The Trịnh lords ( Vietnamese : Chúa Trịnh ; Chữ Hán : 主鄭; 1545–1787), formally titled as “ Viceroy ” of Trịnh ( Vietnamese : Trịnh vương ; chữ Hán : 鄭王 ) also known as the House of Trịnh or the Trịnh clan ( Trịnh thị; 鄭氏 ), were a feudal nobility clan that ruled Northern Vietnam (then called Tonkin ) during the Later Lê dynasty . The Trịnh lords were de jure subordinates and fief to the Lê dynasty emperors but were de facto rulers of the dynasty in the North.
167-553: The Trịnh clan and their rivals, the Nguyễn clan , were referred to by their subjects as title " Chúa " (Lord) and controlled northern and Southern Đại Việt respectively, leaving the Later Lê emperors as an authority in title only. The title of “Chúa” ( chữ Hán : 主 ) in this context is comparable to the office of Shogun in Japan. The Trịnh clan produced 12 lords who dominated the royal court of
334-554: A "responsible cabinet" led by Yikuang , Prince Qing. However, it became known as the " royal cabinet ", as five of its thirteen members, were part of or related to the royal family. The Wuchang Uprising on 10 October 1911 set off a series of uprisings. By November, 14 of the 22 provinces had rejected Qing rule. This led to the creation of the Republic of China , in Nanjing on 1 January 1912, with Sun Yat-sen as its provisional head. Seeing
501-603: A Chinese crew. Their cargo was left in the waters while Chen Xiaoguan went to Thailand (Siam). This was recorded in the log of a Chinese trading junk going to Nagasaki on 25 June 1683. Notes: Reference: Tran Trong Kim (2005). Việt Nam sử lược (in Vietnamese). Ho Chi Minh City : Ho Chi Minh city General Publishing House. p. 328. 16°28′N 107°36′E / 16.467°N 107.600°E / 16.467; 107.600 Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( / tʃ ɪ ŋ / CHING ), officially
668-608: A Han revolt in 1623, Nurhaci turned against them and enacted discriminatory policies and killings against them. He ordered that Han who assimilated to the Jurchen (in Jilin) before 1619 be treated equally with Jurchens, not like the conquered Han in Liaodong. Hong Taiji recognized the need to attract Han Chinese, explaining to reluctant Manchus why he needed to treat the defecting Ming general Hong Chengchou leniently. Hong Taiji incorporated Han into
835-480: A campaign to unify the nearby tribes . By 1616, however, he had sufficiently consolidated Jianzhou so as to be able to proclaim himself Khan of the Later Jin dynasty in reference to the previous Jurchen-ruled Jin dynasty . Two years later, Nurhaci announced the " Seven Grievances " and openly renounced the sovereignty of Ming overlordship in order to complete the unification of those Jurchen tribes still allied with
1002-404: A coup d'état. The plan was discovered, many high-ranking mandarins on Trịnh Tông's side were purged, Tông himself was imprisoned. In 1782, Trịnh Sâm died and passed power to Trịnh Cán. However, Cán was five years old at the time; the real ruler was Hoàng Ngũ Phúc's adopted son Hoàng Đình Bảo , who was appointed by Sâm as Cán's assistant. A few weeks after Cán was crowned, Trịnh Tông conspired with
1169-459: A direct threat to the throne. So much so that upon his death he was bestowed the extraordinary posthumous title of Emperor Yi ( 義皇帝 ), the only instance in Qing history in which a Manchu "prince of the blood" ( 親王 ) was so honored. Two months into Shunzhi's personal rule, however, Dorgon was not only stripped of his titles, but his corpse was disinterred and mutilated. Dorgon's fall from grace also led to
1336-644: A disappointed civil service examination candidate who, influenced by reading the Old Testament in translation, had a series of visions and announced himself to be the son of God, the younger brother of Jesus Christ, sent to reform China. In 1851, Hong launched an uprising in Guizhou and established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom with himself as its king. Within this kingdom, slavery, concubinage, arranged marriage, opium smoking, footbinding, judicial torture, and
1503-599: A former minor Ming official, who established a short-lived Shun dynasty . The last Ming ruler, the Chongzhen Emperor , committed suicide when the city fell to the rebels, marking the effective end of the dynasty. Li Zicheng then led rebel forces numbering some 200,000 to confront Ming general Wu Sangui , stationed at Shanhai Pass of the Great Wall to defend the capital against the approaching Manchu-led armies. Wu, to survive, had to ally with one of his adversaries against
1670-559: A large Ming army was sent to the border to threaten Mạc emperor to return the authority back to Lê emperor . Although Mạc Đăng Dung managed to negotiate this issue with the Ming to control northern part of Đại Việt , he was forced to recognize the Lê emperor's legitimacy over the southern part of realm. However, the war was continued because the Nguyễn–Trịnh alliance refused to recognize Mạc's authority over
1837-417: A large assault and defeated Bồng in fall 1787. Đinh Tích Nhưỡng and Bồng ran away, officially ending over 200 of Trịnh rule. Later, when the Qing army was occupying Thăng Long , Trịnh Bồng turned himself in to emperor Chiêu Thống. He was pardoned but was demoted to Duke of Huệ Địch ( Huệ Địch công ). After the Qing's defeat in early 1789, Bồng fled to the western region of the country, proclaimed himself to be
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#17328483435782004-621: A lord and built a resistance army against the Tây Sơn. He died in early 1791. After Gia Long founded the Nguyễn dynasty in 1802, he pardoned the Trịnh clan and allowed their descendants to worship their ancestors. In 1620, French Jesuit scholar Alexandre de Rhodes arrived in Trịnh-controlled Vietnam. He arrived at a mission that had been established at the court in Hanoi around 1615. The priest
2171-510: A misunderstanding that Manchus were afraid of water. Han bannermen carried out the fighting and killing, casting conquest of the Mingdoubt on the claim that fear of the water led to the coastal evacuation and ban on maritime activities. Even though a poem refers to the soldiers carrying out massacres in Fujian as "barbarians", both Han Green Standard Army and Han bannermen were involved and carried out
2338-537: A new dynasty ( Mạc dynasty ). The founders of both clan Nguyễn Kim and his son-in-law Trịnh Kiểm fled to Thanh Hóa province and refused to accept the rule of the Mạc. All of the region south of the Red River was under their control, but they were unable to dislodge the Mạc from Đông Kinh ( the capital of state) for many years. During this time, the Nguyễn–Trịnh alliance was led by Nguyễn Kim ; his daughter Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Bảo
2505-449: A patron of Tibetan Buddhism to establish legitimacy as a ruler of the Mongols and Tibetans. Kangxi's reign began when the young emperor was seven. To prevent a repeat of Dorgon's monopolizing of power, on his deathbed his father hastily appointed four regents who were not closely related to the imperial family and had no claim to the throne. However, through chance and machination, Oboi ,
2672-462: A power vacuum in the North. Trịnh Sâm's younger brother Trịnh Lệ with the support of Dương Trọng Tế marched into Thăng Long and forced Chiêu Thống to grant him the title Viceroy, which would make him a Trịnh lord. Emperor Chiêu Thống did not want to reinstall Trịnh lords and rejected Lệ's request. At the same time, Trịnh Bồng , son of Trịnh Giang , marched into Thăng Long. Dương Trọng Tế thought Trịnh Lệ
2839-634: A powerful clan originally based in Thanh Hóa Province . The clan supported Lê Lợi in his successful war of independence against the Ming dynasty . From that point on, the Nguyễn were one of the major noble families in Vietnam. Perhaps the most famous Nguyễn of this time was Nguyễn Thị Anh , the queen-consort for nearly 20 years (1442–1459). In 1527, Mạc Đăng Dung overthrew the emperor Lê Cung Hoàng and established
3006-478: A series of edicts and plans were made to reorganize the bureaucracy, restructure the school system, and appoint new officials. Opposition from the bureaucracy was immediate and intense. Although she had been involved in the initial reforms, the Empress Dowager stepped in to call them off , arrested and executed several reformers, and took over day-to-day control of policy. Yet many of the plans stayed in place, and
3173-478: A short, but hard-fought campaign. She fled to Xi'an . The victorious allies then enforced their demands on the Qing government, including compensation for their expenses in invading China and execution of complicit officials, via the Boxer Protocol . The defeat by Japan in 1895 created a sense of crisis which the failure of the 1898 reforms and the disasters of 1900 only exacerbated. Cixi in 1901 moved to mollify
3340-776: A short-lived proto-state known as the Zheltuga Republic (1883–1886) in the Amur River basin, which was however soon crushed by the Qing forces. In 1884, Qing China obtained concessions in Korea , such as the Chinese concession of Incheon , but the pro-Japanese Koreans in Seoul led the Gapsin Coup . Tensions between China and Japan rose after China intervened to suppress the uprising. The Japanese prime minister Itō Hirobumi and Li Hongzhang signed
3507-515: A war in Laos , which turned into a multi-sided war with Laotian factions as well as the Siamese army. A decade later, Laos had settled into an uneasy peace with three new Lao kingdoms paying tribute to both Vietnam and Siam. Trịnh Căn and Trịnh Cương made many reforms, but these reforms made the government more powerful and more of a burden to the people, which increased their dislike of the government. During
