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74-610: The contrasting Hebrew noun ṭaharah ( טָהֳרָה ‎) describes a state of ritual purity that qualifies the ṭahor ( טָהוֹר ‎; ritually pure person or object) to be used for kedushah . The most common method of achieving ṭaharah is by the person or object being immersed in a mikveh (ritual bath). This concept is connected with ritual washing in Judaism , and both ritually impure and ritually pure states have parallels in ritual purification in other world religions . The laws of ṭum'ah and ṭaharah were generally followed by

148-400: A corpse , is considered the ultimate impurity. It cannot be purified through immersion in a mikveh alone, but also requires sprinkling with the ashes of the red heifer . Since the red heifer no longer exists, this form of impurity cannot be removed. Currently, all individuals are assumed to possess the impurity of death. This has a few practical implications: it prohibits Jews from entering

222-430: A deity , and ritual purity is a state of ritual cleanliness . Ritual purification may also apply to objects and places. Ritual uncleanliness is not identical with ordinary physical impurity, such as dirt stains; nevertheless, body fluids are generally considered ritually unclean. Most of these rituals existed long before the germ theory of disease , and figure prominently from the earliest known religious systems of

296-437: A tea ceremony or visiting the grounds of a Buddhist temple . The name originates from the verb tsukubau meaning "to crouch" or "to bow down", an act of humility. Guests attending a tea ceremony crouch and wash their hands in a tsukubai set in the tea garden before entering the tearoom. Tsukubai are usually of stone, and are often provided with a small ladle , ready for use. A supply of water may be provided via

370-460: A 'dimension of purity' that is universal in religions that seeks to move humans away from disgust (at one extreme), to uplift them towards purity and divinity (at the other extreme), away from uncleanliness to purity, and away from deviant to moral behavior (within one's cultural context). In the Baháʼí Faith , ritual ablutions (the washing of the hands and face) should be done before the saying of

444-673: A bamboo pipe called a kakei . The famous tsukubai shown here stands in the grounds of the Ryōan-ji temple in Kyoto , and was donated by the feudal lord Tokugawa Mitsukuni . The kanji written on the surface of the stone are without significance when read alone. If each is read in combination with 口 (kuchi) - the shape of the central bowl - then the characters become 吾, 唯, 足, 知 which translates literally as "I only know plenty" (吾 = ware = I, 唯 = tada = only, 足 = taru = plenty, 知 = shiru = know). The underlying meaning, variously translated as "what one has

518-510: A banishing ritual be done at least once daily by Thelemites . In Wicca and various forms of neopaganism , banishing is performed before casting a circle in order to purify the area where the ritual or magick is about to take place. In his books on nocturnal witchcraft, for example, Konstantinos recommends performing banishings regularly, in order to keep the magical workspace free of negativity, and to become proficient in banishing before attempting acts that are much more spiritually taxing on

592-557: A ceremony of the Washing of Feet , following the example of Jesus in the Gospel. Some interpret this as an ordinance which the church is obliged to keep as a commandment, see also Biblical law in Christianity . Others interpret it as an example that all should follow. Most denominations that practice the rite will perform it on Maundy Thursday . Often in these services, the bishop will wash

666-432: A conduit for Divine and Godly manifestation. Although ṭum'ah and ṭaharah is sometimes translated as unclean and clean , it is more a spiritual state than a physical one. Once initiated (for the physical signs that initiate tzaraath , zav and niddah , see below) it is generally immeasurable and unquantifiable by known mechanical detection methods, there is no measure of filth, unsanitary, or odorous affiliation with

740-535: A corresponding adjective, ṭamé (טָמֵא), "impure". Likewise the Hebrew noun ṭahara ( טָהֳרָה ‎) is also derived from a verb, in this case ṭaher ( טָהֵר ‎) "to be ritually pure". and in the transitive piel "to purify". The verb and noun have a corresponding adjective, ṭahor ( טָהוֹר ‎), "ritually pure". The word is a cognate to the Arabic word ' طهارة ' ṭahāra(h) (pronounced almost identically, with

