Misplaced Pages

#983016

51-618: Tshangla is frequently assumed to be close to the Tibetic languages . Bradley (2002) includes in among the East Bodish languages . Van Driem (2011), however, leaves it unclassified within Sino-Tibetan, pending further research. Bodt (2012:188-189) classifies Tshangla as a Bodish language , but notes that Tshangla (like East Bodish ) is related to, but not directly descended, from Classical Tibetan . Grollmann & Gerber (2023) note that Tshangla

102-738: A Khams dialect in Kachin , Myanmar . Tournadre (2005) classifies the Tibetic languages as follows. The other languages ( Thewo-Chone , Zhongu , Khalong , Dongwang , Gserpa , Zitsadegu , Drugchu , Baima ) are not mutually intelligible , but are not known well enough to classify. mDungnag , a Tibetan language spoken in Gansu , is also divergent and is not mutually intelligible with either Khams or Amdo . Tournadre (2013) adds Tseku and Khamba to Khams , and groups Thewo-Chone , Zhongu , and Baima as an Eastern branch of Tibetic. According to Bradley,

153-407: A romanized transcription system. Below appears a table of Tshangla consonants according to Andvik (2010). Non-native phonemes, in parentheses, are contrasted only marginally with native sounds: /ɬ/ is often nativized to /l/; /dz/ becomes /z/; and /ʑ/ becomes /j/. The above table generally describes onset consonants. Consonant clusters in the onset position are limited to consonant plus /r/, with

204-757: A Tibetic language originally spoken in the western region. Although non-Tibetic languages ( Tshangla , East Bodish ) are dominant in many parts of the country, Dzongkha is also widely used there as a second-language. Other Tibetic varieties of Bhutan include Choča-ngača, Brokpa and Lakha . Within areas administrated by Pakistan , Balti is spoken in Gilgit-Baltistan . Within areas administrated by India , some Tibetic varieties are spoken in Ladakh , Sikkim , Himachal Pradesh ( Kinnaur , Lahul and Spiti ), West Bengal ( Darjeeling and Kalimpong ), as well as Uttarakhand . As with Bhutan and Nepal , there reside

255-450: A West Himalayish superstratum, but its substratum is derived from a different Sino-Tibetan branch. Only a few language clusters in the world are derived from a common language which is identical to or closely related to an old literary language. This small group includes the Tibetic languages, as descendants from Old Tibetan (7th–9th centuries), but also the Romance languages with Latin ,

306-572: A brief overview of Tibetic varieties in the country. He estimates there are about 300 Khams Tibetan speakers inhabiting at least four villages in Dazundam Village Tract, Pannandin Sub-township, Nogmong Township , Putao District , Kachin State. The four villages he mentions are Tahaundam , "Shidudan" ( Japanese : シドゥダン ) , Sandam, Madin, the second of which he provides no romanization because

357-523: A continuum centered around the town of Trashigang , whose dialect is considered by Tshangla speakers to be the prestige dialect. Differences between dialects do not prevent mutual intelligibility, and many loanwords have come through Classical Tibetan (Chöke). In Arunachal Pradesh , Tshangla is spoken by the Monpa tribe in the Kalaktang and Dirang area of West Kameng . The dialect there, called "Central Monpa",

408-537: A large area of the Black Mountains and the Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests ecoregion within them. It was originally named Black Mountains National Park. The black mountains range is home to some of the beautiful alpine lakes which are the source of some rivers. The lakes are: 27°17′N 90°23′E  /  27.283°N 90.383°E  / 27.283; 90.383 This Bhutan location article

459-935: A major ethnic group of the country, probably accounting for 25-30% of the total population. Scattered Tshangla speakers can also be found in neighbouring countries with different names. In the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh , they are called Kalaktang Monpa (and are lexically distinct). whereas about 7,000 Tshangla-speaking people also live in Pemako ( Bomê and Mêdog County ) in southeastern Tibet , China and India . There are about 8,000 Kalaktang Monpa speakers in Khalaktang, Balimu, and Tomko villages, Kalaktang administrative center, West Kameng district , Arunachal Pradesh , India ( Ethnologue ). About 1000 to 15000 Tsangla speakers are also live in Tuting Town, Kopu, Bona, Gelling, Bishing along

