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178-475: State-funded secondary education was to be structured as three types of school: grammar school ; secondary technical school (sometimes described as technical grammar or technical high school); secondary modern school . Not all education authorities implemented the tripartite system; many maintained only two types of secondary school, the grammar and the secondary modern. Pupils were allocated to their respective types of school according to their performance in

356-418: A cohort effect rather than a true aging effect. A variety of studies of IQ and aging have been conducted since the norming of the first Wechsler Intelligence Scale drew attention to IQ differences in different age groups of adults. Both cohort effects (the birth year of the test-takers) and practice effects (test-takers taking the same form of IQ test more than once) must be controlled to gain accurate data. It

534-446: A normal distribution with mean 100 and standard deviation 15. While one standard deviation is 15 points, and two SDs are 30 points, and so on, this does not imply that mental ability is linearly related to IQ, such that IQ 50 would mean half the cognitive ability of IQ 100. In particular, IQ points are not percentage points. Psychometricians generally regard IQ tests as having high statistical reliability . Reliability represents

712-491: A secondary modern to form a new comprehensive school). In both cases, some of these schools kept "grammar school" in their names. More recently, a number of state grammar schools, still retaining their selective intake, gained academy status are thus independent of the local education authority (LEA). Some LEAs retain forms of the Tripartite System and a few grammar schools survive in otherwise comprehensive areas. Some of

890-457: A common strength in abstract reasoning across the test's item content. During World War I, the Army needed a way to evaluate and assign recruits to appropriate tasks. This led to the development of several mental tests by Robert Yerkes , who worked with major hereditarians of American psychometrics—including Terman, Goddard—to write the test. The testing generated controversy and much public debate in

1068-620: A concept of intelligence on IQ test scores alone neglects other important aspects of mental ability. Robert Sternberg , another significant critic of IQ as the main measure of human cognitive abilities, argued that reducing the concept of intelligence to the measure of g does not fully account for the different skills and knowledge types that produce success in human society. Despite these objections, clinical psychologists generally regard IQ scores as having sufficient statistical validity for many clinical purposes. Differential item functioning (DIF), sometimes referred to as measurement bias,

1246-535: A consultation on proposals to allow existing grammar schools to expand and new ones to be set up. The Labour and Liberal Democrat parties remain opposed to any expansion. Attempts to move to a comprehensive system (as in the rest of the United Kingdom) have been delayed by shifts in the administration of Northern Ireland . As a result, Northern Ireland still maintains the grammar school system, with many pupils being entered for academic selection exams similar to

1424-525: A few areas have kept a formal grammar school system along the lines of the Tripartite System. In these areas, the eleven plus exam is used solely to identify a subset of children (around 25%) considered suitable for grammar education. When a grammar school has too many qualified applicants, other criteria are used to allocate places, such as siblings, distance or faith. Such systems still exist in Buckinghamshire, Rugby and Stratford districts of Warwickshire,

1602-419: A few competitive scholarships) teaching broad curricula to boys or girls. In the late Victorian era there was a great emphasis on the importance of self-improvement , and many schools established at that time emulated the great public schools , copying their curriculum, ethos and ambitions, and some took or maintained the title "grammar school" for historical reasons. A girls' grammar school established in

1780-506: A few places in the UK. Anglesey , London, Coventry , the West Riding and Leicestershire had all abolished the Tripartite System in the 50s and early 60s, for a variety of reasons. They offered an alternative to the existing system which was seized upon by its opponents. Comprehensives were held up as less divisive, and pupils were said to benefit from the abolition of selection. Paradoxically, at

1958-540: A form of the Tripartite System. There are still 163 state-run grammar schools in England today, schooling 141,000 pupils. The 1976 Act proved the high-point of the Comprehensive movement. The Thatcher government allowed selection once again in 1979, and it has been used increasingly by individual schools eager to choose those they perceive to be the best pupils. In 1984 Solihull attempted to reintroduce grammar schools, but

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2136-446: A grammar school as a school in which the learned languages are grammatically taught ; However, by this time demand for these languages had fallen greatly. A new commercial class required modern languages and commercial subjects. Most grammar schools founded in the 18th century also taught arithmetic and English. In Scotland, the burgh councils updated the curricula of their schools so that Scotland no longer has grammar schools in any of

2314-585: A grammar school, although there was a severe regional imbalance, with many more grammar school places available in the South than in the North, and with fewer places available for girls. This was partly the result of a historical neglect of education in the north of England, which the tripartite system did much to correct. Nevertheless, in 1963 there were grammar school places for 33% of the children in Wales and only 22% of children in

2492-459: A great chance at success. These schools were widely admired, and were to become a model for the tier-structured education reforms of the 1940s. There was also a strong belief in the value and accuracy of psychometric testing. Many in the educational establishment, particularly the psychologist Sir Cyril Burt , argued that testing students was a valid way of assessing their suitability for various types of education. Similar conclusions were drawn in

2670-401: A large number of parents were willing to pay to extricate their children from it. Most of the direct grant grammar schools converted to fully fee-paying independent schools, retaining selection of entrants. The proportion of children opting out of the state system continued to rise until recently, standing at around 8%. Certain counties continued to defy the government and continued to operate

2848-531: A local level in protest of the treatment of a particular grammar school. Particularly strong opposition was noted in Bristol , after the LEA ended all grammar school education in 1964. However, there was little nationwide organisation among the defenders of the Tripartite System. The most prominent attack on the introduction of comprehensives came in the series of Black Papers (as opposed to White Papers , which are issued by

3026-742: A merging of the Gf-Gc theory of Cattell and Horn with Carroll's Three-Stratum theory has led to the Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory (CHC Theory), with g as the top of the hierarchy, ten broad abilities below, and further subdivided into seventy narrow abilities on the third stratum. CHC Theory has greatly influenced many of the current broad IQ tests. Modern tests do not necessarily measure all of these broad abilities. For example, quantitative knowledge and reading and writing ability may be seen as measures of school achievement and not IQ. Decision speed may be difficult to measure without special equipment. g

3204-464: A model of intelligence that included seven unrelated factors (verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, perceptual speed, reasoning, and induction). While not widely used, Thurstone's model influenced later theories. David Wechsler produced the first version of his test in 1939. It gradually became more popular and overtook the Stanford–Binet in

3382-486: A new elite, the meritocracy , and building an underclass to match. If allowed to continue, selective education would lead to renewed inequality and eventually revolution. This reflected a growing dissatisfaction on the left with the results of the Tripartite System. Whereas the previous generation of Labour politicians had focused on the social mobility afforded to those who passed their eleven plus, now concern became focused upon those who were sent to secondary moderns. Once

3560-445: A number of other countries, including France, Italy, Germany and Sweden, all of which operated a state-run system of selective schools. The 1926 Hadow Report had recommended that the education system be formally split into separate stages at the age of eleven or twelve. Before this point there had been no formal demarcation between primary and secondary education as known in modern society. The creation of this break would encourage

3738-444: A particular stimulus, ignoring distractions, and maintaining vigilance. Simultaneous processing involves the integration of stimuli into a group and requires the observation of relationships. Successive processing involves the integration of stimuli into serial order. The planning and attention/arousal components comes from structures located in the frontal lobe, and the simultaneous and successive processes come from structures located in

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3916-463: A result, each year around 16,000 pupils in the area take the 11-plus transfer test. Pupils are rated between grades A and D, with preferred access to schools being given to those with higher grades. Until 1989, around 1/3 of pupils who took the exam, or 27% of the age group, were given places in a grammar school. Under the "open enrolment" reform of 1989, grammar schools in Northern Ireland (unlike

4094-399: A resurgence as a voluntary means of selective reproduction, with some calling them " new eugenics ". As it becomes possible to test for and correlate genes with IQ (and its proxies), ethicists and embryonic genetic testing companies are attempting to understand the ways in which the technology can be ethically deployed. Raymond Cattell (1941) proposed two types of cognitive abilities in