814-865: A dying person is also performed. It includes bathing, which involves a threefold sprinkling of river water over the person from head to feet. Ritual cleanliness is a central part of Shinto life. In Shinto, a common form of ritual purification is misogi , which involves natural running water, and especially waterfalls. Rather than being entirely naked, men usually wear Japanese loincloths and women wear kimono , both additionally wearing headbands . In ceremonial magic , ' banishing ' refers to one or more rituals intended to remove non-physical influences ranging from spirits to negative influences. Although banishing rituals are often used as components of more complex ceremonies, they can also be performed by themselves. Banishing can be viewed as one of several techniques of magic , closely related to ritual purification and

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888-433: A heavier emphasis on Old Testament teachings, and its followers adhere to certain practices such as observing days of ritual purification. Before praying, they wash their hands and face in order to be clean before and present their best to God. The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church prescribes several kinds of hand washing for example after leaving the latrine, lavatory or bathhouse, or before prayer, or after eating

962-455: A house where a death has recently occurred, Hindus are expected to take baths. Women take a head bath after completing their four-day menstrual period . In the traditions of many Indigenous peoples of the Americas , one of the forms of ritual purification is the ablutionary use of a sauna , known as a sweatlodge , as preparation for a variety of other ceremonies. The burning of smudge sticks

1036-428: A married couple), and others are unavoidable (i.e. if a person dies suddenly while other people are in the house). Thus, there is no automatic moral stigma to becoming "impure"; impurity "comes to everyone universally and without exception by virtue of biological existence". Certain activities are prohibited as a result of acquiring this "impure" status. For example: Just as it is a severe offense to bring impurity into

1110-575: A meal. The women in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church are prohibited from entering the church temple during menses ; and the men do not enter a church the day after they have had intercourse with their wives. Baptism , as a form of ritual purification, occurs in several religions related to Judaism, and most prominently in Christianity ; Christianity also has other forms of ritual purification. Many Christian churches practice

1184-517: A number of Eastern Christian churches ( Eastern Orthodox , Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic churches). A cantharus is a fountain used by Christians for ablution before entering a church . These ablutions involve the washing of the hands, face, and feet. The cantharus is traditionally located in the exonarthex of the church. The water emitted by a cantharus is to be running water. The practice of ablutions before prayer and worship in Christianity symbolizes "separation from sins of

1258-502: A number of cases, no specific sin is mentioned; overall sinful behavior has led to impurity. Christine Hayes argues that moral impurity is the reason for the gentile expulsion and alienation that occurs in Ezra–Nehemiah . However, S.M. Olyan argues that this expulsion was inspired by earlier biblical traditions regarding both ritual and moral impurity. The Mishnah devotes one of its six sub-divisions, named Tohorot ("purities"), to

1332-462: A practical precaution of cleanness, which was also interpreted symbolically. "In the third century there are traces of a custom of washing the hands as a preparation for prayer on the part of all Christians, and from the fourth century onwards it appears to have been usual for the ministers at the Holy Mass or divine liturgy ceremonially to wash their hands before the more solemn part of the service as

1406-507: A significance beyond washing and should be performed even if one has bathed oneself immediately before reciting the obligatory prayer; fresh ablutions should also be performed for each devotion, unless they are being done at the same time. If no water (or clean water) is available or if an illness would be worsened by the use of water, one may instead repeat the verse "In the Name of God, the Most Pure,

1480-522: A symbol of inward purity." Traditionally, Christianity adhered to the biblical regulation requiring the purification of women after childbirth; this practice, was adapted into a special ritual known as the churching of women , for which there exists liturgy in the Church of England 's Book of Common Prayer , but its use is now rare in Western Christianity . The churching of women is still performed in

1554-754: A typical prerequisite for consecration and invocation . In the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn , the Lesser Ritual of the Pentagram (banishing: LBRP; invoking: LIRP) must be learned by the Neophyte before moving on to the next grade ( Zelator ). For actual workings Aleister Crowley recommends a short, general banishing, with a comment that "in more elaborate ceremonies it is usual to banish everything by name." In Liber Aleph vel CXI , Crowley recommended that