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#17328483435783674-400: Is associated with fire within the Chinese zodiacal system , while Qīng ( 清 ) is associated with water, illustrating the triumph of the Qing as the conquest of fire by water. The name possibly also possessed Buddhist implications of perspicacity and enlightenment, as well as connection with the bodhisattva Manjusri . Early European writers used the term "Tartar" indiscriminately for all
3841-449: Is nothing we lack..." Since China had little demand for European goods, Europe paid in silver for Chinese goods, an imbalance that worried the mercantilist governments of Britain and France. The growing Chinese demand for opium provided the remedy. The British East India Company greatly expanded its production in Bengal. The Daoguang Emperor , concerned both over the outflow of silver and
4008-615: The Battle of Shanhai Pass on 27 May 1644. The newly allied armies captured Beijing on 6 June. The Shunzhi Emperor was invested as the " Son of Heaven " on 30 October 1644. The Manchus, who had positioned themselves as political heirs to the Ming, held a formal funeral for the Chongzhen Emperor. However, completing the conquest of China proper took another seventeen years of battling Ming loyalists, pretenders and rebels. The last Ming pretender, Prince Gui , sought refuge with Pindale Min ,
4175-828: The Beiyang Army , and the purchase of armament factories from the Europeans. The dynasty gradually lost control of its peripheral territories. In return for promises of support against the British and the French, the Russian Empire took large chunks of territory in the Northeast in 1860. The period of cooperation between the reformers and the European powers ended with the 1870 Tianjin Massacre , which
4342-617: The British Royal Navy . British soldiers, using advanced muskets and artillery, easily outmaneuvered and outgunned Qing forces in ground battles. The Qing surrender in 1842 marked a decisive, humiliating blow. The Treaty of Nanjing , the first of the " unequal treaties ", demanded war reparations, forced China to open up the Treaty Ports of Canton , Amoy , Fuzhou , Ningbo and Shanghai to Western trade and missionaries, and to cede Hong Kong Island to Britain. It revealed weaknesses in
4509-670: The Convention of Tientsin , an agreement to withdraw troops simultaneously, but the First Sino-Japanese War of 1895 was a military humiliation. The Treaty of Shimonoseki recognized Korean independence and ceded Taiwan and the Pescadores to Japan. The terms might have been harsher, but when a Japanese citizen attacked and wounded Li Hongzhang, an international outcry shamed the Japanese into revising them. The original agreement stipulated
4676-665: The Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) in western China led to the deaths of over 20 million people, from famine, disease, and war. The Tongzhi Restoration in the 1860s brought vigorous reforms and the introduction of foreign military technology in the Self-Strengthening Movement . Defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1895 led to loss of suzerainty over Korea and cession of Taiwan to the Empire of Japan . The ambitious Hundred Days' Reform in 1898 proposed fundamental change, but
4843-578: The Dzungars in Outer Mongolia . The Kangxi Emperor expelled Galdan 's invading forces from these regions, which were then incorporated into the empire. In 1683, Qing forces received the surrender of Formosa (Taiwan) from Zheng Keshuang , grandson of Koxinga , who had conquered Taiwan from the Dutch colonists as a base against the Qing. Winning Taiwan freed Kangxi's forces for a series of battles over Albazin ,
5010-572: The Great Qing , was a Manchu -led imperial dynasty of China and the last imperial dynasty in Chinese history . The dynasty, proclaimed in Shenyang in 1636, seized control of Beijing in 1644, which is considered the start of the dynasty's rule. The dynasty lasted until the Xinhai Revolution of October 1911 led to the abdication of the last emperor, February 12, 1912. In Chinese historiography ,
5177-598: The Later Lê dynasty and ruled northern Vietnam for more than two centuries. The founder of the clan was Trịnh Kiểm , born in Vĩnh Lộc commune, Thanh Hóa province. Trịnh Kiểm was raised in a poor family. He often stole chickens from his neighbors because chicken was his mother's favorite food. When his neighbors found out, they became angry. One day, when Trịnh Kiểm left home, his neighbors abducted his mother and threw her down an abyss. Trịnh Kiểm returned home and panicked due to her disappearance. When he found his mother's body, it
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5344-540: The Lê dynasty . However, the de jure submission of the Nguyễn lords to the Trịnh lords ended in 1600. The Nguyễn lords were members of the House of Nguyễn Phúc . While they recognized the authority of and claimed to be loyal subjects of the revival Lê dynasty, they were de facto rulers of southern Đại Việt. Meanwhile, the Trịnh lords ruled northern Đại Việt in the name of the Lê emperor, who
5511-522: The Ming dynasty and Manchu -led Qing dynasty of China. Unlike the Nguyễn lords who were happy to accept large numbers of Ming refugees into their lands, the Trịnh did not. When the Qing conquered the Ming and extended the Qing Empire's borders to Northern Vietnam, the Trịnh treated them as they had treated the Ming Emperors, sending tribute and formal acknowledgements. The Qing intervened twice during
5678-527: The Mạc dynasty . In 1533, the general and Lê royalist Nguyễn Kim revolted against the Mạc dynasty in Thanh Hóa and restored the Lê dynasty back after searching the Lê dynasty's surviving descendant called prince '"Lê Ninh"', who was a son of emperor Lê Chiêu Tông and enthroned him as emperor Lê Trang Tông during in exile at Xam Neua , a territory of Kingdom of Lan Xang . After several years of civil war, most of
5845-535: The Nguyễn clan ( Vietnamese : Nguyễn thị ; chữ Hán : 阮氏 ), were a feudal nobility clan that ruled southern part of Đại Việt during the Revival Lê dynasty and ancestors of Nguyễn dynasty 's emperors. The territory they ruled was known contemporarily as Đàng Trong (Inner Realm) and known by Europeans as Kingdom of Cochinchina and by Imperial China as Kingdom of Quảng Nam ( Vietnamese : Quảng Nam Quốc ; chữ Hán : 廣南國 ), in opposition to
6012-652: The Revolt of the Three Feudatories , which lasted for eight years. Kangxi was able to unify his forces for a counterattack led by a new generation of Manchu generals. By 1681, the Qing government had established control over a ravaged southern China, which took several decades to recover. To extend and consolidate the dynasty's control in Central Asia, the Kangxi Emperor personally led a series of military campaigns against
6179-568: The Sacred Edict of 1670 effectively extolled Confucian family values. His attempts to discourage Chinese women from foot binding , however, were unsuccessful. The second major source of stability was the Inner Asian aspect of their Manchu identity, which allowed them to appeal to the Mongol, Tibetan and Muslim subjects. The Qianlong Emperor propagated an image of himself as a Buddhist sage ruler ,
6346-800: The Shanhai Pass to the Qing army, which defeated the rebels , seized the capital, and took over the government in 1644 under the Shunzhi Emperor and his prince regent . Resistance from Ming rump regimes and the Revolt of the Three Feudatories delayed the complete conquest until 1683. As a Manchu emperor, the Kangxi Emperor (1661–1722) consolidated control, relished the role of a Confucian ruler, patronised Buddhism (including Tibetan Buddhism ), encouraged scholarship, population and economic growth. Han officials worked under or in parallel with Manchu officials. To maintain prominence over its neighbors,
6513-455: The Shunzhi Emperor , with Dorgon as regent and de facto leader of the Manchu nation. Meanwhile, Ming government officials fought against fiscal collapse, against each other, and against a series of peasant rebellions . They were unable to capitalise on the Manchu succession dispute and the resulting boy emperor. In April 1644, Beijing was sacked by a contentious rebel coalition led by Li Zicheng ,
6680-616: The Trịnh lords ruling northern Đại Việt as Đàng Ngoài (Outer Realm), known as Kingdom of Tonkin by Europeans and Kingdom of Annam ( Vietnamese : An Nam Quốc ; chữ Hán : 安南國 ) by Imperial China in bilateral diplomacy. They were officially called King of Nguyễn ( Vietnamese : Nguyễn Vương ; chữ Hán : 阮王 ) in 1744 when lord Nguyễn Phúc Khoát self-proclaimed himself to elevate his status equally to Trịnh lords's title known as King of Trịnh ( Vietnamese : Trịnh Vương ; chữ Hán : 鄭王 ). Both Nguyễn and Trịnh clans were de jure subordinates and fief of
6847-492: The Tsardom of Russia . However, during the 18th century, European empires gradually expanded across the world and developed economies predicated on maritime trade, colonial extraction, and technological advances. The dynasty was confronted with newly developing concepts of the international system and state-to-state relations. European trading posts expanded into territorial control in what is now India and Indonesia. The Qing response
