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129-600: Tuba City ( Navajo : Tó Naneesdizí ) is an unincorporated town and census-designated place in Coconino County , Arizona , on the Navajo Nation , United States. It is the second-largest community in Coconino County. The population of the census-designated place (CDP) was 8,611 at the 2010 census . It is the most populous community within the Navajo Nation , slightly larger than Shiprock, New Mexico , and

258-449: A Super Bowl had been carried in a Native American language. In 2013, the 1977 film Star Wars was translated into Navajo. It was the first major motion picture translated into any Native American language. On October 5, 2018, an early beta of a Navajo course was released on Duolingo , a popular language learning app. After many Navajo schools were closed during World War II, a program aiming to provide education to Navajo children

387-503: A glottalic initiation . Navajo also has a simple glottal stop used after vowels, and every word that would otherwise begin with a vowel is pronounced with an initial glottal stop. Consonant clusters are uncommon, aside from frequent placing /d/ or /t/ before fricatives . The language has four vowel qualities: /a/ , /e/ , /i/ , and /o/ . Each exists in both oral and nasalized forms, and can be either short or long. Navajo also distinguishes for tone between high and low, with

516-522: A pre-Columbian culture that occupied a large area in Arizona between circa 500 and 1425 CE . The Northern Sinagua were living in the pine forests of northern Arizona before moving into the area that is now Flagstaff about 700 CE. The 1064 and 1066 eruptions of Sunset Crater covered the area in ash, which greatly enriched the soil for farming; this also caused a population growth in the area, with Ancestral Puebloans and Cohonina people also moving to

645-541: A root to identify the action and the semblance of a suffix to convey mode and aspect ; however, this suffix is fused beyond separability. The stem is given somewhat more transparent prefixes to indicate, in this order, the following information: postpositional object, postposition, adverb-state, iterativity , number , direct object , deictic information, another adverb-state, mode and aspect, subject, classifier (see later on), mirativity and two-tier evidentiality . Some of these prefixes may be null; for example, there

774-449: A subject–object–verb language. However, some speakers order the subject and object based on "noun ranking". In this system, nouns are ranked in three categories—humans, animals, and inanimate objects—and within these categories, nouns are ranked by strength, size, and intelligence. Whichever of the subject and object has a higher rank comes first. As a result, the agent of an action may be syntactically ambiguous. The highest rank position

903-584: A warm dry-summer Mediterranean climate ( Csb ), a Hemiboreal climate ( Dsb and Dfb ), and a cold semi-arid climate ( BSk ). It is consistently described as "semi-arid". Flagstaff's Köppen type is recorded as Dsb in the city center, with areas of BSk , Csb , Csa ( hot-summer Mediterranean ), Cwa ( monsoon-influenced humid subtropical ), Cwb ( subtropical highland ), Dwa ( monsoon-influenced hot summer humid continental ), Dwb ( monsoon-influenced warm summer humid continental ), and Dsa ( Mediterranean-influenced hot summer humid continental ) on

1032-491: A "j" despite his personal objections. The Navajo refer to themselves as the Diné ('People'), with their language known as Diné bizaad ('People's language') or Naabeehó bizaad . Navajo is an Athabaskan language ; Navajo and Apache languages make up the southernmost branch of the family. Most of the other Athabaskan languages are located in Alaska, northwestern Canada, and along

1161-749: A city in 1928, with over 3,000 residents, and in 1929, the city's first motel, the Motel Du Beau, was built at the intersection of Beaver Street and Phoenix Avenue. Flagstaff became a popular tourist stop along Route 66, particularly due to its proximity to the natural wonders. In the last years of the 1920s, tourism took over from traditional industries. During the Great Depression , Route 66 brought unemployed workers heading to California, known as "auto nomads" in Flagstaff, who became unpopular as they could not afford to buy gas or food, financially damaging

1290-491: A code based on Navajo. The language was considered ideal because of its grammar, which differs strongly from that of German and Japanese , and because no published Navajo dictionaries existed at the time. By the 1960s, Indigenous languages of the United States had been declining in use for some time. Native American language use began to decline more quickly in this decade as paved roads were built and English-language radio

1419-621: A diverse cityscape and exists in distinct areas. Downtown Flagstaff is a "narrow and slender" area between the NAU campus at its south and the Museum of Northern Arizona at the north. Flagstaff is a smaller city, so its downtown is largely local and independent. The city's mall is found in East Flagstaff, as is a Harkins movie theater and a country club and golf course. Residential properties in East Flagstaff are larger and more rural than other parts of

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1548-484: A fairly high percentage overall but less than among other Americans speaking a different Native American language (85.4 percent). Navajo was the only Native American language afforded its own category in the survey; domestic Navajo speakers represented 46.4 percent of all domestic Native language speakers (only 195,407 Americans have a different home Native language). As of July 2014, Ethnologue classes Navajo as "6b" (In Trouble), signifying that few, but some, parents teach

1677-483: A fairly large phonemic inventory, including several consonants that are not found in English. Its four basic vowel qualities are distinguished for nasality , length , and tone . Navajo has both agglutinative and fusional elements: it uses affixes to modify verbs, and nouns are typically created from multiple morphemes, but in both cases these morphemes are fused irregularly and beyond easy recognition. Basic word order

1806-504: A healthy speaker base, although this problem has been alleviated to some extent by extensive education programs in the Navajo Nation. In World War II, speakers of the Navajo language joined the military and developed a code for sending secret messages. These code talkers ' messages are widely credited with saving many lives and winning some of the most decisive battles in the war. Navajo has

1935-403: A major language dictionary published that same year, and continued to work on studying and documenting the language in major works for the next few decades. Today an AM radio station, KTNN , broadcasts in Navajo and English, with programming including music and NFL games; AM station KNDN broadcasts only in Navajo. When Super Bowl XXX was broadcast in Navajo in 1996, it was the first time

2064-521: A military word, code talkers used descriptive words. For example, the Navajo did not have a word for submarine , so they translated it as iron fish . These Navajo code talkers are widely recognized for their contributions to WWII. Major Howard Connor, 5th Marine Division Signal Officer stated, "Were it not for the Navajos, the Marines would never have taken Iwo Jima." Navajo lands were initially colonized by