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1628-714: A visiting professor at the University of Pennsylvania Law School (2018), and a fellow at the Katz Center for Advanced Judaic Studies (2018). Since 2015, she has been a Senior Faculty Fellow at the Shalom Hartman Institute of North America. From 2012 to 2016, Hayes served as the co-editor of the Association of Jewish Studies Review . In 2017, she was elected president of the Association for Jewish Studies . In 2021 Hayes

1702-562: A way of life (See Romans 12:1, and John 13:5-10 (the Washing of the Feet)). Prior to praying the canonical hours at seven fixed prayer times , Oriental Orthodox Christians wash their hands, face and feet (cf. Agpeya , Shehimo ). The use of water in many Christian countries is due in part to the Biblical toilet etiquette which encourages washing after all instances of defecation. The bidet

1776-528: Is ṭumath ochlin v'mashkin (consuming food and drink that did not become ṭamei ). Sages such as Rabban Gamaliel and Hiyya the Great encouraged eating only pure food at all times. Targum Yonathan considered this to be implicit in Exodus 22:30 . One who kept this stringency was called a porush , meaning "separated" (from ṭumah ). This was also one of the criteria for being a haver (a "friend" or "fellow" with whom

1850-443: Is a ritual meant to purify one's self and one's home, usually performed before important occasions, like weddings. During the ceremony, mantras are chanted and then consecrated water is sprinkled over all of the participants and the items used. In the ritual known as abhisheka (Sanskrit, "sprinkling; ablution"), the deity's murti or image is ritually bathed with water, curd, milk, honey, ghee, cane sugar, rosewater, etc. Abhisheka

1924-486: Is all one needs", or "learn only to be content" reflects the basic anti-materialistic teachings of Buddhism . The Bible has many rituals of purification relating to menstruation , childbirth , sexual relations , nocturnal emission , unusual bodily fluids , skin disease , death , and animal sacrifices . Oriental Orthodox Churches such as the Coptic Orthodox , Ethiopian Orthodox , Eritrean Orthodox , places

1998-482: Is also a special form of puja prescribed by Agamic injunction. The act is also performed in the inauguration of religious and political monarchs and for other special blessings. The murtis of deities must not be touched without cleansing the hands, and one is not supposed to enter a temple without a bath. Sūtaka are the Hindu rules of impurity to be followed after the birth of a child ( vṛddhi sūtaka ). Sūtaka involves

2072-579: Is also believed by some indigenous groups to cleanse an area of any evil presence. Some groups like the southeastern tribe, the Cherokee , practiced and, to a lesser degree, still practice going to water , performed only in moving bodies of water such as rivers or streams. Going to water was practiced by some villages daily (around sunrise) while others would go to water primarily for special occasions, including but not limited to naming ceremonies , holidays , and ball games . Many anthropologists that studied with

2146-474: Is common in predominantly Catholic countries where water is considered essential for anal cleansing , and in some traditionally Orthodox and Lutheran countries such as Greece and Finland respectively, where bidet showers are common. Various traditions within Hinduism follow different standards of ritual purity and purification. Within each tradition the more orthodox groups follow stricter rules, but

2220-614: Is not Jewish. Upon finishing high school, Hayes returned to the United States to study at Harvard University and received her B.A . summa cum laude in the Study of Religion in 1984. There, Hayes relates that she stumbled into the Harvard University Hillel and began to teach herself to read Hebrew. She interrupted her undergraduate studies in 1982 and worked as a volunteer on an Israeli Kibbutz . After two years of working in

2294-556: Is performed daily, before sunrise, with hair covered and after evacuation of bowels or before religious ceremonies (see wudu ). The tamasha is a triple immersion in the river without a priest being required to do it. Women perform it after menstruation or childbirth, men and women after sexual activity or nocturnal emission, touching a corpse or any other type of defilement (see tevilah ). Ritual purification also applies to fruits, vegetables, pots, pans, utensils, animals for consumption and ceremonial garments ( rasta ). Purification for