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7014-464: The Tây Sơn revolt in the south against Trương Phúc Loan, the regent of the Nguyễn lord Nguyễn Phúc Thuần (1765–1777). Trịnh lord Trịnh Sâm saw the Tây Sơn rebellion as a chance to end Nguyễn rule over the south. Inner struggle among the Nguyễn had put a 12-year-old boy in power. The real ruler was corrupt regent Trương Phúc Loan. Using the popular rule of the regent as an excuse for intervention, in 1774,
7181-628: The Xianfeng Emperor agreed to the Treaty of Tientsin , which contained clauses deeply insulting to the Chinese, such as a demand that all official Chinese documents be written in English and a proviso granting British warships unlimited access to all navigable Chinese rivers. Ratification of the treaty in the following year led to a resumption of hostilities. In 1860, with Anglo-French forces marching on Beijing,
7348-668: The Yuan dynasty after the defeat of the last Khagan of the Mongols, Hong Taiji renamed his state from "Great Jin" to "Great Qing" and elevated his position from Khan to Emperor , suggesting imperial ambitions beyond unifying the Manchu territories. Hong Taiji then proceeded to invade Korea again in 1636. Meanwhile, Hong Taiji set up a rudimentary bureaucratic system based on the Ming model. He established six boards or executive level ministries in 1631 to oversee finance, personnel, rites, military, punishments, and public works. However, these administrative organs had very little role initially, and it
7515-621: The queue hairstyle which was worn by Manchu men, on pain of death. The popular description of the order was: "To keep the hair, you lose the head; To keep your head, you cut the hair." To the Manchus, this policy was a test of loyalty and an aid in distinguishing friend from foe. For the Han Chinese, however, it was a humiliating reminder of Qing authority that challenged traditional Confucian values. The order triggered strong resistance in Jiangnan . In
7682-436: The Đàng Ngoài region of the northern Red River delta area of Vietnam as military leaders. Trịnh-ruled northern Vietnam used its eunuchs in the military and civilian bureaucracy. Many Buddhist temples had money and land donated by eunuchs who had gained wealth and influence. Field army units, secret police, customs duty taxes, finance, land deeds and military registers and tax harvesting in son Nam province (Binh phien) as well as
7849-520: The 1727 Treaty of Kyakhta to solidify the diplomatic understanding with Russia. In exchange for territory and trading rights, the Qing would have a free hand in dealing with the situation in Mongolia. Yongzheng then turned to that situation, where the Zunghars threatened to re-emerge, and to the southwest, where local Miao chieftains resisted Qing expansion. These campaigns drained the treasury but established
8016-425: The British government, sent a diplomatic mission to China led by Lord Macartney in order to open trade and put relations on a basis of equality. The imperial court viewed trade as of secondary interest, whereas the British saw maritime trade as the key to their economy. The Qianlong Emperor told Macartney "the kings of the myriad nations come by land and sea with all sorts of precious things", and "consequently there
8183-423: The Catholic Church represented a threat to their rule. De Rhodes was sentenced to death, but was allowed to leave Vietnam with the understanding he was to be executed if he returned. Quảng Nam Province was the site where fourth rank Chinese brigade vice-commander dushu Liu Sifu was shipwrecked after suffering a storm. He was taken back to Guangzhou, China by a Vietnamese Nguyễn ship in 1669. The Vietnamese sent
8350-428: The Chinese Zhao Wenbin to led the diplomatic delegation on the ship and requested the establishment of trade relations with the Qing court. Although they thanked the Nguyễn for sending their officer safely home, they rejected the Nguyễn's offer. On Champa's coastal waters in a place called Linlangqian by the Chinese a ship ran aground after departing on 25 Jun 1682 from Cambodia carrying Chinese captain Chang Xiaoguan with
8517-413: The Eight Banners, giving them social and legal privileges. Han defectors swelled the ranks of the Eight Banners so greatly that ethnic Manchus became a minority – only 16% in 1648, with Han bannermen dominating at 75% and Mongol bannermen making up the rest. Gunpowder weapons like muskets and artillery were wielded by the Chinese Banners. Normally, Han Chinese defector troops were deployed as
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#17328483435788684-432: The French. A French invasion of Taiwan was halted and the French were defeated on land in Tonkin at the Battle of Bang Bo . However Japan threatened to enter the war against China due to the Gapsin Coup and China chose to end the war with negotiations. The war ended in 1885 with the Treaty of Tientsin and the Chinese recognition of the French protectorate in Vietnam. Some Russian and Chinese gold miners also established
8851-410: The Jurchen and Khorchin nobilities, while those who resisted were met with military action. This is a typical example of Nurhaci's initiatives that eventually became official Qing government policy. During most of the Qing period, the Mongols gave military assistance to the Manchus. Nurhaci died in 1626, and was succeeded by his eighth son, Hong Taiji . Although Hong Taiji was an experienced leader and
9018-447: The Jurchen polity as citizens obligated to provide military service. By 1648, less than one-sixth of the bannermen were of Manchu ancestry. Hong Taiji died suddenly in September 1643. As Jurchen leaders were chosen by a council of nobles, there was no clear successor. The leading contenders for power were Hong Taiji's oldest son Hooge and Hong Taiji's half brother Dorgon . A compromise installed Hong Taiji's five-year-old son, Fulin, as
9185-627: The Lê ( Vietnamese : Diệt Trịnh phù Lê , chữ Hán : 滅鄭扶黎 ) that would help them gain support from northern people. The Trịnh and Three Prefectures armiews were quickly defeated. Trịnh Tông committed suicide. Emperor Cảnh Hưng died of old age shortly after and passed the throne to Lê Duy Kì (emperor Chiêu Thống). Nguyễn Nhạc, after having heard of Nguyễn Huệ's insubordination, hastily marched to Thăng Long and ordered all Tây Sơn troops to withdraw. They intentionally left Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh behind. Chỉnh chased them and then stayed in his hometown in Nghệ An. The Tây Sơn's invasion and sudden withdrawal caused
9352-438: The Lê dynasty was the legitimate government of Đại Việt . Nguyễn Hoàng became increasingly secure in his rule over the southern province and increasingly independent. While he cooperated with the Trịnh against the Mạc, he ruled the frontier lands. With the conquest of the north, the independence of the Nguyễn was less and less tolerable to the Trịnh. In 1600, with the ascension of emperor Lê Kính Tông , Hoàng broke relations with
9519-406: The Lê ruler was met by official diplomats from the Qing , not the Trịnh lord. Despite the fact that the Mạc dynasty remained at large in the north, Trịnh Kiểm turned to eliminating the Nguyễn lords' power. Although the Lê dynasty was restored in 1533 with Lê Trang Tông as emperor, Nguyễn Kim was head of government and wielded real authority in the nation. Dương Chấp Nhất [ vi ] ,
9686-440: The Manchu-ruled empire into a modernised Han Chinese state. The Guangxu Emperor died on 14 November 1908, and Cixi died the following day. Puyi , the oldest son of Zaifeng, Prince Chun , and nephew to the childless Guangxu Emperor, was appointed successor at the age of two, leaving Zaifeng with the regency. Zaifeng forced Yuan Shikai to resign. The Qing dynasty became a constitutional monarchy on 8 May 1911, when Zaifeng created
9853-458: The Manchus had entered "South of the Wall" because Dorgon had responded decisively to Wu Sangui's appeal, then, instead of sacking Beijing as the rebels had done, Dorgon insisted, over the protests of other Manchu princes, on making it the dynastic capital and reappointing most Ming officials. No major Chinese dynasty had directly taken over its immediate predecessor's capital, but keeping the Ming capital and bureaucracy intact helped quickly stabilize
10020-416: The Ming emperor. After a series of successful battles, he relocated his capital from Hetu Ala to successively bigger captured Ming cities in Liaodong: first Liaoyang in 1621, then Mukden (Shenyang) in 1625. Furthermore, the Khorchin proved a useful ally in the war, lending the Jurchens their expertise as cavalry archers. To guarantee this new alliance, Nurhaci initiated a policy of inter-marriages between
10187-446: The Mạc dynasty. The government fell into chaos after Kim's death. The successor as the head of government was Kim's eldest son, Nguyễn Uông [ vi ] . However, Uông was secretly assassinated by his brother-in-law Trịnh Kiểm , who later took control of the imperial government. In 1556, Emperor Lê Trung Tông died without an heir. Trịnh Kiểm wanted to seize the throne, but worried about public opinion. He sought advice from
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#173284834357810354-454: The Mạc-appointed mandarin governing Tây Đô fortress in Thanh Hoa province, decided to surrender to Lê authorities when Nguyễn Kim recaptured the province in 1543. After seizing Tây Đô citadel and attacking Ninh Bình, on 20/5/1545, Dương Chấp Nhất invited Kim to visit his military camp. Dương Chấp Nhất treated Kim to watermelon. After returning for from the party, Kim felt ill and died the same day. Dương Chấp Nhất later again pledged allegiance to
