator decide wrongly as often when the game is played like this as he does when the game is played between a man and a woman? These questions replace our original, "Can machines think?" Later in
25098-435: The same conscious experiences that we do? In his book, Language, Truth and Logic , Ayer suggested a protocol to distinguish between a conscious man and an unconscious machine: "The only ground I can have for asserting that an object which appears to be conscious is not really a conscious being, but only a dummy or a machine, is that it fails to satisfy one of the empirical tests by which the presence or absence of consciousness
25276-468: The same plaintext letter, which was impossible with the Enigma. The first bombe was installed on 18 March 1940. By late 1941, Turing and his fellow cryptanalysts Gordon Welchman , Hugh Alexander and Stuart Milner-Barry were frustrated. Building on the work of the Poles , they had set up a good working system for decrypting Enigma signals, but their limited staff and bombes meant they could not translate all
25454-407: The signals. In the summer, they had considerable success, and shipping losses had fallen to under 100,000 tons a month; however, they badly needed more resources to keep abreast of German adjustments. They had tried to get more people and fund more bombes through the proper channels, but had failed. On 28 October they wrote directly to Winston Churchill explaining their difficulties, with Turing as
25632-463: The spirit finds a new body sooner or later, perhaps immediately. After graduating from Sherborne, Turing applied for several Cambridge colleges scholarships, including Trinity and King's , eventually earning an £80 per annum scholarship (equivalent to about £4,300 as of 2023) to study at the latter. There, Turing studied the undergraduate course in Schedule B (that is, a three-year Parts I and II, of
25810-485: The subject. He wrote two papers discussing mathematical approaches, titled The Applications of Probability to Cryptography and Paper on Statistics of Repetitions , which were of such value to GC&CS and its successor GCHQ that they were not released to the UK National Archives until April 2012, shortly before the centenary of his birth. A GCHQ mathematician, "who identified himself only as Richard," said at
25988-403: The teleprinter network, handling weather traffic, extended over 20,000 miles, covering all 48 states except Maine, New Hampshire, and South Dakota. Teleprinters could use a variety of different communication channels. These included a simple pair of wires, public switched telephone networks , dedicated non-switched telephone circuits (leased lines), switched networks that operated similarly to
26166-473: The time that the fact that the contents had been restricted under the Official Secrets Act for some 70 years demonstrated their importance, and their relevance to post-war cryptanalysis: [He] said the fact that the contents had been restricted "shows what a tremendous importance it has in the foundations of our subject". ... The papers detailed using "mathematical analysis to try and determine which are
26344-415: The tips of petals of a rotating brass daisy-wheel, struck by an "electric hammer" to print Roman letters through carbon paper onto a moving paper tape. In 1841 Alexander Bain devised an electromagnetic printing telegraph machine. It used pulses of electricity created by rotating a dial over contact points to release and stop a type-wheel turned by weight-driven clockwork; a second clockwork mechanism rotated
26522-407: The two is the man and which is the woman. Player A's role is to trick the interrogator into making the wrong decision, while player B attempts to assist the interrogator in making the right one. Turing then asks: "What will happen when a machine takes the part of A in this game? Will the interrogator decide wrongly as often when the game is played like this as he does when the game is played between
26700-443: The two partners in conversation was a machine, and all participants would be separated from one another. The conversation would be limited to a text-only channel, such as a computer keyboard and screen, so the result would not depend on the machine's ability to render words as speech. If the evaluator could not reliably tell the machine from the human, the machine would be said to have passed the test. The test results would not depend on
26878-470: The war. However, official war historian Harry Hinsley estimated that this work shortened the war in Europe by more than two years and saved over 14 million lives. At the end of the war, a memo was sent to all those who had worked at Bletchley Park, reminding them that the code of silence dictated by the Official Secrets Act did not end with the war but would continue indefinitely. Thus, even though Turing
27056-486: The way that any human can. Descartes therefore prefigures the Turing test by defining the insufficiency of appropriate linguistic response as that which separates the human from the automaton. Descartes fails to consider the possibility that future automata might be able to overcome such insufficiency, and so does not propose the Turing test as such, even if he prefigures its conceptual framework and criterion. Denis Diderot formulates in his 1746 book Pensées philosophiques
27234-432: The widespread availability of equipment at that speed and the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) restrictions to only 60 speed from 1953 to 1972. Telex, news agency wires and similar services commonly used 66 speed services. There was some migration to 75 and 100 speed as more reliable devices were introduced. However, the limitations of HF transmission such as excessive error rates due to multipath distortion and