4272-422: A revision of Spearman's concept of general intelligence. Fluid intelligence (Gf) was hypothesized as the ability to solve novel problems by using reasoning, and crystallized intelligence (Gc) was hypothesized as a knowledge-based ability that was very dependent on education and experience. In addition, fluid intelligence was hypothesized to decline with age, while crystallized intelligence was largely resistant to

4450-405: A rich one. The tripartite system seemed an excellent tool with which to erode class barriers. In spite of this broad approval, the resources for implementing the system were slow in coming. The logistical difficulties of building enough secondary schools for the entire country delayed the introduction of tripartite education. It was not until 1951, and the election of a Conservative government, that

4628-641: A series of "Royal Schools" in Ulster, beginning with The Royal School, Armagh . In theory these schools were open to all and offered free tuition to those who could not pay fees; however, few poor children attended school, because their labour was economically valuable to their families. In the Scottish Reformation schools such as the Choir School of Glasgow Cathedral (founded 1124) and the Grammar School of

4806-414: A simple pass at GCE O-level. Secondary moderns did over time develop O-level courses for bright students, but in 1963 only 41,056 pupils sat them, roughly one in ten. Some of these pupils' results were very good. Indeed, during the 1960s, students from secondary modern schools who took GCE 'O' Levels were increasingly achieving results comparable to those being achieved by students from grammar schools. This

4984-463: A single general ability factor and a large number of narrow task-specific ability factors. Spearman named it g for "general factor" and labeled the specific factors or abilities for specific tasks s . In any collection of test items that make up an IQ test, the score that best measures g is the composite score that has the highest correlations with all the item scores. Typically, the " g -loaded" composite score of an IQ test battery appears to involve

5162-435: A six-year-old child who passed all the tasks usually passed by six-year-olds—but nothing beyond—would have a mental age that matched his chronological age, 6.0. (Fancher, 1985). Binet and Simon thought that intelligence was multifaceted, but came under the control of practical judgment. In Binet and Simon's view, there were limitations with the scale and they stressed what they saw as the remarkable diversity of intelligence and

5340-667: A small number of schools are named "grammar schools" and follow the academic and cultural traditions established in the United Kingdom. Grammar schools were established only in Auckland and originally came under the authority of the Auckland Grammar Schools' Board. Auckland's grammar schools share a common line of descent from the British grammar school system, with a strong focus on academics and traditional British sports. Originally,

5518-499: A strong consensus of mainstream science, though fringe figures continue to promote them in pseudo-scholarship and popular culture. Historically, even before IQ tests were devised, there were attempts to classify people into intelligence categories by observing their behavior in daily life. Those other forms of behavioral observation are still important for validating classifications based primarily on IQ test scores. Both intelligence classification by observation of behavior outside

Tripartite System of education in England, Wales and Northern Ireland - Misplaced Pages Continue

5696-871: A total of 120 types of intelligence. It was popular in the 1970s and early 1980s, but faded owing to both practical problems and theoretical criticisms. Alexander Luria 's earlier work on neuropsychological processes led to the PASS theory (1997). It argued that only looking at one general factor was inadequate for researchers and clinicians who worked with learning disabilities, attention disorders, intellectual disability, and interventions for such disabilities. The PASS model covers four kinds of processes (planning process, attention/arousal process, simultaneous processing, and successive processing). The planning processes involve decision making, problem solving, and performing activities and require goal setting and self-monitoring. The attention/arousal process involves selectively attending to

5874-502: A town with an older boys' grammar school would often be named a "high school". Under the Education (Administrative Provisions) Act 1907 all grant-aided secondary schools were required to provide at least 25 percent of their places as free scholarships for students from public elementary schools. Grammar schools thus emerged as one part of the highly varied education system of England and Wales before 1944. The Education Act 1944 created

6052-400: Is a hierarchical model with three levels. The bottom stratum consists of narrow abilities that are highly specialized (e.g., induction, spelling ability). The second stratum consists of broad abilities. Carroll identified eight second-stratum abilities. Carroll accepted Spearman's concept of general intelligence, for the most part, as a representation of the uppermost, third stratum. In 1999,

6230-571: Is a phenomenon when participants from different groups (e.g. gender, race, disability) with the same latent abilities give different answers to specific questions on the same IQ test. DIF analysis measures such specific items on a test alongside measuring participants' latent abilities on other similar questions. A consistent different group response to a specific question among similar types of questions can indicate an effect of DIF. It does not count as differential item functioning if both groups have an equally valid chance of giving different responses to

6408-471: Is a total score derived from a set of standardized tests or subtests designed to assess human intelligence . Originally, IQ was a score obtained by dividing a person's mental age score, obtained by administering an intelligence test, by the person's chronological age, both expressed in terms of years and months. The resulting fraction ( quotient ) was multiplied by 100 to obtain the IQ score. For modern IQ tests ,

6586-515: Is as low as 2%. These very highly selective schools also tend to dominate the top positions in performance tables. Further radical change was opposed by both Conservative and Labour governments until September 2016. Although many on the left argue that the existence of selective schools undermines the comprehensive structure, Labour governments have delegated decisions on grammar schools to local processes, which have not yet resulted in any changes. Moreover, government education policy appears to accept

6764-584: Is now similar to the Wechsler in several aspects, but the Wechsler continues to be the most popular test in the United States. Eugenics , a set of beliefs and practices aimed at improving the genetic quality of the human population by excluding people and groups judged to be inferior and promoting those judged to be superior, played a significant role in the history and culture of the United States during

6942-483: Is set so performance at the population median results in a score of IQ 100. The phenomenon of rising raw score performance means if test-takers are scored by a constant standard scoring rule, IQ test scores have been rising at an average rate of around three IQ points per decade. This phenomenon was named the Flynn effect in the book The Bell Curve after James R. Flynn , the author who did the most to bring this phenomenon to

7120-597: Is unclear whether any lifestyle intervention can preserve fluid intelligence into older ages. Environmental and genetic factors play a role in determining IQ. Their relative importance has been the subject of much research and debate. The general figure for the heritability of IQ, according to an American Psychological Association report, is 0.45 for children, and rises to around 0.75 for late adolescents and adults. Heritability measures for g factor in infancy are as low as 0.2, around 0.4 in middle childhood, and as high as 0.9 in adulthood. One proposed explanation

7298-521: The 11-plus or the 13-plus examination. It was the prevalent system under the Conservative governments of the 1951 to 1964 period, but was actively discouraged by the Labour government after 1965. It was formally abolished in England and Wales in 1976, giving way to the comprehensive system . However, elements of similar systems persist in several English counties such as Kent and Lincolnshire, which maintain

Tripartite System of education in England, Wales and Northern Ireland - Misplaced Pages Continue

7476-531: The Binet–Simon Intelligence test , which focused on verbal abilities . It was intended to identify "mental retardation" in school children, but in specific contradistinction to claims made by psychiatrists that these children were "sick" (not "slow") and should therefore be removed from school and cared for in asylums. The score on the Binet–Simon scale would reveal the child's mental age . For example,

7654-760: The Campaign for State Education campaign against them. A University College London study has shown that UK grammar school pupils gain no significant social or emotional advantages by the age of 14 over similarly gifted pupils in non-selective schools. England has a long history of grammar schools. Curricula differ from school to school but generally includes English language, English literature, mathematics, computer science, physics, chemistry, biology, geography, art and design, music, drama, design and technology, history, philosophy, civics /citizenship, classical education, religious education, physical education, and several other foreign languages. Most English grammar schools follow

7832-521: The Church of Ireland prior to its disestablishment in 1871. Some schools remain, as private schools catering largely for Protestant students. These are often fee-paying and accommodate boarders, given the scattered nature of the Protestant population in much of Ireland. Such schools include Bandon Grammar School , Drogheda Grammar School , Dundalk Grammar School and Sligo Grammar School . Others are among