10521-459: The Nguyen domination. The Nguyễn lords established the protectorate of Principality of Thuận Thành to wield power over the Cham court until Minh Mạng Emperor abolished it in 1832. The Nguyễn also invaded Cambodia in 1658, 1690, 1691, 1697 and 1713. Inscription on a Nguyễn cannon manufactured by Portuguese engineer and military advisor Juan de Cruz dating from 1670 reads "for the King and grand Lord of Cochinchina, Champa and of Cambodia." In 1714,
10688-402: The Nguyen in 1744 and the Cheongsam Chinese clothing inspired the áo dài . The current áo dài was introduced by the Nguyễn lords. Cham provinces were seized by the Nguyễn lords. Provinces and districts originally belonging to Cambodia were taken by Võ Vương . The Nguyễn lords waged multiple wars against Champa in 1611, 1629, 1653, 1692, and by 1693 the Cham leadership had succumbed to
10855-452: The Nguyễn built two massive, fortified lines that stretched a few miles from the sea to the hills. These walls were built north of Huế (between the Nhật Lệ River and the Sông Hương River ). The walls were about 20 feet tall and seven miles long. The Nguyễn defended these lines against numerous Trịnh offensives that lasted (off and on) from 1631 till 1673, when Trịnh Tạc concluded a peace treaty with Nguyễn Phúc Tần , dividing Vietnam between
11022-425: The Nguyễn sent an army into Cambodia to support Ang Em 's claim to the throne against Prea Srey Thomea . Siam sided with Prea Srey Thomea against the Vietnamese claimant. At Bantea Meas , the Vietnamese routed the Siamese armies, but by 1717 the Siamese had gained the upper hand. The war ended with a negotiated settlement, whereby Ang Em was allowed to take the Cambodia crown in exchange for pledging allegiance to
11189-479: The Nguyễn successfully used Portuguese cannon to defend their walls, the Trịnh made contact with the Dutch. The Dutch were willing to sell advanced cannons to the Trịnh. The Dutch, and later the Germans, set up trading posts in Hanoi . For a time, Dutch trade was profitable, but after the war with the Nguyễn ended in 1673, the demand for European weapons rapidly declined. By 1700, the Dutch and English trading posts had closed. The Trịnh were careful in their dealings with
11356-430: The Nguyễn were able to take advantage of their contacts with Europeans, specifically the Portuguese, to produce advanced cannons with the help of European engineers. Third, the geography favored them, as the flat land suitable for large, organized armies was narrow at the border between the Nguyễn lands and the Trinh territories – mountains reach nearly to the sea. After the first offensive was beaten off after four months,
11523-403: The Qing dynasty was preceded by the Ming dynasty and succeeded by the Republic of China . The multi-ethnic Qing dynasty assembled the territorial base for modern China . It was the largest imperial dynasty in the history of China and in 1790 the fourth-largest empire in world history in terms of territorial size. With over 426 million citizens in 1907 , it was the most populous country in
11690-412: The Qing government and provoked rebellions against the regime. The Taiping Rebellion (1849–1864) was the first major anti-Manchu movement . Amid widespread social unrest and worsening famine, the rebellion not only posed the most serious threat to Qing rule, but during its 14-year course, between 20 and 30 million people died. The rebellion began under the leadership of Hong Xiuquan (1814–1864),
11857-526: The Qing leveraged and adapted the tributary system employed by previous dynasties, enabling their continued predominance in affairs with countries on its periphery like Joseon Korea and the Lê dynasty in Vietnam, while extending its control over Inner Asia including Tibet , Mongolia , and Xinjiang . The High Qing era reached its apex during the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (1735–1796), who led Ten Great Campaigns of conquest, and personally supervised Confucian cultural projects . After his death,
12024-762: The Qing, most notably in the Miao Rebellion (1854–1873) in Guizhou , the Panthay Rebellion (1856–1873) in Yunnan , and the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) in the northwest. The Western powers, largely unsatisfied with the Treaty of Nanjing, gave grudging support to the Qing government during the Taiping and Nian rebellions. China's income fell sharply during the wars as vast areas of farmland were destroyed, millions of lives were lost, and countless armies were raised and equipped to fight
12191-637: The Siamese. For their part, the Nguyễn lords wrested more territory from the weakened Cambodian kingdom. Two decades later, in 1739, the Cambodians attempted to reclaim their lost coastal land. The fighting lasted some ten years, but the Vietnamese fended off the Cambodian raids and secured their hold on the rich Mekong Delta . With Siam embroiled in war with Burma , the Nguyễn mounted another campaign against Cambodia in 1755 and conquered additional territory from
12358-583: The Three Prefectures Army ( Vietnamese : Tam phủ quân , chữ Hán : 三府軍 ) to kill Hoàng Đình Bảo and overthrow Trịnh Cán. However, because Tông was indebted to the army, he could not control it. The army then released Lê Duy Kì , son of prince Lê Duy Vĩ who was killed by Trịnh Sâm in 1771, and forced Lê Hiển Tông to appoint Kì as the successor. After Hoàng Đình Bảo's death, his subordinate in Nghệ An province Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh defected to Tây Sơn. He
12525-484: The Trịnh-dominated court, although he continued to acknowledge the Lê emperor. Matters continued like this until Hoàng's death in 1613. The historical victory of the Trịnh over the Mạc was a common theme in public Vietnamese theaters. In 1620, after the enthronement of another figurehead Lê emperor ( Lê Thần Tông ), the new Nguyễn leader, Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên , refused to send tax money to the court in Đông Đô to protest
12692-455: The Trịnh. According to Dupuy, the Nguyễn were able to defeat initial Trịnh attacks with the aid of advanced weapons they purchased from the Portuguese . The Nguyễn also conducted fairly extensive trade with Japan and China. The Portuguese set up a trade center at Faifo (present day Hội An ), just south of Huế in 1615. However, with the end of the great war between the Trịnh and the Nguyễn,
12859-476: The Tây Sơn army with a new army from Siam, having allied with the Siamese king Taksin. However, Taksin became a religious fanatic and was killed in a coup. The new king of Siam, Rama I had more urgent affairs to look after than helping Nguyễn Ánh retake Vietnam and so this campaign faltered. The Siamese army retreated, and Nguyễn Ánh went into exile, but would later return. The Nguyễn were significantly more open to foreign trade and communication with Europeans than
13026-591: The Xinhai Revolution. The abdication of the Xuantong Emperor on 12 February 1912 brought the dynasty to an end. Hong Taiji proclaimed the Great Qing dynasty in 1636. There are competing explanations as to the meaning of the Chinese character Qīng ( 清 ; 'clear', 'pure') in this context. One theory posits a purposeful contrast with the Ming: the character Míng ( 明 ; 'bright')
13193-572: The abolition of the imperial examination system. Sun Yat-sen and revolutionaries debated reform officials and constitutional monarchists such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao over how to transform the Manchu-ruled empire into a modernised Han state. After the deaths of the Guangxu Emperor and Cixi in 1908, Manchu conservatives at court blocked reforms and alienated reformers and local elites alike. The Wuchang Uprising on 10 October 1911 led to
13360-401: The armies of Nguyễn Kim and Trịnh Kiểm returned to Đại Việt , captured Thanh Hóa province , followed by more southern province in later years and installed prince Lê Ninh as the emperor Lê Trang Tông . War raged with the Nguyễn–Trịnh army on one side and the Mạc on the other, until an official Ming delegation determined that Mạc Đăng Dung's usurpation of power was not legitimate. In 1537,
13527-443: The capital city; so, he agreed to a deal in order to keep Nguyễn Hoàng away from capital city. In 1558, Nguyễn Hoàng and family, relatives and his loyal generals moved to Thuận Hóa to take his position. Arriving at Triệu Phong District , he made the place his new capital and constructed a new palace. In March 1568, Emperor Lê Anh Tông summoned Hoàng for a meeting at Tây Đô and met Trịnh Kiểm at his personal mansion. He arranged for
13694-567: The capital of Tibet, and installed a Dalai Lama sympathetic to the Qing. The reigns of the Yongzheng Emperor ( r. 1723–1735 ) and his son, the Qianlong Emperor ( r. 1735–1796 ), marked the height of Qing power. However, the historian Jonathan Spence notes that the empire at the end of Qianlong's reign was "like the sun at midday". Despite "many glories", "signs of decay and even collapse were becoming apparent". After
13861-529: The capital to avoid further assassination aimed at him. Later, he asked his sister Nguyễn Thị Ngọc Bảo (wife of Trịnh Kiểm) to ask Kiểm to appoint him to be the governor of Đại Việt's southern frontier province of Thuận Hóa in what is modern-day Southern of Quảng Bình , Quảng Trị to Quảng Nam provinces, land that once belonged to kingdom of Champa . Back then, Thuận Hóa was still regarded as uncivilised land, and simultaneously, Trịnh Kiểm also sought to remove remaining power and influence of Nguyễn Hoàng in