27412-502: The work of Royal Earl House. In less than two years, a number of small telegraph companies, including Western Union in early stages of development, united to form one large corporation – Western Union Telegraph Co. – to carry on the business of telegraphy on the Hughes system. In France, Émile Baudot designed in 1874 a system using a five-unit code, which began to be used extensively in that country from 1877. The British Post Office adopted
27590-461: Was 600 OPM. Western Union Telexes were usually set at 390 OPM, with 7.0 total bits instead of the customary 7.42 bits. Both wire-service and private teleprinters had bells to signal important incoming messages and could ring 24/7 while the power was turned on. For example, ringing 4 bells on UPI wire-service machines meant an "Urgent" message; 5 bells was a "Bulletin"; and 10 bells was a FLASH, used only for very important news. The teleprinter circuit
27768-679: Was Ethel Sara Turing ( née Stoney ), daughter of Edward Waller Stoney, chief engineer of the Madras Railways . The Stoneys were a Protestant Anglo-Irish gentry family from both County Tipperary and County Longford , while Ethel herself had spent much of her childhood in County Clare . Julius and Ethel married on 1 October 1907 at the Church of Ireland St. Bartholomew's Church on Clyde Road in Ballsbridge , Dublin . Julius's work with
27946-417: Was Walton Athletic Club's best runner, a fact discovered when he passed the group while running alone. When asked why he ran so hard in training he replied: I have such a stressful job that the only way I can get it out of my mind is by running hard; it's the only way I can get some release. Due to the problems of counterfactual history , it is hard to estimate the precise effect Ultra intelligence had on
28124-471: Was able to "imitate human typing errors"; the unsophisticated interrogators were easily fooled; and some researchers in AI have been led to feel that the test is merely a distraction from more fruitful research. The silver (text only) and gold (audio and visual) prizes have never been won. However, the competition has awarded the bronze medal every year for the computer system that, in the judges' opinions, demonstrates
28302-674: Was adopted by the Daily Mail for daily transmission of the newspaper's contents. The Creed Model 7 page printing teleprinter was introduced in 1931 and was used for the inland Telex service. It worked at a speed of 50 baud, about 66 words a minute, using a code based on the Murray code. A teleprinter system was installed in the Bureau of Lighthouses , Airways Division, Flight Service Station Airway Radio Stations system in 1928, carrying administrative messages, flight information and weather reports. By 1938,
28480-473: Was already proposed by D'Arlincourt in 1870. Instead of wasting time and money in patent disputes on the start-stop method, Kleinschmidt and the Morkrum Company decided to merge and form the Morkrum-Kleinschmidt Company in 1924. The new company combined the best features of both their machines into a new typewheel printer for which Kleinschmidt, Howard Krum, and Sterling Morton jointly obtained
28658-545: Was an acceptable trade-off for security. Most teleprinters used the 5- bit International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA2). This was limited to 32 codes (2 = 32). One had to use "FIGS" (for "figures") and "LTRS" (for "letters") keys to shift state , for a combined character set sufficient to type both letters and numbers, as well as some special characters. (The letters were uppercase only.) Special versions of teleprinters had FIGS characters for specific applications, such as weather symbols for weather reports. Print quality
28836-643: Was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 1946 by King George VI for his wartime services, his work remained secret for many years. Within weeks of arriving at Bletchley Park, Turing had specified an electromechanical machine called the bombe , which could break Enigma more effectively than the Polish bomba kryptologiczna , from which its name was derived. The bombe, with an enhancement suggested by mathematician Gordon Welchman , became one of
29014-678: Was changed in December 1928 to Teletype Corporation. In 1930, Teletype Corporation was purchased by the American Telephone and Telegraph Company and became a subsidiary of Western Electric . In 1984, the divestiture of the Bell System resulted in the Teletype name and logo being replaced by the AT&;T name and logo, eventually resulting in the brand being extinguished. The last vestiges of what had been
29192-464: Was covered by the Official Secrets Act . In 1952, Turing was prosecuted for homosexual acts . He accepted hormone treatment, a procedure commonly referred to as chemical castration , as an alternative to prison. Turing died on 7 June 1954, aged 41, from cyanide poisoning . An inquest determined his death as suicide , but the evidence is also consistent with accidental poisoning. Following
29370-725: Was cut short by Morcom's death, in February 1930, from complications of bovine tuberculosis , contracted after drinking infected cow's milk some years previously. The event caused Turing great sorrow. He coped with his grief by working that much harder on the topics of science and mathematics that he had shared with Morcom. In a letter to Morcom's mother, Frances Isobel Morcom (née Swan), Turing wrote: I am sure I could not have found anywhere another companion so brilliant and yet so charming and unconceited. I regarded my interest in my work, and in such things as astronomy (to which he introduced me) as something to be shared with him and I think he felt