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2368-415: Is required, including following menstruation ( niddah ), childbirth , sexual relations , nocturnal emission , unusual bodily fluids , skin disease , death ( corpse uncleanness ), and certain animal sacrifices . Generally, the ritual in these circumstances consists of immersing the whole body in a special bath (a mikveh ). In addition, the oral law specifies other situations when ritual purification

2442-608: Is required, such as after performing excretory functions , meals , and waking . In these circumstances, typically, only the hands are washed. These regulations were variously observed by the Israelites . Purification was required so ritually impure individuals would not defile the Tabernacle and receive the kareth or execution. Nowadays, in the absence of the Temple in Jerusalem , many of

2516-496: Is used if clean water is not available or if an illness would be worsened by the use of water; this form is invalidated in the same circumstances as the other forms, and also whenever water becomes available and safe to use. The fard or "obligatory activities" of the lesser form include beginning with the intention to purify oneself, washing of the face, arms, head, and feet. while some mustahabb "recommended activities" also exist such as basmala recitation, oral hygiene, washing

2590-514: The Israelites and post-exilic Jews , particularly during the First and Second Temple periods , and to a limited extent are a part of applicable halakha in modern times. The Hebrew noun ṭum'ah ( טֻמְאָה ‎) derives from the verb ṭamé ( טָמֵא ‎), in the qal form of the verb "to become impure"; in the niphal to "defile oneself"; and in the transitive Piel to defile something or pronounce something impure. The verb stem has

2664-504: The Jordan River . After emerging from the water, the worshipper is anointed with holy sesame oil ( misha ) and partakes in a communion of sacramental bread ( pihta ) and water. Other rituals for purification include the rishama and the tamasha which, unlike masbuta , can be performed without a priest. The rishama (signing) is performed before prayers and involves washing the face and limbs while reciting specific prayers. It

2738-701: The Latin liturgical rites of the Catholic Church , worshippers sprinkle themselves with holy water before entering the nave of the Church or approaching the altar . In Reformed Christianity , ritual purity is achieved through the Confession of Sins, Assurance of Forgiveness, and Sanctification . Through the power of the Holy Spirit, believers offer their whole being and labor as a 'living sacrifice'; and cleanliness becomes

2812-488: The Quran . Ritual purification takes the form of ablution, wudu and ghusl , depending on the circumstance; the greater form is obligatory by a woman after she ceases menstruation, on a corpse that did not die during battle, and after sexual activity, and is optionally used on other occasions, for example just prior to Friday prayers or entering ihram . An alternative tayammum ("dry ablution"), involving clean sand or earth,

2886-527: The monks or nuns to wash up before the Daily Office . Catholic religious orders of the Augustinians ' and Benedictines ' rules contained ritual purification, and inspired by Benedict of Nursia encouragement for the practice of therapeutic bathing; Benedictine monks played a role in the development and promotion of spas . The principle of washing the hands before celebrating the holy Liturgy began as

2960-407: The niddah period (while retaining a prohibition on sexual conduct). The traditional view retained the applicability of the concepts of tumah , ṭaharah , and zavah , and retained a prohibition on all contact. Ritual purity Ritual purification is a ritual prescribed by a religion through which a person is considered to be freed of uncleanliness , especially prior to the worship of

3034-606: The obligatory prayers , as well as prior to the recitation of the Greatest Name 95 times. Menstruating women are obliged to pray, but have the (voluntary) alternative of reciting a verse instead; if the latter choice is taken, ablutions are still required before the recital of the special verse. Bahá'u'lláh , the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, prescribed the ablutions in his book of laws, the Kitáb-i-Aqdas . These ablutions have

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3108-457: The priests are expected to be knowledgeable and fluent in the general and specifics of ṭumah and ṭaharah law. Given his role of Temple service and year round consumption of terumah , each priest was required to be in a ṭahor state. The mainstream view among rishonim (leading 11th-15th-century legal authorities) and non-Kabbalistic authorities is that one is permitted to become tamei (except on those occasions when one must visit

3182-483: The Ancient Near East . Some writers connect the rituals to taboos . Some have seen benefits of these practices as a point of health and preventing infections especially in areas where humans come in close contact with each other. While these practices came before the idea of the germ theory was public in areas that use daily cleaning, the destruction of infectious agents seems to be dramatic. Others have described