14028-532: The cession of Liaodong Peninsula to Japan, but Russia, with its own designs on the territory, along with Germany and France, in the Triple Intervention , successfully put pressure on the Japanese to abandon the peninsula. These years saw the participation of Empress Dowager Cixi in state affairs. Cixi initially entered the imperial palace in the 1850s as a concubine of the Xianfeng Emperor, and became
14195-914: The city of Saigon . In 1673, the Nguyễn concluded a peace with the Trịnh lord Trịnh Tạc, beginning a long era of relative peace between north and south. When the war with the Trịnh ended, the Nguyễn were able to put more resources into suppressing the Champa kingdoms and conquest of lands which used to belong to the Khmer Empire . The Dutch brought Vietnamese slaves they captured from Nguyễn territories in Quảng Nam Province to their colony in Taiwan . The Nguyễn lord Nguyễn Phúc Chu referred to Vietnamese as "Han people" 漢人 (Hán nhân) in 1712 when differentiating between Vietnamese and Chams. The Nguyen Lords established frontier colonies, known as đồn điền after 1790. It
14362-458: The civil war in Vietnam itself. The turmoil gave rise to the Tây Sơn . In 1771, as a result of heavy taxes and defeats in the war with Cambodia, three brothers from Tây Sơn began a peasant uprising that quickly engulfed much of southern Vietnam. Within two years, the Tây Sơn brothers captured the provincial capital of Qui Nhơn. In 1774, the Trịnh in Hà Nội, seeing their rival gravely weakened, ended
14529-464: The commander of two Banners, the Jurchens suffered defeat in 1627, in part due to the Ming's newly acquired Portuguese cannons . To redress the technological and numerical disparity, Hong Taiji in 1634 created his own artillery corps, who cast their own cannons in the European design with the help of defector Chinese metallurgists. One of the defining events of Hong Taiji's reign was the official adoption of
14696-468: The compilation of the Siku Quanshu , the largest collection of books in Chinese history. Nevertheless, Qianlong used the literary inquisition to silence opposition. Beneath outward prosperity and imperial confidence, the later years of Qianlong's reign were marked by rampant corruption and neglect. Heshen , the emperor's handsome young favorite, took advantage of the emperor's indulgence to become one of
14863-527: The conquest. Han bannermen made up the majority of governors during the early Qing, stabilizing their rule. To promote ethnic harmony, a 1648 decree allowed Han Chinese civilian men to marry Manchu women from the Banners with the permission of the Board of Revenue if they were registered daughters of officials or commoners, or with the permission of their banner company captain if they were unregistered commoners. Later in
15030-435: The country for corruption, failing to keep the famine relief granaries full, poor maintenance of roads and waterworks, and bureaucratic factionalism. There soon followed uprisings of "new sect" Muslims against local Muslim officials, and Miao tribesmen in southwest China. The White Lotus Rebellion continued until 1804, when badly run, corrupt, and brutal campaigns finally ended it. During the early Qing, China continued to be
15197-478: The damage that opium smoking was causing to his subjects, ordered Lin Zexu to end the opium trade. Lin confiscated the stocks of opium without compensation in 1839, leading Britain to send a military expedition the following year. The First Opium War revealed the outdated state of the Chinese military. The Qing navy, composed entirely of wooden sailing junks , was severely outclassed by the modern tactics and firepower of
15364-411: The death of emperor Lê Hiến Tông in 1504, Lê dynasty began to decline followed by some peasant rebellions due to adversities and corruption in central and regional government that led to rising social unrest and grievances of civilians . In 1527, Mạc Đăng Dung , a courtier of government began to seize control of imperial court and emperor gradually and overthrew emperor Lê Cung Hoàng , and established
15531-480: The death of the Kangxi Emperor in the winter of 1722, his fourth son, Prince Yong ( 雍親王 ), became the Yongzheng Emperor. He felt a sense of urgency about the problems that had accumulated in his father's later years. In the words of one recent historian, he was "severe, suspicious, and jealous, but extremely capable and resourceful", and in the words of another, he turned out to be an "early modern state-maker of
15698-411: The dictatorship of the Trịnh lords. In 1623, Trịnh Tung died and was succeeded by oldest son Trịnh Tráng . After five years of increasingly hostile talks, fighting broke out between the Trịnh and the Nguyễn in 1627. While the Trịnh ruled over much more populous territory, the Nguyễn had several advantages. First, they initially were on the defensive and rarely launched operations into the north. Second,
15865-581: The dynasty back on its feet financially and instituted the Self-Strengthening Movement , which adopted Western military technology in order to preserve Confucian values.Their institutional reforms included China's first unified ministry of foreign affairs in the Zongli Yamen , allowing foreign diplomats to reside in the capital, the establishment of the Imperial Maritime Customs Service , the institution of modern navy and army forces including
16032-629: The dynasty faced internal revolts, economic disruption, official corruption, foreign intrusion, and the reluctance of Confucian elites to change their mindset. With peace and prosperity, the population rose to 400 million, but taxes and government revenues were fixed at a low rate, soon leading to a fiscal crisis. Following China's defeat in the Opium Wars , Western colonial powers forced the Qing government to sign unequal treaties , granting them trading privileges, extraterritoriality and treaty ports under their control. The Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) and
16199-419: The dynasty the policies allowing intermarriage were done away with. The first seven years of the young Shunzhi Emperor's reign were dominated by Dorgon's regency. Because of his own political insecurity, Dorgon followed Hong Taiji's example by ruling in the name of the emperor at the expense of rival Manchu princes, many of whom he demoted or imprisoned. Dorgon's precedents and example cast a long shadow. First,
16366-494: The early 17th century. Nurhaci may have spent time in a Han household in his youth, and became fluent in Chinese and Mongolian languages and read the Chinese novels Romance of the Three Kingdoms and Water Margin . As a vassal of the Ming emperors, he officially considered himself a guardian of the Ming border and a local representative of the Ming dynasty. Nurhaci embarked on an intertribal feud in 1582 that escalated into
16533-619: The emperor and his court fled the capital for the imperial hunting lodge at Rehe . Once in Beijing, the Anglo-French forces looted and burned the Old Summer Palace and, in an act of revenge for the arrest, torture, and execution of the English diplomatic mission. Prince Gong , a younger half-brother of the emperor, who had been left as his brother's proxy in the capital, was forced to sign the Convention of Beijing . The humiliated emperor died
16700-406: The emperor to additionally appoint Hoàng governor of Quảng Nam province to keep him faithful to Kiểm to join an alliance against Mạc dynasty in the north. In 1636, Nguyễn Hoàng moved his base to Phú Xuân (modern Huế). Nguyễn Hoàng slowly expanded his territory further south, while the Trịnh lords continued their war with the Mạc dynasty to control over northern Vietnam. In 1592, Đông Đô ( Hanoi )
16867-630: The emperor's control of the military and military finance. When the Yongzheng Emperor died in 1735, his son Prince Bao ( 寶親王 ) became the Qianlong Emperor. Qianlong personally led the Ten Great Campaigns to expand military control into present-day Xinjiang and Mongolia , putting down revolts and uprisings in Sichuan and southern China while expanding control over Tibet. The Qianlong Emperor launched several ambitious cultural projects, including
17034-516: The emperor's de facto cabinet for the rest of the dynasty. He shrewdly filled key positions with Manchu and Han Chinese officials who depended on his patronage. When he began to realize the extent of the financial crisis, Yongzheng rejected his father's lenient approach to local elites and enforced collection of the land tax. The increased revenues were to be used for "money to nourish honesty" among local officials and for local irrigation, schools, roads, and charity. Although these reforms were effective in
17201-533: The ensuing unrest, some 100,000 Han were slaughtered. On 31 December 1650, Dorgon died suddenly, marking the start of the Shunzhi Emperor's personal rule. Because the emperor was only 12 years old at that time, most decisions were made on his behalf by his mother, Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang , who turned out to be a skilled political operator. Although his support had been essential to Shunzhi's ascent, Dorgon had centralised so much power in his hands as to become
17368-465: The far eastern outpost of the Tsardom of Russia . The 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk was China's first formal treaty with a European power and kept the border peaceful for the better part of two centuries. Galdan was ultimately killed in the Dzungar–Qing War ; after his death, his Tibetan Buddhist followers attempted to control the choice of the next Dalai Lama . Kangxi dispatched two armies to Lhasa ,