510-655: A number of Tibetan refugees across the country, notably in Dharamshala where the headquarters of the Central Tibetan Administration is located. In Myanmar , a variant of Khams Tibetan is spoken near the Hkakabo Razi , Kachin State which is adjacent to Nujiang Lisu Autonomous Prefecture , Yunnan and Tibet Autonomous Region . Suzuki (2012) describes the phonology of the Sangdam dialect, as well as giving

561-540: A sister branch not to the East Bodish group, but to its parent Bodish branch . Thus the ambiguous term "Monpa" risks separating languages that should be grouped together, while grouping languages together that are quite separate. Tshangla is traditionally an unwritten language and has no official status in any country. When written by native speakers, it is most often rendered in Tibetan script , however grammarians have devised

SECTION 10

#1732859332984

612-403: A substitute for the term "Tibetan languages/dialects" used in the previous literature; the distinction between "language" and "dialect" is not straightforward, and labeling varieties of Tibetic as "Tibetan dialects" could be misleading not only because those "dialects" are often mutually-unintelligible , but also the speakers of Tibetic do not necessarily consider themselves as ethnic Tibetan , as

663-756: A transitive sense, but "to be called" in an intransitive sense. Similarly, lekpe means "to lick" in a transitive sense, but "to be licked" in an intransitive sense, with the agent suppressed. The copula , which has many forms, is used extensively in marking Tshangla verbs. Verbs are marked differently depending on whether they are predicate (finite), or relative or participial (non-finite). Only finite verbs take personal conjugations , while various non-finite forms take different suffices. Adverbs appear as suffixes on non-final and participial verb forms. Negation of adjectives, nouns, and verbs takes different forms. Sentence-final particles include interrogatory and non-declarative mood markers. Tshangla dialects represent

714-658: A well-defined group of languages descending from Old Tibetan (7th to 9th centuries, or to the 11th/12th centuries). According to Nicolas Tournadre, there are 50 Tibetic languages, which branch into more than 200 dialects, which could be grouped into eight dialect continua . These Tibetic languages are spoken in Tibet , the greater Tibetan Plateau , and in the Himalayas in Gilgit-Baltistan , Ladakh , Aksai Chin , Nepal , and in India at Himachal Pradesh , and Uttarakhand . Classical Tibetan

765-501: Is Baima , which retains an apparent Qiangic substratum , and has multiple layers of borrowing from Amdo , Khams , and Zhongu , but does not correspond to any established branch of Tibetic. The two major Tibetic languages used for broadcasting within China are Standard Tibetan and Amdo Tibetan . Tournadre & Suzuki (2023) recognize 8 geographical sections , each with about 7-14 groups of Tibetic dialects. This classification

816-918: Is a pro-drop language , with two otherwise notable features. First, multi- valent verbs drop objects even though they are not recoverable from context, through which verbs reduce their valency (i.e. become intransitive ). In other situations where the argument is topically important, and where confusion is impossible, a "zero" (impersonal) pronoun is used. Otherwise, personal pronouns are extensively used. They appear below: When pronouns are followed by numbers, plurals are not used (e.g. ro nyiktsing , "the two of them"). Noun cases include absolutive ( nominative ), agentive ( ergative )/ instrumental (- gi ), genitive (- ga- ), ablative (- gai ), and dative / locative (- ga ). These suffices undergo devoicing in certain circumstances. Verbs are generally transitive or intransitive . The transitivity of some verbs corresponds to lexical distinctions: yekpa means "to speak" in

867-561: Is a revision of Tournadre (2014). Tournadre (2014) classifies the Tibetic languages as eight geolinguistic continua , consisting of 50 languages and over 200 dialects. This is an updated version of his work in 2008. The Eastern and Southeastern branches have lower internal mutual intelligibility , but it is more limited in the Northwestern branch and between certain southern and northern Khams dialects. These continua are spread across five countries with one exception, this being Sangdam,