2193-495: A regular summer averages a very mild 59 °F (15 °C) for the warmest low. Cold daily maximums are occasional, but rarely severe. The record low high is 5 °F (−15 °C) from January 1963, but the mean for the coldest maximum is relatively close to freezing at 24 °F (−4 °C). Like most of the state, Northern Arizona experiences a summer monsoon season from July to September, with Flagstaff's wettest months being July and August, and its driest being June, all in

2322-809: A sacred site in Hopi culture. Until western expansion in the 1860s , the Yavapai , specifically the Wi:pukba (Northeastern Yavapai), occupied the land up to the San Francisco Peaks. The Yavapai land in the area saw overlap with the land of the Northern Tonto Apache that stretched across the San Francisco Peaks to the Little Colorado River . Of the Northern Tonto Apache, two tribes lived within

2451-466: A tall pine tree and tied a flag, with another saying it was Beale's men who raised the flag in 1859. The town was still known as Antelope Spring in 1871. After the town took the name Flagstaff, it began to be known as 'Old Town' for a period, and was known by different names when the Atlantic and Pacific Railroad was being built through the area in 1882. It may have been known as Flagstaff Spring for

2580-413: A trait of fusional languages. In general, Navajo verbs contain more morphemes than nouns do (on average, 11 for verbs compared to 4–5 for nouns), but noun morphology is less transparent. Depending on the source, Navajo is either classified as a fusional agglutinative or even polysynthetic language, as it shows mechanisms from all three. In terms of basic word order , Navajo has been classified as

2709-463: A variable "semi-arid" climate and a monsoon season in summer. The San Francisco Peaks are a main aspect of Flagstaff's local geography and can be seen from everywhere in the city. Humphreys Peak is the highest point in Arizona at 12,637 feet (3,852 m). Several trails around the peaks provide views of the Grand Canyon. While the most popular access point is Arizona Snowbowl (southwest face),

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2838-479: A while, and 'Old Town Spring' after this before simply 'Old Town', a name given after a fire destroyed much of the town, with a new community then raised a few hundred yards away called 'New Town'. Another version of the Old and New Town names says that the railroad depot was moved by half a mile to prevent hill starts, and business owners soon followed it, displacing the commerce of the town to Front Street of 'New Town' while

2967-553: Is subject–object–verb , though it is highly flexible to pragmatic factors. Verbs are conjugated for aspect and mood , and given affixes for the person and number of both subjects and objects , as well as a host of other variables. The language's orthography , which was developed in the late 1930s, is based on the Latin script . Most Navajo vocabulary is Athabaskan in origin, as the language has been conservative with loanwords due to its highly complex noun morphology. The word Navajo

3096-517: Is $ 47,091, and the median income for a family was $ 37,813. Males had a median income of $ 29,280 versus $ 26,855 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $ 14,140. About 23.1% of families and 28.2% of the population were below the poverty line , including 33.0% of those under age 18 and 44.8% of those age 65 or over. The following attractions and infrastructure are located in Tuba City: The town

3225-460: Is a distinctive feature of Flagstaff, as it was used as a building material from the 1880s because of its fire retardant properties. The source used for quarrying most of this rock was a deposit 1 mile east of the town, which fell under the control of Charles Begg in 1887, who then began selling the stone across the southwest – after he made a successful sale in California that expanded the business, he

3354-551: Is also home to a variety of bird species, which is further diversified by species from desert climates south of the Mogollon Rim still mixing in the area. The nearby lakes also attract wildlife. Birds that live around or visit Flagstaff include the thick-billed kingbird , only documented in the area since 2016, the red-faced warbler , a Madrean species, and waterfowl including the Eurasian wigeon and American wigeon . Flagstaff has

3483-518: Is an exonym : it comes from the Tewa word Navahu , which combines the roots nava ('field') and hu ('valley') to mean 'large field'. It was borrowed into Spanish to refer to an area of present-day northwestern New Mexico , and later into English for the Navajo tribe and their language. The alternative spelling Navaho is considered antiquated; even the anthropologist Berard Haile spelled it with

3612-589: Is at the heart of the Coconino National Forest. Within the Transition zone of the forest, including in the city, there are huge stands of ponderosa pine. Other species scattered among this region include Gambel oak , quaking aspen , and Rocky Mountain juniper trees. The Coconino National Forest and Flagstaff are within the largest contiguous ponderosa pine forest in North America. Here, this tree type

3741-429: Is formed as a climax forest , with groups of trees containing different ages spread among the forest. Some of the groups are only a few trees, some are acres large; other groups are even-aged. The irregularity of the tree groups leaves natural openings in the forest, allowing for other plants to thrive. A grass cover of Arizona fescue grows around the area and shrub exists, but there are few other tree species. As well as

3870-406: Is held by humans and lightning. Other linguists such as Eloise Jelinek consider Navajo to be a discourse configurational language , in which word order is not fixed by syntactic rules, but determined by pragmatic factors in the communicative context. In Navajo, verbs are the main elements of their sentences, imparting a large amount of information. The verb is based on a stem , which is made of

3999-445: Is in the Transition life zone ; the concept of life zones was first observed in the Flagstaff area. Wind in Flagstaff typically blows southwesterly throughout the year, based on topographical features. The city's climate data is observed from Flagstaff Pulliam Airport. The city receives precipitation every year, with two distinct wet periods in the summer and winter; the summer monsoon season accounts for 34% of annual rainfall, with

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4128-674: Is located in Tuba City. It is a non-profit, Native American-run health care corporation that employs 1,200 people. The next nearest hospital is in Flagstaff . According to the United States Census Bureau , the CDP has a total area of 8.9 square miles (23 km), all land. Geologically, Tuba City is sited about the Glen Canyon Group from the early Jurassic (about 180–210 Ma) and on modern superficial Quaternary deposits. It

4257-457: Is located within the Painted Desert near the western edge of the Navajo Nation. The town is served by U.S. Route 160 , near the junction with Arizona State Route 264 . Tuba City is located approximately 50 miles (80 km) from the eastern entrance to Grand Canyon National Park and approximately 78 miles (126 km) from Flagstaff . Arizona does not observe Daylight Saving Time , but