3256-698: The Association for Jewish Studies. Hayes was born to Australian parents living in the United States. According to Hayes, the family moved frequently in her early years. When Hayes was 11 years old her parents decided to return home to Australia, moving the family first to Sydney and then to Adelaide where Hayes completed her secondary education. She credits her parents' interest in philosophy, religion, literature, and world culture as instrumental in shaping her own intellectual passions, including her eventual study of Jewish history, culture, and religion. Though her work has primarily dealt with historical Jewish texts, Hayes

3330-686: The Babylonian and Palestinian Talmuds (1997) based on her PhD work. Her first monograph was awarded the Salo Baron prize from the American Academy for Jewish Research . Her second monograph, Gentile Impurities and Jewish Identities (2006), was a finalist for the National Jewish Book award, and her third monograph, What's Divine about Divine Law? Early Perspectives , has won three prestigious awards. From 2017–2019, Hayes served as President of

3404-525: The Cherokees like James Adair tried to connect these groups to the Lost Tribes of Israel based on religious practices including going to water, but this form of historiography is mostly Christian "wish fulfillment" rather than respectable anthropology. Yuquot Whalers' Shrine on Vancouver Island was used by chiefs to prepare ritually for whaling . Islamic ritual purification is particularly centred on

3478-504: The Hellenistic period. According to Hayes, their confrontation created a cognitive dissonance for those who felt compelled to negotiate the claims of both traditions. In a series of interconnected close readings, Hayes charts the creative and conflicting responses to this cognitive dissonance. Second Temple and Hellenistic Jewish authors sought to minimize the distance between classical and biblical understandings of divine law by attributing to

3552-472: The Israelite sanctuary, "impurity" is also seen as a means of nullifying a worship site of other religions; though the rules for this impurity are not made clear. Different forms of impurity requires various rituals in order to regain a "pure" ( tahor ) status. For example: The term tumah is also used to refer to certain sins, for which there is no specific ritual to remove the impure status. For example: In

3626-424: The Most Pure" five times before the prayer. Apart from this, Bahá'u'lláh abolished all forms of ritual impurity of people and things, following Báb who stressed the importance of cleanliness and spiritual purity. In Japanese Buddhism , a basin called a tsukubai is provided at Buddhist temples for ablutions. It is also used for tea ceremony . This type of ritual cleansing is the custom for guests attending

3700-536: The Temple, or touch holy objects), and thus there is no obligation to attempt to remain tahor . As an example, it is not only permitted but a mitzvah to tend to a dead person, even though this causes impurity. However, some rabbis have advocated keeping some of the laws of purity even in the absence of the temple in Jerusalem and even in the diaspora. One category that was commonly kept in Talmudic and pre-Talmudic times

3774-570: The Torah the qualities deemed definitive of the divine natural law of Stoic tradition: truth, rationality, universality, and immutability. By contrast, Paul sought to widen the gap, representing the Torah of Moses as possessing none of the traits of the Hellenistic divine/natural law and all of the traits of conventional positive law. Hayes argues that a third path was taken by the Talmudic rabbis, whose unique and surprising construction of divine law—as dynamic, mutable, and not necessarily rational or allied with

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3848-468: The Torah's laws about purification have no practical implication and are no longer observed. However, purification from the niddah status is still observed by contemporary Orthodox Jews and (with some modifications and additional leniencies) some Conservative Jews , as its practical implications are highly relevant: a woman who is impure with this status is forbidden to have sexual contact with her husband. Corpse uncleanness , or coming into contact with

3922-705: The body, such as magical spellworking . Christine Hayes Christine Hayes is an American academic and scholar of Jewish studies , currently serving as the Sterling Professor of Religious Studies in Classical Judaica at Yale University , specializing in Talmudic and Midrashic studies and Classical Judaica. Before her appointment at Yale, she served as the assistant professor of Hebrew studies, Department of Near Eastern Studies, at Princeton University , where she completed her first book Between