8010-688: The Clarendon Commission , which led to the Public Schools Act 1868 which restructured the trusts of nine leading schools (including Eton College , Harrow School and Shrewsbury School ), the Taunton Commission was appointed to examine the remaining 782 endowed grammar schools. The commission reported that the distribution of schools did not match the current population, and that provision varied greatly in quality, with provision for girls being particularly limited. The commission proposed

8188-692: The Education Act 1968 . By 1970, 115 LEAs had had their reorganisation plans approved. Thirteen had had theirs rejected, and a further ten had defied the Labour government and refused to submit any plans at all. Initially the move generated little opposition. It was portrayed foremost as an effort to raise standards in secondary moderns, and Prime Minister Harold Wilson had promised that grammar schools would only be closed "over my dead body". However, some grammar schools were closed, and many were amalgamated with nearby secondary moderns. Opposition developed, mainly on

8366-463: The Endowed Schools Act 1869 . Grammar schools were reinvented as academically oriented secondary schools following literary or scientific curricula, while often retaining classical subjects. The Grammar Schools Act 1840 made it lawful to apply the income of grammar schools to purposes other than the teaching of classical languages, but change still required the consent of the schoolmaster. At

8544-682: The Macclesfield Grammar School Act 1774 and the Bolton Grammar School Act 1788. Such a dispute between the trustees and master of Leeds Grammar School led to a celebrated case in the Court of Chancery . After 10 years, Lord Eldon , then Lord Chancellor , ruled in 1805, "There is no authority for thus changing the nature of the Charity, and filling a School intended for the purpose of teaching Greek and Latin with Scholars learning

8722-570: The Ministry of Education , they are regarded as any other secondary institutions. New Zealand did not establish a state education system until 1877. The absence of a national education system meant that the first sizable secondary-education providers were grammar schools and other private institutions. The first grammar school in New Zealand, Auckland Grammar School , was established in 1850 and formally recognised as an educational establishment in 1868 by

8900-502: The National Curriculum and follow the same broad national exams as other state schools. Under the Labour government's School Standards and Framework Act 1998 , grammar schools were for the first time to be designated by statutory instrument . The Act also defined a procedure by which local communities could petition for a ballot for an end to selection at schools. Petitions were launched in several areas, but only one received

9078-724: The Progressive Era , from the late 19th century until US involvement in World War II . The American eugenics movement was rooted in the biological determinist ideas of the British Scientist Sir Francis Galton . In 1883, Galton first used the word eugenics to describe the biological improvement of human genes and the concept of being "well-born". He believed that differences in a person's ability were acquired primarily through genetics and that eugenics could be implemented through selective breeding in order for

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9256-586: The Ulster Unionist Party and Democratic Unionist Party politicians condemned it. When devolution was suspended in 2002, the Northern Ireland Office decided to continue the policy, although the phase-out date of the eleven plus was put back from 2004 to 2008. Opinion is divided on the wisdom of the decision. The Burns Report itself called the 11-plus system socially divisive and argued that it placed unreasonable pressures on teachers. Critics of

9434-589: The WAIS-R test may contain cultural influences that reduce the validity of the WAIS-R as a measure of cognitive ability for Mexican American students," indicating a weaker positive correlation relative to sampled white students. Other recent studies have questioned the culture-fairness of IQ tests when used in South Africa. Standard intelligence tests, such as the Stanford–Binet, are often inappropriate for autistic children;

9612-515: The parts of speech and Latin words in the first year, learned to construct Latin sentences in the second year, and began translating English–Latin and Latin–English passages in the third year. By the end of their studies at age 14, they would be quite familiar with the great Latin authors, and with Latin drama and rhetoric. Other skills, such as arithmetic and handwriting, were taught in odd moments or by travelling specialist teachers such as scriveners . In 1755 Samuel Johnson 's Dictionary defined

9790-436: The proximal development of children, originated in the writings of psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) during his last two years of his life. According to Vygotsky, the maximum level of complexity and difficulty of problems that a child is capable to solve under some guidance indicates their level of potential development. The difference between this level of potential and the lower level of unassisted performance indicates

9968-414: The raw score is transformed to a normal distribution with mean 100 and standard deviation 15. This results in approximately two-thirds of the population scoring between IQ 85 and IQ 115 and about 2 percent each above 130 and below 70 . Scores from intelligence tests are estimates of intelligence. Unlike, for example, distance and mass, a concrete measure of intelligence cannot be achieved given

10146-588: The 11-plus by 55% to 41%. But they opposed the abolition of selective education 31% to 67%. There is widespread agreement that whatever the failings of the existing system, it is fair. Grammar school A grammar school is one of several different types of school in the history of education in the United Kingdom and other English-speaking countries, originally a school teaching Latin , but more recently an academically oriented selective secondary school . The original purpose of medieval grammar schools

10324-531: The 11-plus. Since the "open enrolment" reform of 1989, these schools (unlike those in England) have been required to accept pupils up to their capacity, which has also increased. By 2006, the 69 grammar schools took 42% of transferring children, and only 7 of them took all of their intake from the top 30% of the cohort. The 11-plus has long been controversial, and Northern Ireland's political parties have taken opposing positions. Unionists tend to lean towards preserving

10502-504: The 1960s. It has been revised several times, as is common for IQ tests, to incorporate new research. One explanation is that psychologists and educators wanted more information than the single score from the Binet. Wechsler's ten or more subtests provided this. Another is that the Stanford–Binet test reflected mostly verbal abilities, while the Wechsler test also reflected nonverbal abilities. The Stanford–Binet has also been revised several times and

10680-446: The 95% confidence interval may be greater than 40 points, potentially complicating the accuracy of diagnoses of intellectual disability. By the same token, high IQ scores are also significantly less reliable than those near to the population median. Reports of IQ scores much higher than 160 are considered dubious. Reliability and validity are very different concepts. While reliability reflects reproducibility, validity refers to whether

10858-486: The Auckland Grammar School Appropriation Act. In 1888, Auckland Girls' Grammar School was established. In 1917 Auckland Grammar School's sister school was established, Epsom Girls' Grammar School . In 1922, Mount Albert Grammar School was established as part of Auckland Grammar School. Both schools have since become separate institutions. Takapuna Grammar School was established in 1927 and

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11036-510: The Church of Edinburgh (1128) passed from church control to burgh councils, and the burghs also founded new schools. With the increased emphasis on studying the scriptures after the Reformation, many schools added Greek and, in a few cases, Hebrew. The teaching of these languages was hampered by a shortage of non-Latin type and of teachers fluent in the languages. During the 16th and 17th centuries

11214-469: The Eastern region. Secondary modern schools were correspondingly neglected, giving them the appearance of being 'sink schools'. Although explicitly not presented as such, the secondary modern was widely perceived as the bottom tier of the tripartite system. They suffered from underinvestment and poor reputations, in spite of educating around 70% of the UK's school children. The Newsom Report of 1963, looking at

11392-543: The English grammar-school system insofar as they engage in academic selection by way of centralised examination, they do not charge tuition fees and they are recipients of a greater degree of public funding per pupil than is afforded to non-selective government schools. Grammar schools provided secondary education in Ontario until 1871. The first lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada , John Graves Simcoe , advocated grammar schools for

11570-464: The Flynn effect demolishes the fears that IQ would be decreased. He also asks whether it represents a real increase in intelligence beyond IQ scores. A 2011 psychology textbook, lead authored by Harvard Psychologist Professor Daniel Schacter , noted that humans' inherited intelligence could be going down while acquired intelligence goes up. Research has suggested that the Flynn effect has slowed or reversed course in some Western countries beginning in

11748-468: The German and French languages, mathematics, and anything except Greek and Latin." Although he offered a compromise by which some subjects might be added to a classical core, the ruling set a restrictive precedent for grammar schools across England; they seemed to be in terminal decline. However it should be borne in mind that the decline of the grammar schools in England and Wales was not uniform and that until