918-524: Is also spoken in diaspora communities in Europe , North America (e.g. Little Tibet, Toronto ), Asia and Australia . Within China , the great majority of Tibetic speakers are officially classified into the " Tibetan nationality " (藏族), which however includes speakers of other Trans-Himalayan languages such as Rgyalrongnic . Aside from Tibet Autonomous Region , there are several autonomous prefectures for

969-544: Is mainly used for interethnic communication; those with primary education can speak and write Burmese as well, while they are illiterate in their own language. Most Tibetic languages are written in one of two Indic scripts . Standard Tibetan and most other Tibetic languages are written in the Tibetan script with a historically conservative orthography (see below) that helps unify the Tibetan-language area. Some other Tibetan languages (in India and Nepal) are written in

1020-468: Is not particularly closely related to Bodish at all and should be placed in a separate part of the Trans-Himalayan linguistic phylum. Tshangla is a dialect cluster consisting of a few mutually unintelligible language varieties, including (Gerber 2018): The Tshangla variety of Trashigang town is used as a lingua franca . Dungsam is conservative, while Dirang and Bjokapakha are divergent. Tshangla

1071-440: Is not reported to be endangered in any way, as there are still many children learning it as their first language. Indeed, it is often described as being the majority language of eastern Bhutan, where it functions as something of a lingua franca. Andvic (2010: 4) reports that “most Bhutanese have at least some rudimentary knowledge of Tshangla”. In addition, it is common for Western Bhutanese to learn some Tshangla through classmates in

SECTION 20

#1732859332984

1122-783: Is primarily spoken in East and Southeast Bhutan, especially in the Trashigang district. The language is referred to as “Sharchopkha” meaning 'the people in the east' in Dzongkha, the national language of Bhutan. It is also spoken in the Arunachal Pradesh of India, where it is sometimes referred to as “Central Monpa”, and in Southeast Tibet. There are approximately 170,000 speakers of Tshangla, living in Bhutan (157,000), India (11,000) and Tibet (7000). It

1173-600: Is spoken by some 6,000 people. More speakers of Tshangla dialects live in Kathmandu , Darjeeling and Assam . In Bhutan , Tshangla is virtually identical to the Tshangla ( Chinese : 仓洛 ; pinyin : Cāngluò ) of southeastern Tibet, also called "Mêdog (Bomê) Monpa". The Bomê County region of Tibet, formerly known as Padma-bkod or Pemako , contains remnants of these Tshangla communities separated by hundreds of miles. Tibetic languages The Tibetic languages form

1224-716: Is the case with Sherpas , Ladakhis , Baltis , Lahaulas , Sikkimese and Bhutanese . Marius Zemp (2018) hypothesizes that Tibetan originated as a pidgin with the West Himalayish language Zhangzhung as its superstratum , and Rgyalrongic as its substratum (both languages are part of the broader Sino-Tibetan family). However, there are many grammatical differences between the Rgyalrongic and Tibetic languages; Rgyalrongic tend to use prefixes such as *kə-, *tə-, etc., while Tibetic languages use suffixes such as -pa/-ba, -ma, -po/-bo, -mo, etc. Similarly, Tamangic also has

1275-523: Is the major literary language, particularly for its use in Tibetan Buddhist scriptures and literature. Tibetan languages are spoken by some 6 million people, not all of whom are Tibetan people . With the worldwide spread of Tibetan Buddhism , the Tibetan language has also spread into the western world and can be found in many Buddhist publications and prayer materials, while western students also learn

1326-595: The Arabic languages (or "dialects") with Classical Arabic , the Sinitic languages with Middle Chinese , the modern Indic languages with Vedic Sanskrit . The more divergent languages are spoken in the north and east, likely due to language contact with the Qiangic , Rgyalrongic languages . The divergence exhibited in Khalong may also be due to language shift . In addition, there