29548-517: Was difficult to manufacture in bulk. The printer could copy and print out up to 2,000 words per hour. This invention was first put in operation and exhibited at the Mechanics Institute in New York in 1844. Landline teleprinter operations began in 1849, when a circuit was put in service between Philadelphia and New York City. In 1855, David Edward Hughes introduced an improved machine built on
29726-422: Was elected a Fellow of King's College on the strength of his dissertation where he served as a lecturer . However, and, unknown to Turing, this version of the theorem he proved in his paper, had already been proven, in 1922, by Jarl Waldemar Lindeberg . Despite this, the committee found Turing's methods original and so regarded the work worthy of consideration for the fellowship. Abram Besicovitch 's report for
29904-413: Was often linked to a 5-bit paper tape punch (or "reperforator") and reader, allowing messages received to be resent on another circuit. Complex military and commercial communications networks were built using this technology. Message centers had rows of teleprinters and large racks for paper tapes awaiting transmission. Skilled operators could read the priority code from the hole pattern and might even feed
30082-549: Was often used to connect teleprinters to remote computers, particularly in time-sharing environments. Teleprinters have largely been replaced by fully electronic computer terminals which typically have a computer monitor instead of a printer (though the term "TTY" is still occasionally used to refer to them, such as in Unix systems). Teleprinters are still widely used in the aviation industry (see AFTN and airline teletype system ), and variants called Telecommunications Devices for
30260-775: Was on leave from his position with the Indian Civil Service (ICS) of the British Raj government at Chatrapur , then in the Madras Presidency and presently in Odisha state, in India . Turing's father was the son of a clergyman, the Rev. John Robert Turing, from a Scottish family of merchants that had been based in the Netherlands and included a baronet . Turing's mother, Julius's wife,
30438-406: Was operational between Washington, D.C., and New York. Royal Earl House patented his printing telegraph that same year. He linked two 28-key piano-style keyboards by wire. Each piano key represented a letter of the alphabet and when pressed caused the corresponding letter to print at the receiving end. A "shift" key gave each main key two optional values. A 56-character typewheel at the sending end
30616-446: Was originally posed by German mathematician David Hilbert in 1928. Turing proved that his "universal computing machine" would be capable of performing any conceivable mathematical computation if it were representable as an algorithm . He went on to prove that there was no solution to the decision problem by first showing that the halting problem for Turing machines is undecidable : it is not possible to decide algorithmically whether
30794-521: Was poor by modern standards. The ITA2 code was used asynchronously with start and stop bits : the asynchronous code design was intimately linked with the start-stop electro-mechanical design of teleprinters. (Early systems had used synchronous codes, but were hard to synchronize mechanically). Other codes, such as FIELDATA and Flexowriter , were introduced but never became as popular as ITA2. Mark and space are terms describing logic levels in teleprinter circuits. The native mode of communication for
30972-548: Was required to sign the Official Secrets Act , in which he agreed not to disclose anything about his work at Bletchley, with severe legal penalties for violating the Act. Specifying the bombe was the first of five major cryptanalytical advances that Turing made during the war. The others were: deducing the indicator procedure used by the German navy; developing a statistical procedure dubbed Banburismus for making much more efficient use of
31150-440: Was so determined to attend that he rode his bicycle unaccompanied 60 miles (97 km) from Southampton to Sherborne, stopping overnight at an inn. Turing's natural inclination towards mathematics and science did not earn him respect from some of the teachers at Sherborne, whose definition of education placed more emphasis on the classics . His headmaster wrote to his parents: "I hope he will not fall between two stools. If he
31328-475: Was synchronised to coincide with a similar wheel at the receiving end. If the key corresponding to a particular character was pressed at the home station, it actuated the typewheel at the distant station just as the same character moved into the printing position, in a way similar to the (much later) daisy wheel printer . It was thus an example of a synchronous data transmission system. House's equipment could transmit around 40 instantly readable words per minute, but
31506-400: Was the first published paper by Turing to focus exclusively on machine intelligence. Turing begins the 1950 paper with the claim, "I propose to consider the question 'Can machines think? ' " As he highlights, the traditional approach to such a question is to start with definitions , defining both the terms "machine" and "think". Turing chooses not to do so; instead, he replaces the question with
31684-482: Was vice president of the Western Cold Storage Company. Krum was interested in helping Pearne, so space was set up in a laboratory in the attic of Western Cold Storage. Frank Pearne lost interest in the project after a year and left to get involved in teaching. Krum was prepared to continue Pearne’s work, and in August, 1903 a patent was filed for a ' typebar page printer'. In 1904, Krum filed a patent for
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