11926-623: The Post-Primary Transfer Consortium (mostly Catholic schools) and the Association for Quality Education. The Northern Ireland Commission for Catholic Education did accept continued selection at Catholic grammar schools as a temporary measure, anticipating them to end the practice by 2012. As of September 2019, the practice continues. Grammar schools were established in various British territories, and have developed in different ways since those territories became independent. In

12104-691: The Salisbury district of Wiltshire and most of Lincolnshire, Kent, Reading and Medway. Of metropolitan areas, Trafford and most of Wirral are selective. In other areas, grammar schools survive mainly as very highly selective schools in an otherwise comprehensive county, for example in several of the outer boroughs of London. These schools are often heavily oversubscribed, and award places in rank order of performance in their entry tests. In some LEAs , as many as 10–15% of 11-year-olds may attend grammar schools (for example in Gloucestershire), but in other LEAs it

12282-477: The Tripartite System had been implemented, the middle classes were found to be much more likely to win places at grammar schools. It was feared that society was being divided into a well-educated middle class elite and a working class trapped in the secondary modern schools, or "eggheads and serfs". To some on the left, such as Graham Savage of the LCC , it became an article of faith that the only way to bring about equality

12460-523: The UK has not been thoroughly overhauled since 1944, and today seems to be a complex mixture of the Tripartite System and the Comprehensive. While vestiges of the Tripartite system persist in several English counties, the largest area where the 11-plus system remains in operation is Northern Ireland . Original proposals for switching to the Comprehensive system were put forward in 1971, but the suspension of devolution meant that they were never acted upon. As

12638-444: The US eugenics movement to eliminate "undesirable" traits. Goddard used the term " feeble-minded " to refer to people who did not perform well on the test. He argued that "feeble-mindedness" was caused by heredity, and thus feeble-minded people should be prevented from giving birth, either by institutional isolation or sterilization surgeries. At first, sterilization targeted the disabled, but

12816-673: The Union of Lancashire and Cheshire Institutes and the Northern Counties Technical Examinations Council. The latter exam was taken after four years at secondary school. Such examinations were comparable with the Certificate of Secondary Education (CSE) which was introduced in 1965. Less demanding than GCE O-level, results in the GCE and CSE exams were graded on the same scale, with the top CSE grade, grade 1, being equivalent to

12994-456: The United States. Nonverbal or "performance" tests were developed for those who could not speak English or were suspected of malingering. Based on Goddard's translation of the Binet–Simon test, the tests had an impact in screening men for officer training: ...the tests did have a strong impact in some areas, particularly in screening men for officer training. At the start of the war, the army and national guard maintained nine thousand officers. By

13172-409: The abstract nature of the concept of "intelligence". IQ scores have been shown to be associated with such factors as nutrition , parental socioeconomic status , morbidity and mortality , parental social status , and perinatal environment . While the heritability of IQ has been investigated for nearly a century, there is still debate about the significance of heritability estimates and

13350-404: The alternative of using developmental or adaptive skills measures are relatively poor measures of intelligence in autistic children, and may have resulted in incorrect claims that a majority of autistic children are of low intelligence. Since the early 20th century, raw scores on IQ tests have increased in most parts of the world. When a new version of an IQ test is normed, the standard scoring

13528-416: The attention of psychologists. Researchers have been exploring the issue of whether the Flynn effect is equally strong on performance of all kinds of IQ test items, whether the effect may have ended in some developed nations, whether there are social subgroup differences in the effect, and what possible causes of the effect might be. A 2011 textbook, IQ and Human Intelligence , by N. J. Mackintosh , noted

13706-648: The banner of dynamic assessment , which seeks to measure developmental potential (for instance, in the work of Reuven Feuerstein and his associates, who has criticized standard IQ testing for its putative assumption or acceptance of "fixed and immutable" characteristics of intelligence or cognitive functioning). Dynamic assessment has been further elaborated in the work of Ann Brown , and John D. Bransford and in theories of multiple intelligences authored by Howard Gardner and Robert Sternberg . J.P. Guilford 's Structure of Intellect (1967) model of intelligence used three dimensions, which, when combined, yielded

13884-550: The child went to. However, because of the lack of technical schools, the Eleven-Plus came to be seen as a pass-or-fail exam, either earning children a place at their local grammar school or consigning them to a secondary modern. As such, "passing" the 11-plus came to be seen as essential for success in later life. The 11-plus has been accused of having a significant cultural bias. This was certainly true of early papers. "General reasoning" questions could be about classical composers, or

14062-448: The child's zone of proximal development. Combination of the two indexes—the level of actual and the zone of the proximal development—according to Vygotsky, provides a significantly more informative indicator of psychological development than the assessment of the level of actual development alone. His ideas on the zone of development were later developed in a number of psychological and educational theories and practices, most notably under

14240-539: The children of wealthier middle-class parents. The Tripartite System was largely abolished in England and Wales between 1965, with the issue of Circular 10/65 , and the Education Act 1976. Most maintained grammar schools were amalgamated with a number of other local schools, to form neighbourhood comprehensive schools , though a few were closed. This process proceeded quickly in Wales, with the closure of such schools as Cowbridge Grammar School . In England, implementation

14418-629: The cohort. In 2001, following the publication of the Burns Report on Post Primary Education, the decision was taken to abolish the examination. The subsequent Costello Report went further, and advocated an end to all selection in Northern Ireland's schooling. The education minister, Martin McGuinness of Sinn Féin , endorsed the Burns Report, as did the Social Democratic and Labour Party , while

14596-589: The colony to save the wealthy from sending their sons to the United States to be educated, but he was unable to convince his superiors in London. He, however, made a grant enabling John Stuart to set up Kingston Grammar School in 1795. After several abortive attempts to raise funding, the District Schools Act of 1807 provided support for one grammar school teacher in each district, of which there were then eight, but they were then left to their own devices. Finding

14774-410: The competitive entrance exams for Oxford and Cambridge . According to Anthony Sampson , in his book Anatomy of Britain (1965), there were structural problems within the testing process that underpinned the eleven plus which meant it tended to result in secondary modern schools being overwhelmingly dominated by the children of poor and working-class parents, while grammar schools were dominated by

14952-677: The continuation of the grammar school system in the province as part of the St Andrews Agreement in October 2006. By contrast, Sinn Féin claims to have secured the abolition of the 11-plus and a veto over any system which might follow it. The last government-run 11-plus exam was held in 2008 (for 2009 entry), but the Northern Ireland Assembly has not been able to agree on a replacement system for secondary transfer. The grammar schools have organised groupings to run their own tests,

15130-617: The country was under British rule. They are generally not known as "grammar schools" but are similarly selective in their intake. Among the best known being the Penang Free School , the Victoria Institution (Kuala Lumpur), Malay College Kuala Kangsar , the English College (Johor Bahru) , King George V School (Seremban) and St George's Institution (Taiping). Mission schools set up by various Christian denominations paralleled

15308-697: The creation of a national system of secondary education by restructuring the endowments of these schools for modern purposes. The result was the Endowed Schools Act 1869 , which created the Endowed Schools Commission with extensive powers over endowments of individual schools. It was said that the commission "could turn a boys' school in Northumberland into a girls' school in Cornwall". Across England and Wales schools endowed to offer free classical instruction to boys were remodelled as fee-paying schools (with

15486-686: The current versions of the Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scales , Woodcock–Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities , the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children , the Cognitive Assessment System , and the Differential Ability Scales . There are various other IQ tests, including: IQ scales are ordinally scaled . The raw score of the norming sample is usually (rank order) transformed to

15664-406: The curricula of any of the above schools. In practice, most of these were educationally similar to grammar schools but with a full ability range amongst their pupils. To allocate students between the three tiers, many students sat an exam during their final year at primary school; at the age of 10 or 11 years, depending on when their birthday fell. In some areas e.g. Wisbech , Isle of Ely the test