4386-421: Is mandatory: Béégashii cow sitį́. 3 . SUBJ -lie( 1 ). PERF Béégashii sitį́. cow 3.SUBJ-lie( 1 ).PERF 'The (one) cow lies.' Béégashii cow shitéézh. 3 . SUBJ -lie( 2 ). PERF Flagstaff, Arizona Flagstaff ( / ˈ f l æ ɡ . s t æ f / FLAG -staf ) is the county seat of Coconino County, Arizona , in the southwestern United States. As of

4515-529: Is most closely related to Western Apache , with which it shares a similar tonal scheme and more than 92 percent of its vocabulary, and to Chiricahua-Mescalero Apache . It is estimated that the Apachean linguistic groups separated and became established as distinct societies, of which the Navajo were one, somewhere between 1300 and 1525. Navajo is generally considered mutually intelligible with all other Apachean languages. The Apachean languages, of which Navajo

4644-520: Is one, are thought to have arrived in the American Southwest from the north by 1500, probably passing through Alberta and Wyoming. Archaeological finds considered to be proto-Navajo have been located in the far northern New Mexico around the La Plata, Animas and Pine rivers, dating to around 1500. In 1936, linguist Edward Sapir showed how the arrival of the Navajo people in the new arid climate among

4773-405: Is only a plural marker ( da/daa ) and no readily identifiable marker for the other grammatical numbers. Navajo does not distinguish strict tense per se; instead, an action's position in time is conveyed through mode, aspect, but also via time adverbials or context. Each verb has an inherent aspect and can be conjugated in up to seven modes. For any verb, the usitative and iterative modes share

4902-527: Is primarily attributable to the city's proximity to several Native American reservations . Flagstaff's Native American community is chiefly Navajo , and there are about 5,500 people of Navajo ancestry living in the city. A 1970 study found that while the Native American population of Flagstaff was generally under-counted in censuses, the Native residents found that Flagstaff as a border city with reservations

5031-558: Is served by U.S. Route 160 , near the junction with Arizona State Route 264 . It is served by the Tuba City Airport . Navajo Transit System provides connections to Flagstaff and Fort Defiance . Hopi Senom Transit provides connections to Moenkopi . Express provides connecting service to Page . The area is served by the Tuba City Unified School District , as well as several tribal/federal schools within

5160-548: Is the marker of the Continuative aspect (to play about). Navajo distinguishes between the first, second, third, and fourth persons in the singular, dual, and plural numbers. The fourth person is similar to the third person, but is generally used for indefinite, theoretical actors rather than defined ones. Despite the potential for extreme verb complexity, only the mode/aspect, subject, classifier, and stem are absolutely necessary. Furthermore, Navajo negates clauses by surrounding

5289-558: Is typically mild and dry, lasting until early June. The summer is warm, measured between days when freezing temperatures occur, beginning in June – the last freezing temperature generally in early June – and ending in September. Flagstaff's summer will receive a few days of daytime temperatures above 90 °F (32 °C), with much cooler nighttime temperatures typically in the region of 40 °F (4 °C). Flagstaff's summers are also notable for

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5418-401: Is usually encoded directly in the verb through the use of various prefixes or aspects, though this is by no means mandatory. In the following example, the verb on the right is used with the plural prefix da- and switches to the distributive aspect. Some verbal roots encode number in their lexical definition (see classificatory verbs above). When available, the use of the correct verbal root

5547-561: Is water. Flagstaff lies at approximately 7,000 feet (2,130 m) elevation, and is surrounded by the largest contiguous ponderosa pine forest in North America. It is in a mountainous area, and lies along the Rio de Flag watercourse. It is about 130 miles (210 km) north of the State capital, Phoenix. The geology of the area is in line with that of the Colorado Plateau on which it lies, with

5676-458: The 2020 United States census , the city's population was 76,831. Flagstaff is the principal city of the Flagstaff metropolitan area , which includes all of Coconino County , and has a population of 145,101. Flagstaff lies near the southwestern edge of the Colorado Plateau and within the San Francisco volcanic field , along the western side of the largest contiguous ponderosa pine forest in

5805-539: The Apollo missions . Through the 1970s and 1980s, downtown fell into disrepair, but was revitalized with a major cultural heritage project in the 1990s. The city remains an important distribution hub for companies such as Nestlé Purina PetCare , and is home to the U.S. Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station , the U.S. Geological Survey , and Northern Arizona University . Flagstaff has a strong tourism sector, due to its proximity to Grand Canyon National Park , Oak Creek Canyon ,

5934-493: The Arizona Snowbowl , Meteor Crater , and Historic Route 66 . At the time of Beale's wagon road, the area was known as Antelope Spring, after the spring at the foot of Mars Hill (now called Antelope/Old Town Spring). The name Flagstaff comes from an actual flagstaff made from a stripped pine tree that was erected at the spring, which McMillan was using as his sheep camp, on July 4 , 1876. The common story tells that

6063-731: The Four Corners region this pushed up the preexisting layers and ultimately formed the Colorado Plateau (and the Rocky Mountains ). Around Flagstaff more specifically, this process deformed flat rock layers into folds, and allowed surface rivers to cut deep canyons in the younger rock layers. From about 25 million years ago, more faults were broken again in Flagstaff, and volcanic activity began about 6 million years ago with magma flowing up these faults to create lava flows . Eruptions occurred between 3 million and 1,000 years ago, affecting

6192-471: The Mesozoic and Paleozoic eras, with Moenkopi Formation red sandstone having once been quarried in the city; many of the historic downtown buildings were constructed with it. The Rio de Flag river runs through the city, but only flows in response to rain or snowmelt. Originally settled by the pre-Columbian native Sinagua people, the area of Flagstaff has fertile land from volcanic ash after eruptions in

6321-458: The Moenkopi red sandstone abundant in the city also used to build many of the distinctive buildings forming its cityscape. The cityscape of Flagstaff is its historic downtown area centered on Heritage Square, with the historic nature of its restored buildings and local theme iconic to the city and representative of its culture. Flagstaff is one of the United States' sunniest and snowiest cities, with

6450-489: The Rare Metals Corporation was established here, which founded a mill for processing. The Atomic Energy Commission had an office here as well. The mill closed in 1966. Reclamation of the millsite and tailings pile was completed in 1990 because the tailings had high radioactive content and were environmentally hazardous waste products that had to be cleared. The Tuba City Regional Health Care Corporation hospital