1377-686: The Qiang peoples of Kham are classified by China as ethnic Tibetans (see Gyalrongic languages ; Gyalrong people are identified as 'Tibetan' in China), the Qiangic languages are not Tibetan, but rather form their own branch of the Tibeto-Burman language family . Classical Tibetan was not a tonal language , but many varieties such as Central and Khams Tibetan have developed tone registers. Amdo and Ladakhi-Balti are without tone. Tibetan morphology can generally be described as agglutinative . Although

1428-502: The "nationality" in Sichuan , Qinghai , Gansu , and Yunnan . Lhasa Tibetan , or more technically, Standard Tibetan (natively called སྤྱི་སྐད spyi skad ) is used among post-1950s Tibetan emigrants to Nepal . Other Tibetic varieties such as Sherpa , Jirel and Yolmo are spoken in districts along the China-Nepal border . The national language of Bhutan is Dzongkha ,

1479-478: The 9th century the process of cluster simplification, devoicing and tonogenesis had begun in the central dialects, as can be shown by Tibetan words transliterated into other languages, particularly Middle Chinese but also Uyghur . The combination of the abovementioned evidence enables us to form the following outline of the evolution of Tibetan. In the 9th century, as shown by the bilingual Tibetan– Chinese treaty of 821–822 found in front of Lhasa 's Jokhang ,

1530-529: The Central or Eastern Tibetic languages: Black Mountains (Bhutan) The Black Mountains is a mountain range in central Bhutan , a sub−range of the Himalayan Range System. Locally the mountain range is known as Dungshing Gang which means the fir peaks. Durshingla Peak, at an elevation of 15,145 feet (4,616 m), is the range's highest point. Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park protects

1581-472: The Tibetan Uchen script . Though there are no official publications in Tshangla, the language is used in radio and television broadcasts. (It remains undetermined what kind of orthography is used for writing copy for those broadcasts; Yang Gyeltshen, p.c.) The official national language of Bhutan is Dzongkha, which is derived from the Tibetan spoken by Lama Shabdrung and his followers, who left Tibet to found

Tshangla language - Misplaced Pages Continue

1632-1351: The Tibetic languages, has been reconstructed by Tournadre (2014). Proto-Tibetic is similar to, but not identical to, written Classical Literary Tibetan . The following phonological features are characteristic of Proto-Tibetic (Tournadre 2014: 113). Reconstructed Proto-Tibetic forms from Tournadre (2014) include: Pre-Tibetic is a hypothetical pre-formation stage of Proto-Tibetic. *ty-, *ly-, *sy- were not palatalized in Pre-Tibetic, but underwent palatalization in Proto-Tibetic (Tournadre 2014: 113-114). Posited sound changes from Pre-Tibetic to Proto-Tibetic include *ty- > *tɕ-, *sy- > *ɕ-, *tsy- > *tɕ-, and *ly- > *ʑ-. However, Tournadre (2014: 114) notes that many Bodish languages such as Basum , Tamang , and Kurtöp ( East Bodish ) have not undergone these changes (e.g., Bake ( Basum ) ti 'what' vs. Proto-Tibetic *tɕ(h)i and Bake tɨ 'one' vs. Proto-Tibetic *g(ǝ)-tɕ(h)ik; Kurtöp la: 'iron' and Bumthap lak 'iron' vs. Proto-Tibetic *ltɕaks). Some Pre-Tibetic reconstructions, along with reconstructed Proto-Tibetic forms and orthographic Classical Literary Tibetan, from Tournadre (2014: 114-116) are listed below. The numerals in different Tibetan/Tibetic languages are: For

1683-753: The Tsangpo (Siang) river and Nyering, Payingdem, Nyukong, Yortong, Mankota, Tashigong, Singa along the Yangsang Chu river, Upper Siang District , Arunachal Pradesh , India. The distantly related 'Olekha language of the Black Mountains , also called "Monpa" and predating Dzongkha, belongs to the Sino-Tibetan East Bodish languages . 'Olekha is most closely related to the Bumthang language ; both are East Bodish languages . Tshangla and related languages form