15842-470: The early 20th century, a phenomenon called the Flynn effect . Investigation of different patterns of increases in subtest scores can also inform current research on human intelligence. Historically, many proponents of IQ testing have been eugenicists who used pseudoscience to push now-debunked views of racial hierarchy in order to justify segregation and oppose immigration . Such views are now rejected by

16020-407: The early adulthood) while longitudinal data mostly show that intelligence is stable until mid-adulthood or later. Subsequently, intelligence seems to decline slowly. For decades, practitioners' handbooks and textbooks on IQ testing have reported IQ declines with age after the beginning of adulthood. However, later researchers pointed out this phenomenon is related to the Flynn effect and is in part

16198-416: The education of average and below average children, found that secondary moderns in slum areas of London left fifteen-year-olds sitting on primary school furniture and faced teachers changing as often as once a term. Existing beliefs about education and the failure to develop the technical schools led to the grammar schools being perceived as superior to the alternatives. The system failed to take into account

16376-400: The effects of aging. The theory was almost forgotten, but was revived by his student John L. Horn (1966) who later argued Gf and Gc were only two among several factors, and who eventually identified nine or ten broad abilities. The theory continued to be called Gf-Gc theory. John B. Carroll (1993), after a comprehensive reanalysis of earlier data, proposed the three stratum theory , which

16554-457: The eleven-plus examination which divides pupils into placement in grammar or secondary modern school is known as the Kent Test . Today, grammar school commonly refers to one of the 163 remaining fully selective state-funded schools in England and the 69 remaining in Northern Ireland. The National Grammar Schools Association campaigns in favour of such schools, while Comprehensive Future and

16732-565: The end, two hundred thousand officers presided, and two- thirds of them had started their careers in training camps where the tests were applied. In some camps, no man scoring below C could be considered for officer training. In total 1.75 million men were tested, making the results the first mass-produced written tests of intelligence, though considered dubious and non-usable, for reasons including high variability of test implementation throughout different camps and questions testing for familiarity with American culture rather than intelligence. After

16910-486: The establishment of grammar schools became a common act of charity by nobles, wealthy merchants and guilds ; for example The Crypt School , Gloucester, founded by John and Joan Cook in 1539, Sir Roger Manwood's School , founded in 1563 by Sandwich jurist Roger Manwood , and Spalding Grammar School , founded by John Gamlyn and John Blanche in 1588. Many of these are still commemorated in annual "Founder's Day" services and ceremonies at surviving schools. The usual pattern

17088-438: The establishment of selection at the point when pupils were changing schools. The Spens Report of 1938 recommended the tripartite system viz. grammar, technical high and 'modern' secondary schools. This was the basis of the post 1944 reform. The 1944 Butler Education Act radically overhauled education in England and Wales, and the Education (Northern Ireland) Act 1947 set out a similar restructuring for Northern Ireland. For

17266-416: The estimate. For modern tests, the confidence interval can be approximately 10 points and reported standard error of measurement can be as low as about three points. Reported standard error may be an underestimate, as it does not account for all sources of error. Outside influences such as low motivation or high anxiety can occasionally lower a person's IQ test score. For individuals with very low scores,

17444-493: The exams. Only grammar schools offered facilities for students who were preparing for the entrance examinations required to go to Oxbridge . In 1958 the sociologist Michael Young published a book entitled The Rise of the Meritocracy . A mock-historical account of British education viewed from the year 2033, it satirised the beliefs of those who supported the Tripartite System. Young argued that grammar schools were instituting

17622-572: The exception of the non-denominational Sydney Grammar School (1857) and Queensland grammar schools, all the grammar schools established in the 19th century were attached to the Church of England (now the Anglican Church of Australia ). In Queensland, the Grammar Schools Act 1860 provided for the state-assisted foundation of non-denominational grammar schools. Beginning with Ipswich Grammar School (1863), ten schools were founded, of which

17800-520: The existence of some kind of hierarchy in secondary education, with specialist schools , academies and similar initiatives proposed as ways of raising standards. Many grammar schools have featured in these programmes, and a lower level of selection is permitted at specialist schools. In September 2016, Prime Minister Theresa May reversed the previous Conservative Party policy against expansion of grammar schools (except to cope with population expansion in wholly selective areas). The government opened

17978-411: The fallacy of reification , "our tendency to convert abstract concepts into entities". Gould's argument sparked a great deal of debate, and the book is listed as one of Discover Magazine ' s "25 Greatest Science Books of All Time". Along these same lines, critics such as Keith Stanovich do not dispute the capacity of IQ test scores to predict some kinds of achievement, but argue that basing

18156-481: The final year of primary school. The Tripartite System was arguably the least politically controversial of the great post-war welfare reforms. The Butler Act had been written by a Conservative , and had received the full backing of Prime Minister Winston Churchill . Many in the Labour party , meanwhile, were enthusiastic about the ability of the Tripartite System to enable social mobility . A first-rate education would now be available to any capable child, not simply

18334-422: The first formal factor analysis of correlations between the tests. He observed that children's school grades across seemingly unrelated school subjects were positively correlated, and reasoned that these correlations reflected the influence of an underlying general mental ability that entered into performance on all kinds of mental tests. He suggested that all mental performance could be conceptualized in terms of

18512-427: The first mental testing center in the world in 1882 and he published "Inquiries into Human Faculty and Its Development" in 1883, in which he set out his theories. After gathering data on a variety of physical variables, he was unable to show any such correlation, and he eventually abandoned this research. French psychologist Alfred Binet and psychiatrist Théodore Simon , had more success in 1905, when they published

18690-528: The first nationwide system of state-funded secondary education in England and Wales, echoed by the Education (Northern Ireland) Act 1947. One of the three types of school forming the Tripartite System was called the grammar school, which sought to spread the academic ethos of the existing grammar schools. Grammar schools were intended to teach an academic curriculum to the most intellectually able 25 percent of

18868-414: The first time, secondary education was to become a right, and was to be universally provided. It would also be free, with financial assistance for poor students. This was part of the major shake-up of government welfare in the wake of the 1942 Beveridge Report . In addition to promising universal secondary education, the act intended to improve the kind of education provided. Children would be provided with

19046-672: The following eight still exist: In the 1920s grammar schools of other denominations were established, including members of the Associated Grammar Schools of Victoria , and the trend has continued to the present day. Today, the term is defined only in Queensland legislation. Throughout the country, "grammar schools" are generally high-cost private schools. The nearest equivalents of contemporary English grammar schools are selective schools . The New South Wales public education system operates 19 selective public schools which resemble

19224-425: The foundation of St Bees Clerical College , in 1817, and St David's College Lampeter , in 1828, specialist grammar schools in the north-west of England and South Wales were in effect providing tertiary education to men in their late teens and early twenties, which enabled them to be ordained as Anglican clergymen without going to university. The 19th century saw a series of reforms to grammar schools, culminating in

19402-483: The foundation of the trivium . Pupils were usually educated in grammar schools up to the age of 14, after which they would look to universities and the church for further study. Of the three first schools independent of the church – Winchester College (1382), Oswestry School (1407) and Eton College (1440) – Winchester and Eton were feeder schools to Oxford and Cambridge universities respectively. They were boarding schools , so they could educate pupils from anywhere in

19580-505: The functions performed by domestic servants – subjects which children from working class backgrounds would be less able to answer. Different types of schools entered their pupils for different examinations at age 16. Grammar school students would take General Certificate of Education (GCE) O-levels , while children at secondary moderns initially took no examinations at all. Some secondary modern schools offered qualifications that were set, for example, by regional examination boards, such as

19758-497: The government) published in the Critical Quarterly by A.E. Dyson and Brian Cox . Comprehensivisation was accused of using schools "directly as tools to achieve social and political objectives", rather than for the education of pupils. Debates over the Comprehensive system seemed about to become a major political issue, particularly with the election of a Conservative government in 1970. However many Tories were ambivalent on