17535-445: The first order". First, he promoted Confucian orthodoxy and cracked down on unorthodox sects. In 1723, he outlawed Christianity and expelled most Christian missionaries. He expanded his father's system of Palace Memorials , which brought frank and detailed reports on local conditions directly to the throne without being intercepted by the bureaucracy, and he created a small Grand Council of personal advisors, which eventually grew into
17702-466: The following year at Rehe. Following the death of the Xianfeng Emperor in 1861, and the accession of the 5-year-old Tongzhi Emperor , the Qing rallied. In the Tongzhi Restoration , Han Chinese officials such as Zuo Zongtang stood behind the Manchus and organized provincial troops. Zeng Guofan , in alliance with Prince Gong, sponsored the rise of younger officials such as Li Hongzhang , who put
17869-666: The foreign community, called for reform proposals, and initiated the Late Qing reforms . Over the next few years the reforms included the restructuring of the national education, judicial, and fiscal systems, the most dramatic of which was the abolition of the imperial examination system in 1905. The court directed a constitution to be drafted , and provincial elections were held, the first in China's history. Sun Yat-sen and revolutionaries debated reform officials and constitutional monarchists such as Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao over how to transform
18036-491: The former mandarin Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm , who was living in seclusion. Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm advised Trịnh Kiểm not to take the Lê dynasty's throne, although the Lê dynasty was just a puppet. Trịnh Kiểm decided to put Lê Duy Bang on the throne, who was a 6th-generation descendant of Lê Trừ , the older brother of emperor Lê Thái Tổ . Lê Duy Bang took the throne with the title Lê Anh Tông while the Trịnh lords continued to control
18203-887: The goals of reform were implanted. Drought in North China, combined with the imperialist designs of European powers and the instability of the Qing government, created background conditions for the Boxers . In 1900, local groups of Boxers proclaiming support for the Qing dynasty murdered foreign missionaries and large numbers of Chinese Christians, then converged on Beijing to besiege the Foreign Legation Quarter. A coalition of European, Japanese, and Russian armies (the Eight-Nation Alliance ) then entered China without diplomatic notice, much less permission. Cixi declared war on all of these nations, only to lose control of Beijing after
18370-713: The government with the emperor as figurehead. In 1570, Trịnh Kiểm died and a power struggle erupted between his sons Trịnh Cối and Trịnh Tùng . Simultaneously, the Mạc dynasty army attacked the Lê dynasty from the north and Trịnh Cối surrendered to the Mạc dynasty. The emperor Lê Anh Tông supported Trịnh Cối as the next Trịnh lord and co-operated with him to defeat Trịnh Tùng . Trịnh Tùng found out about this conspiracy, forcing Emperor Lê Anh Tông and his four sons to flee. Later, Trịnh Tùng enthroned Emperor Lê Anh Tông's youngest son, prince Đàm, with title Lê Thế Tông . After that, Trịnh Tùng searched for, captured, and murdered Emperor Lê Anh Tông. Both Trịnh and Nguyễn declared that
18537-574: The hegemonic imperial power in East Asia. Although there was no formal ministry of foreign relations, the Lifan Yuan was responsible for relations with the Mongols and Tibetans in Inner Asia, while the tributary system , a loose set of institutions and customs taken over from the Ming, in theory governed relations with East and Southeast Asian countries. The 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk stabilized relations with
18704-403: The hot temperature of summer, Dương Chấp Nhất treated Kim with a watermelon. After the party, Kim felt ill after returning home and died the same day. Dương Chấp Nhất later returned to the Mạc dynasty. The records of the Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư and Đại Nam thực lục both suggest that Dương Chấp Nhất tried to assassinate the emperor Lê Trang Tông by pretending to surrender. However, the plot
18871-477: The hundred-year truce and launched an attack against the Nguyễn from the north. The Trịnh forces quickly overran the Nguyễn capital in 1774, while the Nguyễn lords fled south to Saigon . The Nguyễn fought against both the Trịnh army and the Tây Sơn, but their effort was in vain. By 1777, Gia Định was captured and nearly the entire Nguyễn family was killed except one nephew, Nguyễn Ánh , who managed to flee to Siam. Nguyễn Ánh did not give up, and in 1780 he attacked
19038-437: The hundred-year truce was ended and the Trịnh army led by Hoàng Ngũ Phúc attacked. Trịnh Sâm's army did what no previous Trịnh army had done and conquered the Nguyễn capital, Phú Xuân (modern-day Huế ), in early 1775. The Trịnh army advanced south, defeated the Tây Sơn and forced them to surrender. In the middle of 1775, the Trịnh army, include Hoàng Ngũ Phúc, were hit by a plague. The plagued forced them to withdraw and left
19205-513: The ineffective Cambodian court. At the end of the war the Nguyễn had secured a port on the Gulf of Siam ( Hà Tiên ) and were threatening Phnom Penh itself. Under their new king Taksin , the Siamese reasserted its protection of its eastern neighbor by coming to the aid of the Cambodian court. War was launched against the Nguyễn in 1769. After some early success, the Nguyễn forces by 1773 were facing internal revolts and had to abandon Cambodia to deal with
19372-402: The internal and external obstacles to their rule. They lacked, however, both the power and the moral authority to resolve the contradictions inherent in their system of ruling without reigning. The Trịnh had lost nearly all popularity by the last half of the 18th century. While the Nguyễn lords, or at least Nguyễn Ánh, enjoyed a great deal of support – as his repeated attempts to regain power in
19539-442: The king of Burma , but was turned over to a Qing expeditionary army commanded by Wu Sangui, who had him brought back to Yunnan and executed in early 1662. The Qing had taken shrewd advantage of Ming civilian government discrimination against the military and encouraged the Ming military to defect by spreading the message that the Manchus valued their skills. Banners made up of Han Chinese who defected before 1644 were classed among
19706-575: The land does not." The introduction of new crops from the Americas such as the potato and peanut improved nutrition as well, so that the population during the 18th century ballooned from 100 million to 300 million people. Soon farmers were forced to work ever-smaller holdings more intensely. In 1796, the White Lotus Society raised open rebellion, saying "the officials have forced the people to rebel". Others blamed officials in various parts of
19873-511: The lands of the Qing state (including, among other areas, present-day Northeast China, Xinjiang, Mongolia, and Tibet) as "China" in both the Chinese and Manchu languages, defining China as a multi-ethnic state, and rejecting the idea that only Han areas were properly part of "China". The government used "China" and "Qing" interchangeably to refer to their state in official documents, including the Chinese-language versions of treaties and maps of
20040-493: The most corrupt officials in the history of the dynasty. Qianlong's son, the Jiaqing Emperor ( r. 1796–1820 ), eventually forced Heshen to commit suicide. Population in the first half of the 17th century did not recover from civil wars and epidemics, but the following years of prosperity and stability led to steady growth. The Qianlong Emperor bemoaned the situation by remarking, "The population continues to grow, but
20207-497: The most junior of the four, gradually achieved such dominance as to be a potential threat. In 1669, Kangxi disarmed and imprisoned Oboi through trickery – a significant victory for a fifteen-year-old emperor. The young emperor faced challenges in maintaining control of his kingdom, as well. Three Ming generals singled out for their contributions to the establishment of the dynasty had been granted governorships in southern China. They became increasingly autonomous, leading to
20374-521: The mother of the future Tongzhi Emperor. Following the his accession at the age of five, Cixi, Xianfeng's widow Empress Dowager Ci'an , and Prince Gong (a son of the Daoguang Emperor), staged a coup that ousted several of the Tongzhi Emperor's regents. Between 1861 and 1873, Cixi and Ci'an served as regents together; following the emperor's death in 1875, Cixi's nephew, the Guangxu Emperor , took
20541-879: The murders as a pretext for a naval occupation of Jiaozhou Bay . The occupation prompted a Scramble for China in 1898, which included the German lease of Jiaozhou Bay , the Russian lease of Liaodong , the British lease of the New Territories of Hong Kong , and the French lease of Guangzhouwan . In the wake of these external defeats, the Guangxu Emperor initiated the Hundred Days' Reform in 1898. Newer, more radical advisers such as Kang Youwei were given positions of influence. The emperor issued
20708-568: The name "Manchu" for the united Jurchen people in November 1635. In 1635, the Manchus' Mongol allies were fully incorporated into a separate Banner hierarchy under direct Manchu command. In April 1636, Mongol nobility of Inner Mongolia, Manchu nobility and the Han mandarin recommended that Hong as the khan of Later Jin should be the emperor of the Great Qing. When he was presented with the imperial seal of
