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106-566: The diet sessions at Vásárhely (now Târgu Mureș ) (20 January 1542) and at Torda (now Turda ) (2 March 1542) laid the basis for the political and administrative organization of Transylvania . The diet decided on juridical, military and economic matters. It ceased to exist following the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , when Transylvania was returned to the control of the Diet of the newly empowered Hungary . Transylvania ("Land beyond

212-561: A Hungarian ethnic enclave within present-day Romania. The population of the historical Székely Land (according to the 2002 census) is 409,000, 312,043 of them Hungarians, accounting for 76.65% of the total. The Hungarians represent 59% of the populations of Harghita, Covasna and Mureș counties. The percentage of Hungarians is higher in Harghita and Covasna (84.8% and 73.58% respectively), and lower in Mureș County, (38.82%). According to

318-706: A Székely flag during his visit to the Székely Land. The photo was posted by the mayor of Sfântu Gheorghe on Facebook. The reactions of the politicians in Bucharest were turbulent. In a response Klemm affirmed that the only two flags that are important to him, as a diplomat, are the U.S. and the Romanian ones. Article 1 of the Romanian Constitution defines the country as a "sovereign, independent, unitary and indivisible national state." It has often been argued that, as

424-457: A consensus, or the Diet acknowledged that the prince was unwilling to accept their proposal. The delegates started to discuss the royal propositions only after the debate about their memorandum was finished. Hungarian was the language of the discussions. Each delegate could take the floor, but they were required to stay concise. After closing the debate, the speaker summarized its main points and ordered

530-675: A death camp in Feldioara . This paramilitary group was described as " a band of terrorist-chauvinistic criminals " by the Soviets. The USSR let the Romanian authorities back to the area in March 1945, and the Paris Peace Treaties officially returned Northern Transylvania to Romania. Following the Northern Transylvania's return to Romania after World War II , a Magyar Autonomous Region

636-435: A decrease of 9.3% from the previous census; of those, 72.46% were Romanians, 5.92% Hungarians, and 4.03% Roma. Turda is twinned with: Sz%C3%A9kely Land The Székely Land or Szeklerland ( Hungarian : Székelyföld , pronounced [ˈseːkɛjføld] , Székely runes : 𐲥𐳋𐳓𐳉𐳗𐳌𐳞𐳖𐳇; Romanian : Ținutul Secuiesc and sometimes Secuimea ; German : Szeklerland ; Latin : Terra Siculorum )

742-507: A general mobilisation against the Ottomans. In 1494, the general assembly forbade the collection of the extraordinary tax that Vladislaus II of Hungary had introduced, forcing the monarch to personally come to Transylvania and preside over the next general assembly. The role of the separate general assemblies of the Székelys also strengthened. A general assembly which was held without the consent of

848-769: A higher level of self-governance for the Székely Land within Romania. On 4 June 2005, the Civic Forum of the Romanians of Covasna, Harghita and Mureș was founded in Miercurea Ciuc. It is an organization aimed at organizing the ethnic Romanian population in the counties that compose Székely Land. On 2 February 2009, Romanian President Traian Băsescu met the Hungarian President László Sólyom in Budapest and discussed

954-420: A noble family to secure the payment of a fine . The administration of justice remained the principal task of such meetings, but the noblemen who attended the assemblies also regularly discussed other subjects, including the collection of the tithe or custom duties. Initially, all noblemen were entitled to be present, but from the 15th century, the counties sent delegates to the assemblies. The general assembly of

1060-464: A result of this provision, any ethnic-based territorial autonomy, including that of the Székely Land, would be unconstitutional. The Supreme Council of National Defence of Romania declared that an autonomy of the so-called Székely Land would be unconstitutional. In 2002 the estimated ethnic composition of the Székely Land (Mureș, Covasna and Harghita counties) consisted of Hungarians (66%), Romanians (29%), Germans (1%) and Roma (4%). The area forms

1166-563: A separate nation, although they spoke Hungarian. The Saxons who lived in the privileged districts were the members of the Saxon nation, but the Saxon population of the counties was not included. The "brotherly union" was first confirmed on 2 February 1438, after the fall of the peasant revolt. The representatives of the Three Nations again confirmed their alliance in 1459, expanding it against all who threatened their liberties. The regular meetings of