1734-528: The complex initial clusters had already been reduced, and the process of tonogenesis was likely well underway. The next change took place in Tsang (Gtsang) dialects: The ra -tags were altered into retroflex consonants, and the ya -tags became palatals. Later on the superscribed letters and finals d and s disappeared, except in the east and west. It was at this stage that the language spread in Lahul and Spiti, where

1785-442: The coronal sounds i , d , s , l and n . The same holds for Tsang with the exception of l , which merely lengthens the vowel. The medials have become aspirate tenues with a low intonation, which also marks words having a simple initial consonant; while the former aspirates and the complex initials simplified in speech are uttered with a high tone, shrill and rapidly. Proto-Tibetic, the hypothetical proto-language ancestral to

1836-532: The cultural aspects of their region which has shared a close history with neighbours like Kashmiris and Punjabis since the arrival of Islam in the region many centuries ago. Old Tibetan phonology is rather accurately rendered by the script. The finals were pronounced devoiced although they are written as voiced, the prefix letters assimilated their voicing to the root letters. The graphic combinations hr and lh represent voiceless and not necessarily aspirate correspondences to r and l respectively. The letter '

1887-456: The exception of the syllable /pɕi/, used in only two contexts. Intervocalic positioning of aspirated onsets /pʰ/ /tʰ/, and /kʰ/ results in lenition to /ɸ/, /θ/, and /x/ or /h/, respectively, with some exceptions. Syllable-final consonants are limited to /p/, /t/, /k/, /s/, /m/, /n/, and /ŋ/. Tshangla vowels appear in the chart below, following Andvik (2010). Vowels in parentheses appear in non-native words inherited from Tibetan , Dzongkha , and

1938-670: The face of strong Punjabi cultural influence throughout Pakistan, has fostered renewed interest in reviving the Tibetan script and using it alongside the Perso-Arabic script . Many shops in Baltistan's capital Skardu in Pakistan's "Northern Areas" region have begun supplementing signs written in the Perso-Arabic script with signs written in the Tibetan script. Baltis see this initiative not as separatist but rather as part of an attempt to preserve

1989-414: The language for the translation of Tibetan texts. Outside of Lhasa itself, Lhasa Tibetan is spoken by approximately 200,000 exiled Tibetans who have moved from Tibet to India , Nepal and other countries. Tibetan is also spoken by groups of ethnic minorities in Tibet who have lived in close proximity to Tibetans for centuries, but nevertheless retain their own languages and cultures. Although some of

2040-680: The language overall may be in the process of tonogenesis . Some dialects such as those of Central Monpa and Padma-bkod have replaced voiceless-voiced contrasts with a high-low tone distinction, respectively. Tshangla grammar features nouns , adjectives , adverbs , and verbs . Word order is generally subject–object–verb (SOV). Its morphology is generally agglutinative , though most unmarked Tshangla lexicon comprises one or two syllables. Nouns are arranged into either head-first or head-last noun phrases. Demonstratives, relative clauses, and genitive phrases precede nouns, whereas markers for definiteness, number, topic, focus, case, and other particles follow

2091-700: The languages cluster as follows (dialect information from the Tibetan Dialects Project at the University of Bern): Some classifications group Khams and Amdo together as Eastern Tibetan (not to be confused with East Bodish , whose speakers are not ethnically Tibetan). Some, like Tournadre, break up Central Tibetan. Phrases such as 'Central Tibetan' and 'Central Bodish' may or may not be synonymous: Southern (Central) Tibetan can be found as Southern Bodish, for example; 'Central Tibetan' may mean dBus or all tonal lects apart from Khams; 'Western Bodish' may be used for

Tshangla language - Misplaced Pages Continue

2142-577: The latter's archaic liturgical form, Chöke . Non-native front rounded vowels may be nativized as front unrounded vowels. Vowel clusters native to the Tshangla lexicon are /ai/ and /au/, and in derived contexts /oi/ and /ui/ also appear (e.g. a verbal ending: /bu-i/, take -IMP ). In these native contexts, final /i/ and /u/ are pronounced as if they were /y/ or /w/, respectively. In loanwords /iu/ and /eu/ rarely appear, and tend to be realized as /iwu/ and /ewu/, respectively. Most dialects of Tshangla do not make lexical distinctions according to tone , however,