6579-526: The Santa Fe Railroad , had largely controlled Flagstaff until this point. The Santa Fe Railroad opened a new depot in Flagstaff in 1926, to combat Route 66. As part of the celebrations, Front Street was renamed Santa Fe Avenue. The people of Flagstaff collectively funded the Hotel Monte Vista , which opened on January 1, 1927, preparing for the next tourism boom. Flagstaff was then incorporated as

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6708-572: The Southern United States in the middle of the 20th century during the Great Migration . Though most moved to California, there was a significant number that settled in Flagstaff after hearing that the lumber industry of northern Arizona was some of the best paid work going, and a familiar vocation for those from southern states. Flagstaff has two police departments: Flagstaff PD and NAU PD. NAU PD employs 30 officers and 25 students, and

6837-642: The Spanish in the early seventeenth century, shortly after this area was annexed as part of the Spanish viceroyalty of New Spain . When the United States annexed these territories in 1848 following the Mexican–American War , the English-speaking settlers allowed Navajo children to attend their schools. In some cases, the United States established separate schools for Navajo and other Native American children. In

6966-693: The United States Naval Observatory Flagstaff Station was established. Through the 1950s the city conducted the Urban Renewal Project, improving housing quality in the Southside neighborhood that was largely populated by people of Spanish , Basque , and Mexican heritage. Flagstaff grew and prospered through the 1960s. During the Apollo program in the 1960s, the Lowell Observatory Clark Telescope

7095-579: The Weatherford Hotel in Flagstaff. Weatherford opened the town's first movie theater in 1911; it collapsed under heavy snowfall a few years later, but he soon replaced it with the Orpheum Theater . The Weatherford Hotel and Orpheum Theater are still in use today. The state of Arizona was admitted to the Union in 1912. Flagstaff saw its first tourism boom in the early years of the 1900s, becoming known as

7224-644: The Wupatki site near the city. The Northern Sinagua had various cultural phases, including Sunset Crater, the Rio de Flag (leaving the Picture Canyon site), Angell and Winona , Padre Canyon , Elden Pueblo , Turkey Hill Pueblo, Clear Creek , and Walnut Canyon . The Sinagua peoples left the area by the early 15th century, likely moving north and later becoming the Hopi . The San Francisco Peaks , which overlook Flagstaff, are

7353-477: The flag-raising for which the town was named occurred when a ponderosa pine flagpole made by a scouting party from Boston (known as the "Second Boston Party") was raised to celebrate the United States Centennial. Various other stories have been told of the circumstances. One says that on July 4, 1855, a surveyor for the railroad by the name of Samuel Clark Hudson, accompanied by his team, climbed

7482-419: The 11th century. It was first settled as the present-day city in 1876. Local businessmen lobbied for Route 66 to pass through the city, which it did, turning the local industry from lumber to tourism and developing downtown Flagstaff . In 1930, Pluto was discovered from Flagstaff. The city developed further through to the end of the 1960s, with various observatories also used to choose Moon landing sites for

7611-505: The 1990s, the city redeveloped. Store owners in downtown supported the Main Street programs of preservation-based revitalization, and in 1992, the city hired a new manager to improve the area: a different mix of shops and restaurants opened up to take advantage of the area's historical appeal. Heritage Square was built as the center of the revitalized downtown, the local Flagstaff Pulliam Airport began running more flights to Phoenix , and

7740-597: The City of Seven Wonders, as the "Seven Wonders" of the wider Flagstaff area – listed as the Coconino National Forest , Grand Canyon , Oak Creek Canyon , San Francisco Peaks , Sunset Crater , Walnut Canyon , and Wupatki National Monument – were more widely known. In 1926, Route 66 was completed and ran through Flagstaff ; the Babbitts and Riordans had staunchly supported it for the town. The railroad, which became

7869-498: The Flagstaff area, including formations like Meteor Crater, was seen as similar to environments that would be encountered on the Moon in terms of planetary geology . The Astrogeology Research Program was therefore moved to Flagstaff in 1962, with the program completing in 1963, to train astronauts. Flagstaff's climate type on the Köppen climate classification system is variously reported as

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7998-503: The Gambel oak, quaking aspen, and juniper trees, pinyons can be found among the pines. Some of the open forest space contains bunchgrass , and local animal species that roam on this include elk , mule deer , Merriam's Turkey , and Abert's squirrel . The arboretum in Flagstaff has an extensive regional collection of the Penstemon genus and hosts an annual Penstemon Festival. Coconino

8127-480: The Mormons to settle near his village of Moenkopi without requiring them to gain individual permission. The Tuba City Trading Post was established in 1870, dealing with the Navajo and Paiute who came to the area for the natural springs, as well as the Hopi already in the area. European-American Mormon emigrants claimed to found Tuba City in 1872. In 1956, uranium began to be mined near Tuba City. The regional office for

8256-530: The Navajo Agency of the Bureau of Indian Affairs , developed and published a practical orthography in 1937. It helped spread education among Navajo speakers. In 1943 the men collaborated on The Navajo Language , a dictionary organized by the roots of the language. In World War II , the United States military used speakers of Navajo as code talkers —to transmit top-secret military messages over telephone and radio in

8385-689: The Navajo Nation does within its boundaries. In practice elements of Tuba City vary in practices: tribal offices and schools observe DST, while most private businesses conform to state practice and do not. Tuba City is located in the rain shadow of the Mogollon Rim , which keeps out moisture from the Gulf of California . It has a cold desert climate ( Köppen BWk ) with hot, dry summers – though less hot than Phoenix – and cold, dry winters. Frosts are normal from October to April. The majority of winters do not have measurable snowfall due to

8514-409: The Navajo language to relay secret messages. At the end of the war the code remained unbroken. The code used Navajo words for each letter of the English alphabet. Messages could be encoded and decoded by using a simple substitution cipher where the ciphertext was the Navajo word. Type two code was informal and directly translated from English into Navajo. If there was no word in Navajo to describe

8643-574: The Navajo language, and no English, while five English language teachers instruct in the English language. Kindergarten and first grade are taught completely in the Navajo language, while English is incorporated into the program during third grade, when it is used for about 10% of instruction. According to the Navajo Nation Education Policies, the Navajo Tribal Council requests that schools teach both English and Navajo so that