19936-489: The grammar schools alongside other less academic non-selective secondary schools. The system's merits and demerits, in particular the need and selection for grammar schools, were contentious issues at the time and remain so. Prior to 1944 the British secondary education system was fundamentally an ad hoc creation. Access was not universally available, and varied greatly by region. Schools had been created by local government , private charity and religious foundations. Education

20114-536: The grammar schools as they are, with academic selection at the age of 11, whereas nationalist politicians lean towards scrapping the 11-plus, despite vehement protestations from the majority of Catholic Grammar Schools, most notably by the board of governors at Rathmore Grammar School in Finaghy, (a South Belfast suburb) and Lumen Christi (although co-educational) in Derry. The Democratic Unionist Party claimed to have ensured

20292-519: The grammar schools began to worry about their own children's educational future. By 1965 the Tripartite System was on the way out. 65 local education authorities (LEAs) had plans to switch to comprehensive schools, and another 55 were considering it. Over the next few years this grassroots change would be reinforced by central government policy. Labour had won the 1964 election, and Anthony Crosland became Secretary of State for Education in January 1965. He

20470-436: The grammar schools unsuitable as preparation for university, Lieutenant-Governor Sir John Colborne founded Upper Canada College as a superior grammar school. Legislation in 1839 allowed for more than one grammar school in a district, triggering a rapid but unstructured growth in numbers over the following two decades to 86 in 1861. The schools became more independent of the Church of England and began to admit girls However,

20648-520: The human race to improve in its overall quality, therefore allowing for humans to direct their own evolution. Henry H. Goddard was a eugenicist. In 1908, he published his own version, The Binet and Simon Test of Intellectual Capacity , and cordially promoted the test. He quickly extended the use of the scale to the public schools (1913), to immigration ( Ellis Island , 1914) and to a court of law (1914). Unlike Galton, who promoted eugenics through selective breeding for positive traits, Goddard went with

20826-403: The idea that IQ heritability rises with age. Researchers building on this phenomenon dubbed it "The Wilson Effect," named after the behavioral geneticist. A paper by Thomas J. Bouchard Jr. , examining twin and adoption studies, including twins "reared apart," finds that IQ "reaches an asymptote at about 0.80 at 18–20 years of age and continuing at that level well into adulthood. In the aggregate,

21004-505: The introduction of the less academic and less prestigious Certificate of Secondary Education (known as the CSE) in 1965. Until the implementation of the Robbins Report in the 1960's expanding higher education , pupils from public and grammar schools effectively monopolised access to universities. These schools were also the only ones that offered an extra term of school to prepare pupils for

21182-467: The issue. More grammar schools were closed under Margaret Thatcher than any other Education Secretary, but this was by now a local process, which was allowed to continue to avoid controversy. Her Circular 10/70 simply removed the compulsion of Circular 10/65, leaving it up to individual LEAs whether or not they would go comprehensive. The end of the Tripartite System was reinforced by the new Labour government of 1974. One of its first actions on education

21360-498: The kind of intelligence necessary to do well in academic work. But if the purpose is to assess intelligence in a broader sense, the validity of IQ tests is questionable." Some scientists have disputed the value of IQ as a measure of intelligence altogether. In The Mismeasure of Man (1981, expanded edition 1996), evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould compared IQ testing with the now-discredited practice of determining intelligence via craniometry , arguing that both are based on

21538-416: The language of the church – to future priests and monks. Other subjects required for religious work were occasionally added, including music and verse (for liturgy), astronomy and mathematics (for the church calendar) and law (for administration). With the foundation of the ancient universities from the late 12th century, grammar schools became the entry point to a liberal arts education, with Latin seen as

21716-402: The late 20th century. The phenomenon has been termed the negative Flynn effect . A study of Norwegian military conscripts' test records found that IQ scores have been falling for generations born after the year 1975, and that the underlying cause of both initial increasing and subsequent falling trends appears to be environmental rather than genetic. Ronald S. Wilson is largely credited with

21894-480: The late colonial period, these schools expanded and also schooled descendants of the very few mixed English and Straits-Chinese families, and descendants of some rich Straits-born Chinese merchant class families, who were educated in Oxbridge or had London trade ties. Initially these schools were run exactly like their counterparts in England, and taught by the English. IQ test An intelligence quotient ( IQ )

22072-562: The maintained system and expected to become independent schools or to close". Some of these schools retained the name "grammar" in their title but are no longer free of charge for all but a few pupils. These schools normally select their pupils by an entrance examination and sometimes by interview. By the end of the 1980s, all of the grammar schools in Wales and most of those in England had closed or converted to comprehensive schools. Selection also disappeared from state-funded schools in Scotland in

22250-519: The many former fee-paying schools absorbed into larger state-funded community schools founded since the introduction of universal secondary education in the Republic by minister Donogh O'Malley in September 1967. Examples include Cork Grammar School , replaced by Ashton School , a co-educational comprehensive, in 1972. Malaysia has a number of grammar schools, a majority of which were established when

22428-414: The mean scores of tests at ages 11, 12, and 13. The current consensus is that fluid intelligence generally declines with age after early adulthood, while crystallized intelligence remains intact. However, the exact peak age of fluid intelligence or crystallized intelligence remains elusive. Cross-sectional studies usually show that especially fluid intelligence peaks at a relatively young age (often in

22606-445: The measurement consistency of a test. A reliable test produces similar scores upon repetition. On aggregate, IQ tests exhibit high reliability, although test-takers may have varying scores when taking the same test on differing occasions, and may have varying scores when taking different IQ tests at the same age. Like all statistical quantities, any particular estimate of IQ has an associated standard error that measures uncertainty about

22784-513: The mechanisms of inheritance. IQ scores are used for educational placement, assessment of intellectual ability , and evaluating job applicants. In research contexts, they have been studied as predictors of job performance and income . They are also used to study distributions of psychometric intelligence in populations and the correlations between it and other variables. Raw scores on IQ tests for many populations have been rising at an average rate that scales to three IQ points per decade since

22962-573: The mid-19th century, independent schools were established in the Australian colonies to spare the wealthy classes from sending their sons to schools in Britain. These schools took their inspiration from English public schools , and often called themselves "grammar schools". Early examples include Launceston Grammar School (1846), Pulteney Grammar School (1847), Geelong Grammar School (1855), Melbourne Grammar School (1858) and Hale School (1858). With

23140-474: The nation. An example of an early grammar school, founded by an early modern borough corporation unconnected with church, or university, is Bridgnorth Grammar School , founded in 1503 by Bridgnorth Borough Corporation. During the English Reformation in the 16th century, most cathedral schools were closed and replaced by new foundations funded from the dissolution of the monasteries . For example,

23318-497: The oldest extant schools in Wales – Christ College, Brecon (founded 1541) and the Friars School, Bangor (1557) – were established on the sites of former Dominican monasteries. King Edward VI made an important contribution to grammar schools, founding a series of schools during his reign (see King Edward's School ). A few grammar schools were also established in the name of Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth I. King James I founded

23496-775: The posterior region of the cortex. It has influenced some recent IQ tests, and been seen as a complement to the Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory described above. There are a variety of individually administered IQ tests in use in the English-speaking world. The most commonly used individual IQ test series is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) for adults and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) for school-age test-takers. Other commonly used individual IQ tests (some of which do not label their standard scores as "IQ" scores) include

23674-451: The public perception of the different tiers. Whilst officially no tier was seen as better than the other, it was a generally held belief amongst the general public that the grammar schools were the best schools available, and entry into the other two types was considered a "failure". Alongside this system existed a number of public schools and other fee-paying educational establishments. These organised their own intakes, and were not tied to

23852-481: The remaining grammar schools can trace their histories to before the 15th century . Although the term scolae grammaticales was not widely used until the 14th century, the earliest such schools appeared from the sixth century, e.g. the King's School, Canterbury (founded 597), the King's School, Rochester (604) and St Peter's School, York (627) The schools were attached to cathedrals and monasteries, teaching Latin –