2193-538: The nation of Bhutan in the 1600s. Tshangla, however, is one of Bhutan's many indigenous languages and is the most widely spoken of the indigenous Sino-Tibetan languages. Tshangla is found scattered throughout eastern Himalayan ridges as well as the southern regions, spoken by around 175,000 people. Most of the Tshangla populace live in Eastern Bhutan ( Trashigang , eastern Pemagatshel , Samdrup Jongkhar , eastern Mongar , and Trashiyangtse districts), where they formed

2244-501: The non-tonal western lects while 'Western Tibetan' is used for the tonal lects, or 'Bodish' may even be used for other branches of the Tibeto-Kanauri languages . Amdo Tibetan has 70% lexical similarity with Central Tibetan and Khams Tibetan, while Khams Tibetan has 80% lexical similarity with Central Tibetan. The Tibetic-speaking area spans six countries: China (PRC), Nepal , Pakistan , India , Bhutan , and Myanmar . Tibetan

2295-421: The noun. While adjectives comprise a lexically distinct category in their own right, some adjectival words are grammatically nouns. This dichotomy is complicated by equally common relative clauses that function as adjectives. For example, dukpu waktsa means "(the) badly poor child," and waktsa dukpu means "(the) child who is badly poor ." Some combinations are strictly noun-adjective, however. Tshangla

2346-460: The placename is uncharted on the map available to him. According to Suzuki's consultant , they migrated from Zayu County , Tibet more than a century ago although they still have contact with relatives living there, and there are few differences between the dialects of the four villages . Since Rawang people are the ethnic majority of the area, the Tibetans also have a command of Rawang , which

2397-623: The related Devanagari script, which is also used to write Hindi , Nepali and many other languages. However, some Ladakhi and Balti speakers write with the Urdu script ; this occurs almost exclusively in Pakistan . The Tibetan script fell out of use in Pakistani Baltistan hundreds of years ago upon the region's adoption of Islam . However, increased concern among Balti people for the preservation of their language and traditions, especially in

2448-413: The school system (Yang Gyeltshen, p.c.). Despite its predominance in eastern Bhutan, Tshangla is described by Andvik (2010: 4) as “an unwritten language”, meaning that it “is not in any country standardized by governing fiat, taught in the schools, recognized as an official language, or even given status as a minority language.” However, Ethnologue reports that 47% of L1 speakers are literate, mainly using

2499-424: The superscribed letters were silent, the d and g finals were hardly heard, and as , os , us were pronounced ai , oi , ui . The words introduced from Tibet into the border languages at that time differ greatly from those borrowed at an earlier period. Other changes are more recent and restricted to Ü and Tsang. In Ü, the vowel sounds a , o , u have now mostly umlauted to ä , ö , ü when followed by

2550-485: The term "Tibetic" had been applied in various ways within the Sino-Tibetan research tradition, Nicolas Tournadre defined it as a phylum derived from Old Tibetan . Following Nishi (1987) and Beyer (1992), he identified several lexical innovations that can be used as a diagnosis to distinguish Tibetic from the other languages of the family, such as བདུན bdun "seven". The "Tibetic languages" in this sense are

2601-483: Was pronounced as a voiced guttural fricative before vowels but as homorganic prenasalization before consonants. Whether the gigu verso had phonetic meaning or not remains controversial. For instance, Srongbtsan Sgampo would have been pronounced [sroŋpʦan zɡampo] (now pronounced [sɔ́ŋʦɛ̃ ɡʌ̀mpo] in Lhasa Tibetan) and ' babs would have been pronounced [mbaps] (pronounced [bapˤ] in Lhasa Tibetan). Already in

SECTION 50

#1732859332984
#983016