8772-414: The Navajo word for "corn" is naadą́ą́ʼ , derived from two Proto-Athabaskan roots meaning "enemy" and "food", suggesting that the Navajo originally considered corn to be "food of the enemy" when they first arrived among the Pueblo people. During World Wars I and II, the U.S. government employed speakers of the Navajo language as Navajo code talkers . These Navajo soldiers and sailors used a code based on

8901-833: The North American Pacific coast. Most languages in the Athabaskan family have tones . However, this feature evolved independently in all subgroups; Proto-Athabaskan had no tones. In each case, tone evolved from glottalic consonants at the ends of morphemes; however, the progression of these consonants into tones has not been consistent, with some related morphemes being pronounced with high tones in some Athabaskan languages and low tones in others. It has been posited that Navajo and Chipewyan , which have no common ancestor more recent than Proto-Athabaskan and possess many pairs of corresponding but opposite tones, evolved from different dialects of Proto-Athabaskan that pronounced these glottalic consonants differently. Proto-Athabaskan diverged fully into separate languages c.  500 BC . Navajo

9030-411: The Paleozoic and Mesozoic rocks. The city's Mount Elden is a lava dome made of dacite , Sunset Crater is the youngest feature of the San Francisco volcanic field and formed in the last 1,000 years by an explosive eruption , while S P Crater was formed between 75,000 and 70,000 years ago by piles of lapilli and volcanic bombs spouting from a lava lake . In the 1960s, the geology and topography of

9159-406: The Paleozoic rock is Mesozoic Moenkopi Formation, from 248 to 65 million years ago. Other Mesozoic layers formed on top of this, but were eroded away. In the Flagstaff area, layers of rock from the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras accumulated up to 10,000 feet (3,000 m) deep, but most of this was eroded. A soft basalt layer covers some of the rock at the surface. Moenkopi Formation red sandstone

9288-528: The West Coast of the United States. In 1888, McMillan purchased an unfinished building that sits at the present-day intersection of Leroux Street and Route 66 /Santa Fe Avenue, turning it into a bank and hotel known as the Bank Hotel. Coconino County was created in 1891, and Flagstaff was chosen as its county seat over nearby Williams . In 1894, A. E. Douglass recommended Flagstaff to Percival Lowell as

9417-685: The area are part of North America's original crust, Precambrian granite and schist from 1.7 to 1.8 billion years ago. On top of this is Paleozoic sandstone , limestone, shale and siltstone deposited on what was then (544 to 248 million years ago) different surfaces, including a shallow seabed, muddy land, and sandy desert. The rock layers from this period are (bottom to top): Tapeats Sandstone , Bright Angel Shale and Muav Limestone , Martin Formation , Redwall Limestone , Supai Group , Coconino Sandstone , Toroweap Formation , and Kaibab Limestone . The last three of these are still exposed. On top of

9546-578: The area of present-day Flagstaff: the Oak Creek band and the Mormon Lake band. The Mormon Lake band were centered around Flagstaff and were exclusively hunter-gatherers, traveling around places like the foot of the San Francisco Peaks, at Mount Elden , Lake Mary , Stoneman Lake , and Padre Canyon. The area of Flagstaff had a wagon road to California in the 1800s, constructed by Edward Fitzgerald Beale 's men. The first White (non-Native) settlement in

9675-526: The area this rainfall is quickly lost to evaporation. During the Early-21st Century Drought, rainfall has been consistently below average in all but the summer season, with temperature averages for all but the summer (which has remained consistent) also increasing. Equally, snowfall has been lower during the extended dry period, though the city set a new record for its highest daily snowfall on February 21, 2019, with 35.9 inches (91 cm) and

9804-404: The area was established by Edward Whipple, who opened a saloon on the wagon road in 1871. The first permanent settlement came in 1876, when Thomas F. McMillan built a cabin just north of the present-day main town. McMillan was a key developer of Northern Arizona. During the 1880s, Flagstaff began to grow, and by 1886, Flagstaff was the largest city on the railroad line between Albuquerque and

9933-412: The area. Schools in Tuba City include: Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) schools include: Moencopi Day School (tribal) is in nearby Moenkopi . Tertiary institutions include: On January 4, 1988, Northern Arizona beat Central Connecticut 72–70 in Tuba City in the first Division I basketball game ever played on an Indian reservation. Navajo language The language has struggled to keep

10062-498: The assistance of Sally Midgette (Navajo). This work is organized by root , the basis of Athabaskan languages. A 1991 survey of 682 preschoolers on the Navajo Reservation Head Start program found that 54 percent were monolingual English speakers, 28 percent were bilingual in English and Navajo, and 18 percent spoke only Navajo. This study noted that while the preschool staff knew both languages, they spoke English to

10191-443: The chance to establish their own bilingual education programs. However, qualified teachers who were fluent in Native languages were scarce, and these programs were largely unsuccessful. However, data collected in 1980 showed that 85 percent of Navajo first-graders were bilingual, compared to 62 percent of Navajo of all ages—early evidence of a resurgence of use of their traditional language among younger people. In 1984, to counteract

10320-469: The children most of the time. In addition, most of the children's parents spoke to the children in English more often than in Navajo. The study concluded that the preschoolers were in "almost total immersion in English". An American Community Survey taken in 2011 found that 169,369 Americans spoke Navajo at home—0.3 percent of Americans whose primary home language was not English. Of primary Navajo speakers, 78.8 percent reported they spoke English "very well",

10449-558: The children would remain bilingual, though their influence over the school systems was very low. A small number of preschool programs provided the Navajo immersion curriculum, which taught children basic Navajo vocabulary and grammar under the assumption that they have no prior knowledge in the Navajo language. Navajo has a fairly large consonant inventory. Its stop consonants exist in three laryngeal forms: aspirated , unaspirated, and ejective —for example, /tʃʰ/ , /tʃ/ , and /tʃʼ/ . Ejective consonants are those that are pronounced with