24030-400: The remaining grammar schools in England) were required to accept pupils up to their capacity, which was also increased. Together with falling numbers of school-age children, this has led to a significant broadening of the grammar schools' intake. By 2006, 42% of transferring children were admitted to grammar schools, and in only 7 of the 69 grammar schools was the intake limited to the top 30% of

24208-557: The same approach to mixed abilities as the modern comprehensive system which existed at the same time. Although the Butler Act offered further education for all, including students from secondary moderns, only children who went to grammar schools had a realistic chance of getting into university. Most secondary moderns did not offer A-levels , though many in Northern Ireland in the 1970s did. Although students could obtain them elsewhere, few did and in 1963 only 318 secondary modern pupils sat

24386-556: The same period. Although almost all former grammar schools ceased to be selective, there are comprehensive schools that chose to maintain the descriptor "grammar" in their nomenclature. Most of these schools do however operate some form of selection in their admission process, due to oversubscription. There is also a small group of formally partially selective schools which select a cohort of pupils based on academic ability. The tripartite system (reduced to grammar and secondary modern schools) does survive in certain areas, such as Kent, where

24564-593: The same questions. Such bias can be a result of culture, educational level and other factors that are independent of group traits. DIF is only considered if test-takers from different groups with the same underlying latent ability level have a different chance of giving specific responses. Such questions are usually removed in order to make the test equally fair for both groups. Common techniques for analyzing DIF are item response theory (IRT) based methods, Mantel-Haenszel, and logistic regression . A 2005 study found that "differential validity in prediction suggests that

24742-414: The same time as Labour was attacking the Tripartite System for its inequalities, some in the middle class were increasingly upset at the social mobility it fostered. As educational testing became more exact and subject to less class bias, an increasing proportion of middle class children were being sent to secondary moderns. The Tripartite System fell victim to its own elitism, as the traditional supporters of

24920-449: The same time, many schools were reorganising themselves along the lines of Thomas Arnold 's reforms at Rugby School , and the spread of the railways led to new boarding schools teaching a broader curriculum, such as Marlborough College (1843). The first girls' schools targeted at university entrance were North London Collegiate School (1850) and Cheltenham Ladies' College (from the appointment of Dorothea Beale in 1858). Following

25098-590: The school population as selected by the 11-plus examination. Two types of grammar schools existed under the system: Grammar school pupils were given the best opportunities of any schoolchildren in the state system. Initially, they studied for the School Certificate and Higher School Certificate , replaced in 1951 by General Certificate of Education examinations at O-level (Ordinary level) and A-level (Advanced level). In contrast, very few students at secondary modern schools took public examinations until

25276-567: The schools into classical schools for only boys were unsuccessful. In recognition of the broad curricula offered, grammar schools were redesignated as secondary school by the Act to Improve the Common and Grammar Schools of the Province of Ontario of 1871. Schools that offered classical studies were given additional funding and operated as collegiate institutes . The secondary–school collegiate–institute system

25454-423: The schools used entry assessments and selected academic students from across New Zealand. The schools mentioned below all share the school motto: "Per Angusta Ad Augusta" (Through difficulties to honours). They also share the same icon/logo, the "Auckland Grammar Lion". Today, all grammar schools in New Zealand are non-selective state schools, but they use school donations to supplement their government funding. Within

25632-546: The schools were unsupervised, often underfunded and of varying standards. Some, like Tassie's School , in Galt , provided a traditional classical education, but many provided a basic education of poor quality. Chief Superintendent of Education Egerton Ryerson attempted to reform the schools in the 1850s and the 1860s by moving control of the schools from counties (the former districts) to city authorities, securing their funding and introducing inspectors. However, his efforts to convert

25810-665: The selective state school albeit not with the same degree of selectivity. Notable mission schools include the La Sallian family of schools and those set up by the Marist Brothers and Methodist missionaries. Before the 1970s when Malay was made the medium of instruction, many such selective schools became known for providing excellent English-medium education and have produced many notable alumni, including former Prime Minister of Malaysia Najib Tun Razak ( St. John's Institution ) and all five of his predecessors. In New Zealand ,

25988-436: The senses discussed here, though some, such as Aberdeen Grammar School , retain the name. In England, urban middle-class pressure for a commercial curriculum was often supported by the school's trustees (who would charge the new students fees), but resisted by the schoolmaster, supported by the terms of the original endowment. Very few schools were able to obtain special acts of Parliament to change their statutes; examples are

26166-514: The signatures of 20% of eligible parents, the level needed to trigger a ballot. Thus the only ballot held to date was for Ripon Grammar School in 2000, when parents rejected change by a ratio of 2 to 1. These arrangements were condemned in 2004 by the Select Committee for Education and Skills as being ineffective and a waste of time and resources. There remain 163 grammar schools in England (out of some 3,000 state secondaries in total). Only

26344-405: The standard measure of a good education, is ten percentage points higher. AS and A level results are also better. Access to universities is more equitable, with 41.3% of those from the bottom four socioeconomic groups going to university, as opposed to a national average of 28.4%. Public opinion appears divided on the question. In a 2004 poll the people of Northern Ireland supported the abolition of

26522-416: The status quo in Northern Ireland say that primary education is overly focused on passing the 11-plus. Half of all students receive some kind of private tuition before going to the exam. Many pupils also say that the exam is a great source of stress. Nevertheless, the existing system has produced good results. GCSE grades are much higher than in England and Wales. The number gaining five GCSEs at grades A-C,

26700-430: The studies also confirm that shared environmental influence decreases across age, approximating about 0.10 at 18–20 years of age and continuing at that level into adulthood." IQ can change to some degree over the course of childhood. In one longitudinal study , the mean IQ scores of tests at ages 17 and 18 were correlated at r = 0.86 with the mean scores of tests at ages five, six, and seven and at r = 0.96 with

26878-426: The study of human diversity and the study of inheritance of human traits, he believed that intelligence was largely a product of heredity (by which he did not mean genes , although he did develop several pre-Mendelian theories of particulate inheritance). He hypothesized that there should exist a correlation between intelligence and other observable traits such as reflexes , muscle grip, and head size . He set up

27056-580: The subsequent need to study it using qualitative, as opposed to quantitative, measures (White, 2000). American psychologist Henry H. Goddard published a translation of it in 1910. American psychologist Lewis Terman at Stanford University revised the Binet–Simon scale, which resulted in the Stanford revision of the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale (1916). It became the most popular test in the United States for decades. The abbreviation "IQ"

27234-559: The system began to be widely implemented. Some historians have argued that tripartite education was the Conservative answer to the attractions of the Welfare state , replacing collective benefits with individual opportunities. Even so, there was still a dramatic shortfall in resources for the new education system. Very few technical schools were opened, due to the lack of money and a shortage of suitably qualified teachers. This failure to develop

27412-415: The technical part of the system undermined the whole structure. The tripartite system was, in effect, a two-tier system with grammar schools for the academically gifted and secondary modern schools for the others. Grammar schools received the lion's share of the money, reinforcing their image as the best part of the system, and places in grammar schools were highly sought after. Around 25% of children went to

27590-474: The test measures what it purports to measure. While IQ tests are generally considered to measure some forms of intelligence, they may fail to serve as an accurate measure of broader definitions of human intelligence inclusive of, for example, creativity and social intelligence . For this reason, psychologist Wayne Weiten argues that their construct validity must be carefully qualified, and not be overstated. According to Weiten, "IQ tests are valid measures of

27768-422: The testing room and classification by IQ testing depend on the definition of "intelligence" used in a particular case and on the reliability and error of estimation in the classification procedure. The English statistician Francis Galton (1822–1911) made the first attempt at creating a standardized test for rating a person's intelligence. A pioneer of psychometrics and the application of statistical methods to