20875-539: The need for European military equipment declined. The Portuguese trade center never became a major European base unlike Goa or Macau . In 1640, Alexandre de Rhodes returned to Vietnam, this time to the Nguyễn court at Huế. He began work on converting people to the Catholic faith and building churches. After six years, the Nguyễn Lord, Nguyễn Phúc Lan , came to the same conclusion as Trịnh Tráng had, that de Rhodes and
21042-402: The news and withdrew to Gia Lâm District with Dương Trọng Tế, Đinh Tích Nhưỡng and Hoàng Phùng Cơ withdrew to Hải Dương and Sơn Tây respectively. Chiêu Thống set Trịnh's palace on fire. In the next months, Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh carried campaigned against Bồng. He captured and executed Dương Trọng Tế and Hoàng Phùng Cơ. Trịnh Bồng took refuge at Đinh Tích Nhưỡng's camp. Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh organized
21209-531: The next successor of the Trịnh, Trịnh Tráng . The war lasted until 1673, when peace was declared. The Nguyễn not only fended off Trịnh attacks but also continued their expansion southwards along the coast, although the northern war slowed this expansion. Around 1620, Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên's daughter married Chey Chettha II , a Khmer king. Three years later, in 1623, the Nguyễn formally gained permission for Vietnamese to settle in Prey Nokor, which would later be known as
21376-443: The north, in the south and lower Yangtze valley there were long-established networks of officials and landowners. Yongzheng dispatched experienced Manchu commissioners to penetrate the thickets of falsified land registers and coded account books, but they were met with tricks, passivity, and even violence. The fiscal crisis persisted. Yongzheng also inherited diplomatic and strategic problems. A team made up entirely of Manchus drew up
21543-425: The northern region. Mạc Đăng Dung passed away in 1541 and succeeded by his son. Pan Dinggui, a Chinese man shipwrecked in Vietnam in 1688, said in his book Annan Ji You that the Trịnh clan restored the Lê dynasty to power after Vietnam was struck by disease, thunder and winds when the Lê ruler was dethroned, and they initially could not find Lê and Trần dynasty royals to restore to the throne. Pan also said that only
21710-400: The other; one was a Han Chinese peasant army twice his size, but he chose the other. Wu may have resented Li Zicheng's attack on officials and the social order; Li had taken Wu's father hostage and it was said that Li took Wu's concubine for himself. On the other hand, the Manchus had adopted a Chinese-style form of government and promised stability. Wu and Dorgon allied to defeat Li Zicheng in
21877-557: The peoples of Northern Eurasia but in the 17th century Catholic missionary writings established "Tartar" to refer only to the Manchus and " Tartary " for the lands they ruled—i.e. Manchuria and the adjacent parts of Inner Asia , as ruled by the Qing before the Ming–Qing transition . After conquering China proper , the Manchus identified their state as "China", equivalently as Zhōngguó ( 中國 ; 'middle kingdom') in Chinese and Dulimbai Gurun in Manchu. The emperors equated
22044-417: The position of Thanh Hóa military governor were delegated to eunuchs. The supervisor services, military, civil service and court all had eunuchs appointed to work in them and they were faithful followers of the Trịnh lords and a check on the power of civil and military officials. Eunuchs were employed as building project supervisors and provincial governors by Trịnh Cương . The long peace came to an end with
22211-433: The purge of his family and associates at court. Shunzhi's promising start was cut short by his early death in 1661 at the age of 24 from smallpox . He was succeeded by his third son Xuanye, who reigned as the Kangxi Emperor . The Manchus sent Han bannermen to fight against Koxinga's Ming loyalists in Fujian. They removed the population from coastal areas in order to deprive Koxinga's Ming loyalists of resources. This led to
22378-537: The rebels. In 1854, Britain tried to re-negotiate the Treaty of Nanjing, inserting clauses allowing British commercial access to Chinese rivers and the creation of a permanent British embassy at Beijing. In 1856, Qing authorities, in searching for a pirate, boarded a ship, the Arrow , which the British claimed had been flying the British flag, an incident which led to the Second Opium War . In 1858, facing no other options,
22545-422: The regime and sped up the conquest of the rest of the country. Dorgon then drastically reduced the influence of the eunuchs and directed Manchu women not to bind their feet in the Chinese style. However, not all of Dorgon's policies were equally popular or as easy to implement. The controversial July 1645 Queue Order forced adult Han Chinese men to shave the front of their heads and comb the remaining hair into
22712-467: The remainder of the Mạc clan. In 1600, Lê Kính Tông ascended the throne. Just like the previous Lê emperors, the new emperor was a powerless figurehead under the control of Trịnh Tùng . Apart from this, a revolt broke out in Ninh Bình province , possibly instigated by the Trịnh. As a consequence of these events, Nguyễn Hoàng formally broke off relations with the court in the north, rightly arguing that it
22879-480: The rest of the south to the Tây Sơn. The Tây Sơn army conquered the rest of the Nguyễn lands. The Nguyễn lords retreated to Saigon but lost the city in 1776; the Nguyễn lords were nearly wiped out. Tây Sơn's leader Nguyễn Nhạc declared himself king in 1778. Trịnh Tông , the eldest son of Trịnh Sâm, feared that power would fall to his younger brother Trịnh Cán , who was favored by his father. In 1780, Trịnh Sâm became seriously ill, and Trịnh Tông used this to stage
23046-407: The rule of the Trịnh lords, once in 1537, and again in 1788. Both times, the Qing sent an army south because of a formal request for help from the Lê emperors – and both times the intervention was unsuccessful. The Trịnh Lords were, for the most part, intelligent, able, industrious, and long-lived rulers. The unusual dual form of government they developed over two centuries was a creative response to
23213-400: The south show – no equivalent support for the Trịnh survived in the north after the Tây Sơn took power. 鄭檢 Trung Tông Anh Tông 太國公 世祖 明康仁智武貞雄畧太王 鄭檜 俊德侯 鄭松 Thế Tông Kính Tông Thần Tông 平安王 成祖 恭和寬正哲王 鄭梉 Thần Tông 清王 文祖 Nguy%E1%BB%85n lords The Nguyễn lords ( Vietnamese : Chúa Nguyễn , 主阮; 1558–1777, 1780–1802), also known as
23380-403: The southern provinces of Đại Việt was recaptured by restored Lê dynasty , but not until 1592, the imperial capital city Đông Kinh was recaptured and an imperial court moved back to there. Tây Đô was founded as the temporary capital and it marked the beginning of Northern and Southern dynasties from 1533 last until 1677 when Mạc dynasty was defeated by alliance of Southern dynasty. In 1539
23547-480: The stability of their dynasty. The first was the bureaucratic institutions and the neo-Confucian culture that they adopted from earlier dynasties. Manchu rulers and Han Chinese scholar-official elites gradually came to terms with each other. The examination system offered a path for ethnic Han to become officials. Imperial patronage of the Kangxi Dictionary demonstrated respect for Confucian learning, while
23714-599: The throne in violation of the custom that the new emperor be of the next generation, and another regency began. Ci'an suddenly died in the spring of 1881, leaving Cixi as sole regent. From 1889, when Guangxu began to rule in his own right, until 1898, the Empress Dowager lived in semi-retirement, spending the majority of the year at the Summer Palace . In 1897, two German Roman Catholic missionaries were murdered in southern Shandong province (the Juye Incident ). Germany used
23881-506: The two families. This division continued for the next 100 years. The Trịnh lords ruled reasonably well, maintaining the fiction that the Lê monarch was the emperor. However, they selected and replaced the emperor as they saw fit, having the hereditary right to appoint many top government officials. Unlike the Nguyễn lords, who engaged in frequent wars with the Khmer Empire and Siam , the Trịnh lords maintained relatively peaceable relations with neighboring states. In 1694, they got involved in
24048-406: The vanguard, while Manchu bannermen were used predominantly for quick strikes with maximum impact, so as to minimize ethnic Manchu losses. This multi-ethnic force conquered Ming China for the Qing. The three Liaodong officers who played key roles in the conquest of southern China were Shang Kexi, Geng Zhongming, and Kong Youde, who governed southern China autonomously as viceroys for the Qing after
24215-475: The wasteful and inept rule of Trịnh Giang , peasant revolts became more frequent. The key problem was a lack of land to farm, though Giang made the situation worse by his actions. The reign of successor Trịnh Doanh was preoccupied with putting down peasant revolts and wiping out armed gangs that terrorized the countryside. The Dutch East India Company ceased doing business with the Trịnh lords in 1700. The Trịnh lords started employing eunuchs extensively in