10578-755: The city by taxing its resources and not contributing to the economy. Flagstaff had also been highlighted on the map by Clyde Tombaugh 's 1930 discovery of Pluto from the Lowell Observatory. However, the importance of Route 66 to cross-country travel, and thus to Arizona's interests on a national level, did mean that it received a large share of state funding through the Depression, with highway maintenance and unemployment acts providing over $ 1 million of funding in May 1933. In 1935, many residents had enough disposable income to remodel their homes or build new ones. In 1955,

10707-406: The city has been experiencing its driest period, known as the Early-21st Century Drought. As of 2007, Richard Hereford of USGS speculated that the effects of the drought, predicted to last until the late 2020s, may be severe because of Flagstaff's growing population and global warming . The summer wet season is more reliable and consistent than other times of year, but due to the high temperatures of

10836-581: The city proper, these urban areas have a "mountain-town feel". Flagstaff has an "urban forest park", Buffalo Park, which sits on top of McMillan Mesa and used to be home to a zoo in the 1960s. Buffalo Park/McMillan Mesa bisects the city, separating East Flagstaff from West Flagstaff and downtown. According to the 2010 census , the population of the city was 65,870. This accounted for a population density of 831.9 people per square mile (321.2 people/km ), with 26,254 housing units at an average density of 336.5 per square mile (129.9/km ). The racial makeup of

10965-458: The city tried to launch a bid to be the host city of the 1960 Winter Olympics . The maximum daily snow cover was 83 inches (210 cm) on December 20, 1967, although the mean maximum for a full winter is only 20 inches (51 cm). However, due to the infrequent and scattered nature of the snowstorms, persistent snowpack into spring is rare. One notable exception occurred during the severe winter of 1915–16, when successive Pacific storms buried

11094-491: The city under over 70 inches (178 cm) of snow, and some residents were snowbound in their homes for several days. The earliest seasonal trace of snowfall occurred on September 19, 1965, and the latest on May 29 in both 1971 and 1990. Though one of the least-sunny cities in Arizona, Flagstaff still ranks among the United States' sunniest cities, having sunshine for an average 78% of the year. The city receives much more sunshine than other snowy cities, which are primarily in

11223-429: The city was 73.4% White , 1.9% Black or African American , 11.7% Native American, 1.9% Asian , 0.2% Pacific Islander , 7.3% from other races , and 3.6% from two or more races; 18.4% of the population were Hispanics or Latinos of any race. The city's African American population is considerably lower than the U.S. average (1.9% versus 12.6%), while the Native American population is markedly higher (11.7% vs. 0.9%). This

11352-591: The city. North West Flagstaff is directly north of downtown, and is where the Snowbowl and Museum of Northern Arizona are found. West Flagstaff encompasses the area south and west of downtown, including NAU and the Lake Mary neighborhood. It also covers the airport and Fort Tuthill (county park and the Pepsi Amphitheater), being bordered to the south by the urban areas of Kachina Village and Mountainaire . Outside of

11481-539: The continental United States. The city sits at about 7,000 feet (2,100 m) and is next to Mount Elden , just south of the San Francisco Peaks , the highest mountain range in the state of Arizona. Humphreys Peak , the highest point in Arizona at 12,637 feet (3,852 m), is about 10 miles (16 km) north of Flagstaff in Kachina Peaks Wilderness . The geology of the area includes exposed rock from

11610-553: The corn agriculturalists of the Pueblo area was reflected in their language by tracing the changing meanings of words from Proto-Athabaskan to Navajo. For example, the word * dè: , which in Proto-Athabaskan meant "horn" and "dipper made from animal horn", in Navajo became a-deeʼ, which meant "gourd" or "dipper made from gourd". Likewise, the Proto-Athabaskan word * ł-yəx̣s "snow lies on the ground" in Navajo became yas "snow". Similarly,

11739-512: The dryness of the air descending from mountains to the south. As of the 2020 census there were 8,072 people, 2,550 housing units, and 2,428 families in the CDP. The population density was 899.5 inhabitants per square mile. The racial makeup of the CDP was 5.0% White (223 people), 1.2% African American (28), 91.8% Native American (7,488), 0.0% Asian (118), 0.2% Pacific Islander (6), and 0.7% from two or more races (176). Those of Hispanic or Latino origin made up 5.6% (147). The median age

11868-541: The end of September and happening throughout October. Fall lasts only until the snow comes in November, with winter marked between periods of snowfall, typically from November until mid-April at the latest. Temperatures in winter are usually below freezing, going no higher than around 40 °F (4 °C) in the day, even in sunshine. Nights can regularly plummet below 20 °F (−7 °C). A combination of snow cover and high pressure occurring during winter months will cause

11997-432: The houses were still in 'Old Town' with the spring; when the fire burned down 'Old Town', 'New Town' remained. The name Flagstaff was reinstated in 1884 when a post office was introduced alongside the railroad depot. The city has different names in local Native languages. In Navajo , it is known as Kinłání Dookʼoʼoosłííd Biyaagi . This name is formed from Kinłání , meaning "many houses" or city, Dookʼoʼoosłííd ,

12126-416: The language to their offspring and that concerted efforts at revitalization could easily protect the language. Navajo had a high population for a language in this category. About half of all Navajo people live on Navajo Nation land, an area spanning parts of Arizona , New Mexico , and Utah ; others are dispersed throughout the United States. Under tribal law, fluency in Navajo is mandatory for candidates to

12255-476: The language's historical decline, the Navajo Nation Council decreed that the Navajo language would be available and comprehensive for students of all grade levels in schools of the Navajo Nation . This effort was aided by the fact that, largely due to the work of Young and Morgan, Navajo is one of the best-documented Native American languages. In 1980 they published a monumental expansion of their work on

12384-657: The language, organized by word (first initial of vowel or consonant) in the pattern of English dictionaries, as requested by Navajo students. The Navajo Language: A Grammar and Colloquial Dictionary also included a 400-page grammar, making it invaluable for both native speakers and students of the language. Particularly in its organization of verbs, it was oriented to Navajo speakers. They expanded this work again in 1987, with several significant additions, and this edition continues to be used as an important text. The Native American language education movement has been met with adversity, such as by English-only campaigns in some areas in