3996-401: The concept of zavah , as well as the tumah status of a niddah . The liberal view held that the concepts of ṭumah and ṭaharah are not relevant outside the context of a Holy Temple (as distinct from a synagogue ; hence a niddah cannot convey ṭumah today), found the concept of zavah no longer applicable, and permitted spouses to touch each other in a manner similar to siblings during

4070-481: The diverse ways in which biblical, Second Temple, and rabbinic sources employ purity language to construct Jewish identity and to inscribe and police community boundaries with varying degrees of porousness. Her most recent book, What's Divine about Divine Law? Early Perspectives , traces two radically distinct conceptions of divine law—Greco-Roman natural law grounded in reason and biblical law grounded in divine will—that emerged in antiquity and confronted one another in

4144-473: The elongation of the second 'a') which has the same meaning in Islam. Some sources, such as Samson Raphael Hirsch on Genesis 7:2, claim that the meaning is "entombed", meaning the person or item that is in the tame state is blocked, and not in a state of receiving holy transmission. Ṭahor , by contrast, is defined as "pure" in the sense that the person or object is in a clear state and can/may potentially serve as

4218-525: The exception of niddah and zav/zavah , and rules forbidding making a Kohen impure. These rules are still practiced in Orthodox Judaism . In Conservative Judaism , while the concept of niddah and a prohibition on sexual relations during the niddah period (including childbirth) are still agreed upon, recent decisions by the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards have endorsed multiple views about

4292-493: The feet of the clergy, and in monasteries the Abbot will wash the feet of the brethren. Many ancient churches were built with a large fountain in the courtyard. It was the tradition for Christians to wash before entering the church for worship. This usage is also legislated in the Rule of St. Benedict , as a result of which, many medieval monasteries were built with communal lavers for

4366-583: The laws of ritual impurity. Neither the Babylonian nor the Jerusalem Talmud contains systematic commentaries to the tractates of Tohorot (except for Niddah which is an integral part of Babylonian and Jerusalem Talmud as well), as these laws had little practical relevance after the destruction of the Temple. However, the laws are discussed many times in other tractates, and in later rabbinic literature. Maimonides clarifies that, in addition to all of Israel,

4440-486: The level above it. The levels are: The rabbis declared Torah scrolls to be impure by rabbinic law. This seemingly strange law had a practical purpose: it discouraged Jews from storing their terumah produce alongside Torah scrolls, which attracted mice and caused the Torah scrolls to be nibbled on as well. Following the destruction of the Second Temple, ritual impurity status ceased to have practical consequences, with

4514-491: The mouth, nose at the beginning, washing of arms to the elbows and washing of the ears at the end; additionally recitation of the Shahada . The greater form (ghusl) is completed by first performing wudu and then ensuring that the entire body is washed. Some minor details of Islamic ritual purification may vary between different madhhabs "schools of thought". The Hebrew Bible mentions a number of situations when ritual purification

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4588-723: The non-profit sector, Hayes returned to academia in 1986, pursuing a doctorate in Classical (biblical and rabbinic) Judaism through the Department of Near Eastern Studies at UC Berkeley. She spent the 1987–88 academic year as an exchange student at the Hebrew University in Jerusalem. Hayes earned an M.A. in 1988, and a PhD in 1993. Her PhD dissertation, "Between the Babylonian and Palestinian Talmuds: Accounting for Halakhic difference in selected Sugyot from tractate Avodah Zarah" sought to compare and account for halakhic differences between

4662-475: The practice of keeping socially isolated from relatives and community by abstention of mealtaking with family, engaging in customary religious activities, and leaving the home. A mother must practice sūtaka for 10 to 30 days, depending upon her varna , while the father may become purified immediately after the birth of his child by ritual purification (ritual bathing). There are various kinds of purificatory rituals associated with death ceremonies . After visiting

4736-405: The preparation for salah , ritual prayer; theoretically ritual purification would remain valid throughout the day, but is treated as invalid on the occurrence of certain acts, flatulence, sleep, contact with the opposite sex (depending on which school of thought), unconsciousness, and the emission of blood, semen, or vomit . Some schools of thought mandate that ritual purity is necessary for holding