24382-429: The world at the time. Nurhaci , leader of the House of Aisin-Gioro and vassal of the Ming dynasty, unified Jurchen clans (known later as Manchus) and founded the Later Jin dynasty in 1616, renouncing the Ming overlordship. His son Hong Taiji was declared Emperor of the Great Qing in 1636. As Ming control disintegrated, peasant rebels captured the Ming capital Beijing, but the Ming general Wu Sangui opened
24549-410: The world. The term 'Chinese people' ( 中國人 ; Zhōngguórén ; Manchu: ᡩᡠᠯᡳᠮᠪᠠᡳ ᡤᡠᡵᡠᠨ ᡳ ᠨᡳᠶᠠᠯᠮᠠ Dulimbai gurun-i niyalma ) referred to all the Han, Manchu, and Mongol subjects of the Qing Empire. When the Qing conquered Dzungaria in 1759 , it proclaimed within a Manchu-language memorial that the new land had been absorbed into "China". The Qing government expounded an ideology that it
24716-488: The worship of idols were all banned. However, success led to internal feuds, defections and corruption. In addition, British and French troops, equipped with modern weapons, had come to the assistance of the Qing army. Nonetheless, it was not until 1864 that Qing forces under Zeng Guofan succeeded in crushing the revolt. After the outbreak of this rebellion, there were also revolts by the Muslims and Miao people of China against
24883-484: The worst slaughter. 400,000 Green Standard Army soldiers were used against the Three Feudatories in addition to the 200,000 bannermen. The 61-year reign of the Kangxi Emperor was the longest of any emperor in Chinese history, and marked the beginning of the High Qing era , the zenith of the dynasty's social, economic and military power. The early Manchu rulers established two foundations of legitimacy that help to explain
25050-494: Was a significant figure in relations between Europe and Vietnam. He gained thousands of converts, created a script for writing Vietnamese using a modified version of the European alphabet, and built several churches. However, by 1630 the new Trịnh lord, Trịnh Tráng , decided that De Rhodes represented a threat to Vietnamese society and forced him to leave the country. From this point on, the Trịnh lords periodically tried to suppress Christianity in Vietnam, with moderate success. When
25217-483: Was bringing the "outer" non-Han peoples—such as various populations of Mongolians, as well as the Tibetans—together with the "inner" Han Chinese into "one family", united within the Qing state. Phraseology like Zhōngwài yījiā ( 中外一家 ) and nèiwài yījiā ( 內外一家 )—both translatable as 'home and abroad as one family'—was employed to convey this idea of Qing-mediated trans-cultural unity. The Qing dynasty
25384-596: Was founded not by Han Chinese , who constituted a majority of the population, but by Manchus , a sedentary farming people descended from the Jurchens , a Tungusic people who lived in the region now comprising the Chinese provinces of Jilin and Heilongjiang . The early form of the Manchu state was founded by Nurhaci , the chieftain of a minor Jurchen tribe – the Aisin-Gioro ;– in Jianzhou in
25551-427: Was in reality a puppet ruler . They fought a series of long and bitter wars that pitted the two halves of Vietnam against each other. The Nguyễn were finally overthrown in the Tây Sơn wars , but one of their descendants would eventually come to unite all of Vietnam. Their rule consolidated earlier southward expansion into Champa and pushed southwest into Cambodia . The Nguyễn lords traced their descent from
25718-476: Was incited by the murder of French nuns set off by the belligerence of local French diplomats. Starting with the Cochinchina Campaign in 1858, France expanded control of Indochina. By 1883, France was in full control of the region and had reached the Chinese border. The Sino-French War began with a surprise attack by the French on the Chinese southern fleet at Fuzhou. After that the Chinese declared war on
25885-449: Was infested with maggots . After her death, he joined the army of the revived Lê dynasty led by Nguyễn Kim . Because of Trịnh Kiểm's talent, he was given the hand of Kim's daughter Ngọc Bảo. In 1539, Trịnh Kiểm was promoted to general and received the title of Duke of Dực (Dực quận công). In 1545, after the assassination of Nguyễn Kim, Trịnh Kiểm replaced his father-in-law as the commander of the Lê dynasty's royal court and military. After
26052-410: Was installed as figurehead, while true authority lay in the hands of Nguyễn Kim . In 1543, Nguyễn Kim captured Thanh Hóa from Mạc loyalists. Dương Chấp Nhất, commander of Mạc forces in the region, decided to surrender his troops to the advancing Nguyễn forces. When Kim seized Tây Đô citadel and was on route to attack Ninh Bình , in 20 May 1545, Dương Chấp Nhất invited Kim to visit his military camp. In
26219-476: Was married to the Trịnh clan leader, Trịnh Kiểm . After several unsuccessful revolts, they had to exile in Xam Neua ( Kingdom of Lan Xang ) and settle the exile government at there to reorganize arm forces to fight back Mạc dynasty . In 1533, Lê dynasty was restored and managed to recaptured the southern part of country. However, The authority of Lê emperor was not fully restored as restored emperor Lê Trang Tông
26386-457: Was not until the eve of completing the conquest ten years later that they fulfilled their government roles. Hong Taiji staffed his bureaucracy with many Han Chinese, including newly surrendered Ming officials, but ensured Manchu dominance by an ethnic quota for top appointments. Hong Taiji's reign also saw a fundamental change of policy towards his Han Chinese subjects. Nurhaci had treated Han in Liaodong according to how much grain they had. Due to
26553-525: Was poorly executed and terminated by the Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908) in the Wuxu Coup . In 1900, anti-foreign Boxers killed many Chinese Christians and foreign missionaries; in retaliation, the Eight-Nation Alliance invaded China and imposed a punitive indemnity . In response, the government initiated unprecedented fiscal and administrative reforms , including elections, a new legal code, and
26720-515: Was recaptured by the Trịnh–Nguyễn army by lord Trịnh Tùng and the Mạc emperor Mạc Kinh Chi was executed. The remnant Mạc clan fled to Cao Bằng and would survive there until finally conquered in 1677 by the Trịnh lords (though they had surrendered the imperial dignities in 1627 to the Trịnh-controlled imperial court). The next year, Nguyễn Hoàng came north with an army and money to help defeat
26887-432: Was said "Hán di hữu hạn" 漢夷有限 (" the Vietnamese and the barbarians must have clear borders ") by Gia Long, unifying emperor of all Vietnam, when differentiating between Khmer and Vietnamese. Nguyễn Phúc Khoát ordered Chinese-style trousers and tunics in 1774 to replace sarong-type Vietnamese clothing. He also ordered Ming, Tang, and Han-style clothing to be adopted by his military and bureaucracy. Pants were mandated by
27054-494: Was set up in Hội An . By 1615, the Nguyễn were producing their own bronze cannons with the aid of Portuguese engineers. In 1620, the emperor was removed from power and executed by Trịnh Tùng. Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên formally announced that he would not be sending any tax to the central government nor did he acknowledge the new emperor as the emperor of the country. Tensions rose over the next seven years until open warfare broke out in 1627 with
27221-471: Was the Trịnh who ruled, not the Lê emperor. This uneasy state of affairs continued for the next 13 years until Nguyễn Hoàng died in 1613. He had ruled the southern provinces for 55 years. His successor, Nguyễn Phúc Nguyên , continued Nguyễn Hoàng's policy of essential independence from the court in Hanoi . He initiated friendly relations with the Europeans who were now sailing into the area. A Portuguese trading post
27388-657: Was to establish the Canton System in 1756, which restricted maritime trade to Guangzhou and gave monopoly trading rights to private Chinese merchants . This was successful for a time, and the British East India Company and the Dutch East India Company had long before been granted similar monopoly rights by their governments. In 1793, the British East India Company, with the support of
27555-470: Was unpopular and defected to Bồng's side, helping him defeat Trịnh Lệ. Generals Hoàng Phùng Cơ and Đinh Tích Nhưỡng also joined Bồng's faction and pressured Chiêu Thống to grant him the title prince, to which the emperor reluctantly agreed. He then sent a request to Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh, who had raised a considerable army, to aid the emperor once again. Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh obeyed and marched north, where he defeated Trịnh army in Thanh Hoa Province . Trịnh Bồng heard
27722-459: Was unsuccessful, and then he changed his target to Nguyễn Kim, who was in charge of power and the military. After the death of Kim, the imperial government was plunged into chaos. Kim's eldest son Nguyễn Uông initially took power, but he was soon secretly assassinated by his brother-in-law Trịnh Kiểm who assumed control of the government. Kim's second son Nguyễn Hoàng feared that he would face same fate as his brother; hence, he attempted to flee
27889-415: Was welcomed by the king and became an army commander. In summer 1786, Nguyễn Nhạc, who wanted to reclaim the land of the Nguyễn lords taken by the Trịnh in 1775, ordered his brother Nguyễn Huệ and Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh to attack Trịnh lords, but warned them not to advance further north. After taking Phú Xuân, Nguyễn Hữu Chỉnh convinced Nguyễn Huệ to overthrow Trịnh lords under the banner "Destroy the Trịnh and Aid
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