12513-469: The late 1990s. However, Navajo-immersion programs have cropped up across the Navajo Nation. Statistical evidence shows that Navajo-immersion students generally do better on standardized tests than their counterparts educated only in English. Some educators have remarked that students who know their native languages feel a sense of pride and identity validation. Since 1989, Diné College , a Navajo tribal community college , has offered an associate degree in

12642-552: The late 19th century, it founded boarding schools, often operated by religious missionary groups. In efforts to acculturate the children, school authorities insisted that they learn to speak English and practice Christianity. Students routinely had their mouths washed out with lye soap as a punishment if they did speak Navajo. Consequently, when these students grew up and had children of their own, they often did not teach them Navajo, in order to prevent them from being punished. Robert W. Young and William Morgan , who both worked for

12771-530: The low tone typically regarded as the default. However, some linguists have suggested that Navajo does not possess true tones, but only a pitch accent system similar to that of Japanese . In general, Navajo speech also has a slower speech tempo than English does. Navajo is difficult to classify in terms of broad morphological typology : it relies heavily on affixes —mainly prefixes—like agglutinative languages, but these affixes are joined in unpredictable, overlapping ways that make them difficult to segment,

12900-438: The many below-ground springs that are the source of several reservoirs. Tuba City is located within the Painted Desert near the western edge of the Navajo Nation . Tuba City is located approximately 50 miles (80 km) from the eastern entrance to Grand Canyon National Park and approximately 78 miles (126 km) from Flagstaff . Most of Tuba City's residents are Navajo , with a small Hopi minority. The Tuba City area

13029-424: The many educated individuals moving to the city. The city did not expand its infrastructure downtown despite the growing population, causing problems. Several historic buildings from the 1800s were also destroyed for construction of new ones, or leveled completely. Downtown Flagstaff became an uninviting place, and many businesses started to move out of the area, causing an economic and social decline. During

13158-454: The monsoon season in July and August, when thunderstorms occur almost daily. Thunderstorm activity happens mostly during the daytime. Freezing temperatures (below 32 °F (0 °C)) return towards the end of September, with the mild fall season having daytime temperatures around 60 °F (16 °C). With its many trees, leaves do change color in Flagstaff's fall, with the change starting at

13287-481: The name for the San Francisco Peaks but literally "the summit which never melts", and Biyaagi, indicating 'below' (see translations of "below; in a place beneath" on wiktionary ): the city below the San Francisco Peaks. The word Kinłání alone may refer to Flagstaff, but also can refer to Durango, Colorado . In Havasupai , Flagstaff is known as Wii Hagnbaj . This is also a name for the San Francisco Peaks, and literally means "snowy mountain". The Sinagua people were

13416-452: The north of the country. There are four seasons in Flagstaff, with cool to cold winter temperatures averaging 45 °F (7 °C) and warm summer temperatures averaging 80 °F (27 °C), much cooler than much of Arizona; the average annual snowfall is 97 inches (250 cm). Spring begins in April with cool or comfortable weather. Sometimes, snow reappears in May, but the spring period

13545-645: The number of monolingual Navajo speakers have been in the decline, and most younger Navajo people are bilingual. Near the 1990s, many Navajo children have little to no knowledge in Navajo language, only knowing English. In 1968, U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Bilingual Education Act , which provided funds for educating young students who are not native English speakers. The Act had mainly been intended for Spanish-speaking children—particularly Mexican Americans —but it applied to all recognized linguistic minorities. Many Native American tribes seized

13674-651: The office of the President of the Navajo Nation . Both original and translated media have been produced in Navajo. The first works tended to be religious texts translated by missionaries, including the Bible. From 1943 to about 1957, the Navajo Agency of the BIA published Ádahooníłígíí ("Events" ), the first newspaper in Navajo and the only one to be written entirely in Navajo. It was edited by Robert W. Young and William Morgan, Sr. (Navajo). They had collaborated on The Navajo Language ,

13803-463: The outskirts and bordering the city; it is mostly Dsb , BSk , and Csb . The hottest temperature on record is 97 °F (36 °C) in July 1973. This is far below a normal summer day in lowland areas of the state. The coldest temperature on record is −30 °F (−34 °C) in January 1937. Warm summer nights are very uncommon with the all-time record being 68 °F (20 °C) in July 2002 and

13932-472: The peaks can also be approached from the north and east. The peaks are about 10 miles (16 km) northwest of downtown Flagstaff, with the Snowbowl resort just southwest of Humphreys Peak. The wildlife of the peaks include mule deer , elk , turkey vultures , and black bears , all visible from public trails. Flagstaff lies on the southern edge of the Colorado Plateau, and is largely limestone under San Francisco volcanic field . The oldest rock types of

14061-434: The population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 2,360 households, out of which 52.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.0% were married couples living together, 26.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 17.7% were non-families. 15.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 2.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size

14190-563: The population were in poverty. The per capita income was $ 20,287. As of the census of 2015, there were 9,722 people, 2,360 households, and 1,675 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 921.6 inhabitants per square mile (355.8/km). There were 2,465 housing units at an average density of 274.0 per square mile (105.8/km). The racial make-up of the CDP was 76.2% Native American , 8.4% White , 0.3% Black or African American , 0.8% Asian , <0.1% Pacific Islander , 0.6% from other races , and 1.5% from two or more races. 14.4% of

14319-575: The same stem, as do the progressive and future modes; these modes are distinguished with prefixes. However, pairs of modes other than these may also share the same stem, as illustrated in the following example, where the verb "to play" is conjugated into each of the five mode paradigms: The basic set of subject prefixes for the imperfective mode, as well as the actual conjugation of the verb into these person and number categories, are as follows. The remaining piece of these conjugated verbs—the prefix na- —is called an "outer" or "disjunct" prefix. It

14448-526: The school district was expanded with a third high school, Sinagua High School . On October 24, 2001, Flagstaff was recognized by the International Dark-Sky Association as the world's first "International Dark-Sky City". Flagstaff is the county seat of Coconino County. According to the United States Census Bureau , the city has a total area of 63.9 square miles (165.5 km ), of which only 0.03 square miles (0.08 km ) (0.08%)

14577-605: The site for the Lowell Observatory , where it was built on Mars Hill. Flagstaff also became incorporated as a town in 1894. The city grew rapidly, primarily due to its location along the east–west transcontinental railroad line in the United States. In the 1890s, the Arizona Lumber and Timber Company was founded by the Riordan brothers to process timber. Michael and Tim Riordan worked in Flagstaff, and introduced electricity to