4810-458: The rabbis could eat without risk of violating purity laws), and according to some, the main criterion. Additionally, some rabbis advocated abstaining from the midras of a niddah . Rabbi Menachem Schneerson discouraged abstaining from any object made impure by a menstruating woman in modern times, with the exception for unique individuals. The rabbis describe a hierarchy of levels of impurity. In general, each level can result from touch by

4884-511: The removal of the "prophets and spirit of impurity ( רוּחַ הַטֻּמְאָה ‎) from the land", the adjective tamei ( טָמֵא ‎, "impure") is much more common. The verb form of ṭaharah ( טָהֳרָה ‎), the verb ṭaher ( טָהֵר ‎) "be pure", is used first in the Hebrew Bible is in Genesis 35:2 , where Jacob tells his family to "put away strange gods, and be pure". In general,

4958-525: The site of the Temple in Jerusalem and prohibits eating certain foods (such as terumah ) which may only be eaten when pure. One of the most important ceremonies in Mandaean worship is baptism ( masbuta ). Unlike Christianity, baptism is not a one-off event but is performed every Sunday, the Mandaean holy day, as a purification ritual. Baptism usually involves full immersion in flowing water, and all rivers considered fit for baptism are called yardna for

5032-611: The spirit and surrender to the Lord." Eusebius recorded this practice of canthari located in the courtyards of churches, for the faithful to wash themselves before entering a Christian house of worship. The practice has its origins Jewish practice of performing ablutions before entering into the presence of God (cf. Exodus 30:17–21 ). Though cantharus are not as prevalent anymore in Western Christianity , they are found in Eastern Christian and Oriental Christian churches. However, in

5106-705: The state of ṭum'ah , nor any mechanically measurable level of cleanliness, clarity, or physical purity for the state of ṭaharah . The noun form of ṭum'ah is used around 40 times in the Masoretic Text of the Hebrew Bible is generally translated as "uncleanness" in English language Bibles such as the KJV, and JPS Tanakh. The majority of uses are in Leviticus. Though uses for national impurity occur in Ezra and Ezekiel, and Zechariah prophesies

5180-504: The strictest rules are generally prescribed for Brahmins , especially those engaged in the temple worship. An important part of ritual purification in Hinduism is the bathing of the entire body, particularly in rivers considered holy such as the Ganges . It is considered auspicious to perform this method of purification before festivals after a death, in order to maintain purity. Punyahavachanam

5254-556: The term tum'ah is used in two distinct ways in the Hebrew Bible: In general, tum'ah in the sense of "ritual impurity" is prefixed by the letter lamed or lacks any prefix at all, while tum'ah in the sense of "moral impurity" is prefixed by the letter bet . The Torah, particularly the book of Leviticus , lists various activities which create an "impure" ( tamei ) status: Some of these activities are forbidden (i.e. eating non-kosher meat), others are permitted (i.e. sex between

5328-579: The two Talmuds . In 1993, Hayes was appointed assistant professor of Hebrew studies in the department of Near Eastern languages and civilizations at Princeton University. In 1996, she became an assistant professor in the department of religious studies at Yale University where she gained tenure in 2002. Hayes was awarded a New Directions Fellowship from the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation in 2003 that enabled her to pursue studies in legal history and legal theory. In 2006, Hayes' Introduction to Hebrew Bible course

5402-498: Was named a Sterling Professor , one of the highest academic honors that Yale University bestows. Hayes' scholarship addresses a wide range of historical, literary, legal, and philosophical topics in biblical and rabbinic literature. Her second book, Gentile Impurities and Jewish Identities: Intermarriage and Conversion from the Bible to the Talmud , is a work of cultural history. It examines

5476-491: Was selected by Yale as a pilot for the university's Open Courses online platform allowing anyone around the world to access course materials and recordings of the lectures. In addition to publishing numerous books and publications, Hayes has also dedicated time to institutions supporting Jewish Studies research and scholarship. Hayes has been a visiting professor at the Tel Aviv University Faculty of Law (2015),

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