27946-458: The three tiers of the Tripartite System of state-funded secondary education operating in England and Wales from the mid-1940s to the late 1960s, and continue as such in Northern Ireland. After most local education authorities moved to non-selective comprehensive schools in the 1960s and 1970s, some grammar schools became fully independent schools and charged fees, while most others were abolished or became comprehensive (or sometimes merged with

28124-417: The type of education which most suited their needs and abilities. Calling their creation the Tripartite System, education officials envisaged a radical technocratic system in which skill was the major factor in deciding access to education, rather than financial resources. It would meet the needs of the economy, providing intellectuals, technicians and general workers, each with the required training. The Act

28302-490: The war, positive publicity promoted by army psychologists helped to make psychology a respected field. Subsequently, there was an increase in jobs and funding in psychology in the United States. Group intelligence tests were developed and became widely used in schools and industry. The results of these tests, which at the time reaffirmed contemporary racism and nationalism, are considered controversial and dubious, having rested on certain contested assumptions: that intelligence

28480-487: Was Circular 4/74, reiterating Labour's intention to continue with comprehensivisation. The 1976 Education Act forbade selection of pupils by ability, officially ending the Tripartite System. The abolition of the grammar schools benefitted private schools . Free, high-quality education for grammar school pupils had dramatically reduced independent school pupil numbers, from around 10% of the school population to 5.5% . However, now that comprehensive equality had been instituted,

28658-618: Was also emulated in several other provinces in Western Canada . Mainstream schools in Hong Kong reflect the post-war British grammar system, focusing on a traditional curriculum rather than vocational subjects. Education in the Republic of Ireland has traditionally been organised on denominational lines. Grammar schools along the lines of those in Great Britain were set up for members of

28836-530: Was an adamant critic of the tripartite system, and once remarked, "If it's the last thing I do, I'm going to destroy every last fucking grammar school in England. And Wales. And Northern Ireland." Soon after he came to office he issued Circular 10/65 . This asked LEAs to begin planning the switch from the Tripartite System to the Comprehensive System, withholding funding for new school buildings from those that did not comply. This change would be reinforced by

29014-523: Was believed that an IQ test was a legitimate way of determining a child's suitability to a particular tier. There would be three categories of state-run secondary schools. Each was designed with a specific purpose in mind, aiming to impart a range of skills appropriate to the needs and future careers of their pupils. It was intended for all three branches of the system to have a parity of esteem. The appropriate type of school for each student would be determined by their performance in an examination taken in

29192-469: Was by putting everyone through the same schools. In July 1958 the Labour leader Hugh Gaitskell formally abandoned the Tripartite system, calling for "grammar-school education for all". The party's fiercest opponent of the grammar school was Gaitskell's protégé, Anthony Crosland . Experiments with comprehensive schools had begun in 1946 by the London County Council , and they had taken hold in

29370-575: Was coined by the psychologist William Stern for the German term Intelligenzquotient , his term for a scoring method for intelligence tests at University of Breslau he advocated in a 1912 book. The many different kinds of IQ tests include a wide variety of item content. Some test items are visual, while many are verbal. Test items vary from being based on abstract-reasoning problems to concentrating on arithmetic, vocabulary, or general knowledge. The British psychologist Charles Spearman in 1904 made

29548-460: Was created in the abstract, making the resultant system more idealistic than practical. In particular, it assumed that adequate resources would be allocated to implement the system fully. The basic assumption of the Tripartite system was that all students, regardless of background, should be entitled to an education appropriate to their needs and abilities. It was also assumed that students with different abilities were suited to different curricula. It

29726-570: Was earlier often subdivided into only Gf and Gc, which were thought to correspond to the nonverbal or performance subtests and verbal subtests in earlier versions of the popular Wechsler IQ test. More recent research has shown the situation to be more complex. Modern comprehensive IQ tests do not stop at reporting a single IQ score. Although they still give an overall score, they now also give scores for many of these more restricted abilities, identifying particular strengths and weaknesses of an individual. An alternative to standard IQ tests, meant to test

29904-501: Was heritable, innate, and could be relegated to a single number, the tests were enacted systematically, and test questions actually tested for innate intelligence rather than subsuming environmental factors. The tests also allowed for the bolstering of jingoist narratives in the context of increased immigration, which may have influenced the passing of the Immigration Restriction Act of 1924 . L.L. Thurstone argued for

30082-480: Was later extended to poor people. Goddard's intelligence test was endorsed by the eugenicists to push for laws for forced sterilization. Different states adopted the sterilization laws at different paces. These laws, whose constitutionality was upheld by the Supreme Court in their 1927 ruling Buck v. Bell , forced over 60,000 people to go through sterilization in the United States. California's sterilization program

30260-476: Was less even, with some counties and individual schools successfully resisting conversion or closure. The Direct Grant Grammar Schools (Cessation of Grant) Regulations 1975 required direct grant schools to decide whether to convert into comprehensives under local authority control or become private schools funded entirely by fees. Of the direct grant schools remaining at that time, 51 became comprehensive, 119 opted for independence, and five were "not accepted for

30438-401: Was often a serious drain on family resources, and subsidies for school expenses were sporadic. Secondary education was mainly the preserve of the middle classes, and in 1938 only 13% of working class 13-year-olds were still in school. Many of the schools created since the 1870s were grammar schools , which offered places based on an entrance test. Places were highly desired and seen as offering

30616-461: Was remarkable given the disadvantages of secondary modern schools compared to grammar schools in providing education for GCE O-Level candidates. Accordingly, the entire rationale for Tripartite streaming of students based upon the 11-plus examination was called into question. Secondary modern schools continued in existence into the 1970s, and as time progressed more attention was given to the need to provide more challenging examinations, and to adopting

30794-468: Was so effective that the Nazis turned to the government for advice on how to prevent the birth of the "unfit". While the US eugenics movement lost much of its momentum in the 1940s in view of the horrors of Nazi Germany, advocates of eugenics (including Nazi geneticist Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer ) continued to work and promote their ideas in the United States. In later decades, some eugenic principles have made

30972-516: Was stopped by opposition. In 1986 the first City Technology Colleges were proposed, arguably inspired by the Technical schools, but in the 2000s most of them converted to academies . Today, no formal attempts are being made to restore the Tripartite System, but the perceived failure of the Comprehensive System led the next Labour government to propose "Beacon Schools", "Advanced Schools" and an "escalator" or "ladder" of schools. Secondary education in

31150-553: Was the first co-educational grammar school to be established in New Zealand. Singapore was established as a Crown Colony, and the term "grammar school" was used since 1819 among the English community. The English, and later, the Scottish, set up cathedrals, churches, and elite grammar schools for the upper class. Initially, this was a racially segregated colonial system. The British then opened up their schools to children from English mixed marriages, or to those with English descent. During

31328-569: Was the teaching of Latin . Over time the curriculum was broadened, first to include Ancient Greek , and later English and other European languages , natural sciences , mathematics , history , geography , art and other subjects. In the late Victorian era grammar schools were reorganised to provide secondary education throughout England and Wales ; Scotland had developed a different system. Grammar schools of these types were also established in British territories overseas, where they have evolved in different ways. Grammar schools became one of

31506-494: Was to create an endowment to pay the wages of a master to instruct local boys in Latin and sometimes Greek without charge. The school day typically ran from 6 a.m. to 5 p.m., with a two-hour break for lunch; in winter, school started at 7 a.m. and ended at 4 p.m. Most of the day was spent in the rote learning of Latin. To encourage fluency, some schoolmasters recommended punishing any pupil who spoke in English. The younger boys learned

31684-416: Was two years later (i.e. a Thirteen-Plus to enter Wisbech Grammar School ). Three tests were given; one tested mathematical ability, one set an essay on a general topic and a third examined general reasoning. Originally, these tests were intended to decide which school would be best suited to a child's needs – officially there was no "pass" or "fail" – the result determined which of the three tiers of schools

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