14706-587: The site of the headquarters of the Western Navajo Agency. The Hopi village of Moenkopi lies directly to its southeast, and Hopi also live in the city. European Americans named the town in honor of chief Tuuvi , a Hopi man from Oraibi who converted to the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and allowed Mormon migrants to settle in the area. The Navajo name for this community, Tó Naneesdizí , translates as "tangled waters". It likely refers to

14835-451: The subject of Navajo. This program includes language, literature, culture, medical terminology, and teaching courses and produces the highest number of Navajo teachers of any institution in the United States. About 600 students attend per semester. One major university that teaches classes in the Navajo language is Arizona State University . In 1992, Young and Morgan published another major work on Navajo: Analytical Lexicon of Navajo , with

14964-402: The summer; Mediterranean climates have wet season only in the winter. Mediterranean climate categorization does not consider snowfall. Semi-arid climates will receive 10–20 inches (250–510 mm) of annual rainfall, while Flagstaff experiences more. Flagstaff's hardiness zone is mostly 6a, with some areas 5b, meaning plants withstand temperatures down to −15 °F (−26 °C). It

15093-480: The temperature to drop further, once reaching a record low of −30 °F (−34 °C). Flagstaff's winter wet season is caused by Pacific storms and lasts from November through April. See or edit raw graph data . Flagstaff is an area "of great ecological variation" due to its diverse habitat life zones. Tree species abound the area, which covers three arboreal life zones: Douglas fir and aspen forest , Ponderosa pine forest , and Pinyon-juniper woodland . It

15222-547: The town for this purpose. The Riordan brothers established the first library in Flagstaff. The CO Bar Ranch was opened in about 1886 by the Babbitt brothers for cattle. The Babbitt family would be very influential in northern Arizona for decades. In 1899, the Northern Arizona Normal School was established; it was renamed to Northern Arizona University (NAU) in 1966. On January 1, 1900, John Weatherford opened

15351-559: The verb with the circum clitic doo= ... =da (e.g. mósí doo nitsaa da 'the cat is not big'). Dooda , as a single word, corresponds to English no . Nouns are not required to form a complete Navajo sentence. Besides the extensive information that can be communicated with a verb, Navajo speakers may alternate between the third and fourth person to distinguish between two already specified actors, similarly to how speakers of languages with grammatical gender may repeatedly use pronouns. Most nouns are not inflected for number, and plurality

15480-550: The winter producing 28%. The summer monsoon season, originating from the Mexican monsoon period, is also wetter than winter, with an average 7 inches (180 mm) compared to the winter's 6 inches (150 mm). Before the summer monsoon each year there is a dry period in May and June. Long-term average precipitation is 21.6 inches (550 mm) annually, with much heavier rainfall attributed to El Niño events. Comparatively, La Niña events have caused below-average rainfall. Since 1996

15609-459: Was 34.5 years old. 10.9% of the population were 65 or older, with 7.2% between the ages of 65 to 74, 3.2% between the ages of 75 to 84, and 0.6% were 85 or older. 1.5% of the population were foreign born. 26.7% of the population were under 18, and 6.6% were under 5. The gender makeup was 54.1% female and 45.9% male. The median household income was $ 57,045, with families having $ 58,750, married couples had $ 86,979, and non-families had $ 41,875. 23.1% of

15738-415: Was 4.00 and the average family size was 4.49. In the CDP, the age distribution of the population shows 42.8% under the age of 18, 9.8% from 18 to 24, 27.5% from 25 to 44, 15.7% from 45 to 64, and 4.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 23 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.3 males. Tuba City's median household income

15867-463: Was broadcast to tribal areas. Navajo was no exception, although its large speaker pool—larger than that of any other Native language in the United States—gave it more staying power than most. Adding to the language's decline, federal acts passed in the 1950s to increase educational opportunities for Navajo children had resulted in pervasive use of English in their schools. In more recent years,

15996-762: Was funded in the 1950s, where the number of students quickly doubled in the next decade. The Navajo Nation operates Tséhootsooí Diné Bi'ólta', a Navajo language immersion school for grades K-8 in Fort Defiance, Arizona . Located on the Arizona-New Mexico border in the southeastern quarter of the Navajo Reservation , the school strives to revitalize Navajo among children of the Window Rock Unified School District . Tséhootsooí Diné Bi'ólta' has thirteen Navajo language teachers who instruct only in

16125-437: Was much more welcoming than similar towns, particularly noting Gallup, New Mexico , as one that was worse. The study also documented that while there was a distinctly Native neighborhood in the poorer Southside area of Flagstaff, the housing quality varied greatly, with middle class Native residencies elsewhere in the city. Though Flagstaff has a low African American population, it had seen large immigration of black people from

16254-619: Was replaced in 1888 by a master quarryman. While it was used as building material across the West, some of Flagstaff's most prominent buildings are famous for the stone, including the Bank Hotel, Weatherford Hotel, Babbitt Brothers Building, Coconino County Courthouse, and various NAU buildings, including Old Main. In the Laramide orogeny , which began about 65–75 million years ago, the Western United States underwent stress in rock formation; in

16383-435: Was still ranked as the United States' third-snowiest city in 2020 (based on 2018–19 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration data). Flagstaff has consistently been among the snowiest cities in the United States, and snow and winter culture is argued by Michael Weeks to be a large part of Flagstaff's identity. The Arizona Snowbowl is a major attraction, though it has had to make artificial snow during warmer seasons, and

16512-542: Was the territory of indigenous peoples for thousands of years. The community was first documented by Spanish explorers: Father Francisco Garcés visited the area in 1776, and recorded that the Hopi Indians were cultivating crops. European-American migrants came as part of the Mormon movement to the West in the late 19th century. They named the town after Tuuvi , a Hopi man who converted to Mormonism circa 1870. He had invited

16641-530: Was used by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) to map the Moon for the lunar expeditions, enabling the mission planners to choose a safe landing site for the lunar modules. As the baby boomer generation began to start their own families in the 1970s and 1980s, many moved to Flagstaff based on its small-town feel, and the population began to grow again; there were not enough jobs to support

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