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1272-631: A slightly bigger territory. It includes the whole territories of Mureș, Harghita, and Covasna counties. Transylvania was populated by Thracian peoples in the First Iron Age . The area received a large influx of Scythians from the East in the first half of the first millennium BC. The Celts appeared in Transylvania in the La Tène period (c. 4th century BC). Dacian culture presence in southeastern Transylvania

1378-750: A train bound for the Auschwitz concentration camp . Three transports left Marosvásáhely for Auschwitz: on 27 May, 30 May and 8 June 1944; altogether, they carried 7,549 Jews. On 12 September 1944, the Second Vienna Award was voided by the Allied Commission through the Armistice Agreement with Romania, and the Romanian-Soviet forces seized the area in Autumn 1944; however, the Romanian administration

1484-512: Is a historic and ethnographic area in present-day Romania , inhabited mainly by Székelys , a subgroup of Hungarians . Its cultural centre is the city of Târgu Mureș (Marosvásárhely), the largest settlement in the region. Székelys (or Szeklers) live in the valleys and hills of the Eastern Carpathian Mountains , corresponding mostly to the present-day Harghita , Covasna , and parts of Mureș counties in Romania. Originally,

1590-613: Is a list of the most known high schools of each city: Those in italic have the Romanian language as their medium of instruction. The Székely ice hockey team Sport Club of Csíkszereda, with mainly home trained, local players (Székelys), plays simultaneously in the Erste League (Hungarian League) and in the Romanian Ice Hockey Championship. Starting with the 2010/2011 season, the Sport Club ice hockey team participated at

1696-554: Is first recorded on a Roman milliarium discovered in 1758 in the nearby Aiton commune. The legionary fortress established as the basecamp of the Legio V Macedonica from 166 to 274 was named Potaissa too. The city became a municipium , then a colonia . The Potaissa salt mines were worked in the area since prehistoric times. From the reign of Gordian III (238–244) numerous treasures were excavated from Turda, Țaga , Viișoara , and Mărtinești , showing that in this time

1802-508: Is marked by discoveries such as the flagship hoard Sâncrăieni (Harghita county) or Dacian fortresses in Covasna county ( Cetatea Zânelor ) or Jigodin (Harghita county). Dacian Kingdom led by Decebal the Romanian ancestors, was taken after two wars, in 106 AD by the Roman Empire under the emperor Trajan, who began organizing the new Roman province of Dacia. Southeastern Transylvania was included in

1908-628: The Avars . After the Hungarian conquest, the kindred Kalocsa settled here. Their center was called Tordavár ("castle of Torda"), and another important estate was Tordalaka ("home of Torda") as of 1075. The name probably derives from Old Bulgarian *tvьrdъ meaning citadel, fortress. Saxons settled in the area in the 12th century. Much of the town was destroyed during the Tatar invasion in 1241–1242 , however most of its inhabitants survived by hiding in

2014-606: The Calvinist religion, and in 1568 it extended freedom to all religions, declaring that "It is not allowed to anybody to intimidate anybody with captivity or expelling for his religion" – a freedom unusual in medieval Europe. This Edict of Turda is the first attempt at legislating general religious freedom in Christian Europe (though its legal effectiveness was limited). In 1609 Gabriel Báthori granted new privileges to Turda. These were confirmed later by Gabriel Bethlen . In

2120-514: The Cluj Region . Following the administrative reform of 1968, it became part of Cluj County. From the late 1950s, Turda became a rather important industrial centre, housing factories for chemical, electrotechnical ceramics, cement, glass, and steel cables. The nearby Câmpia Turzii town hosted a steel plant. The city centre of Turda saw redevelopment in the late 1980s, including a House of Culture that hasn't been finished up to this date. Many houses in

2226-671: The Habsburg monarchy (later Austrian Empire ), and governed by imperial governors. In 1848 during the Hungarian revolution and freedom war it was declared the reunion of Hungary proper and Transylvania. The Austrian emperor incited the Romanians and Serbians living in Hungary and Transylvania against the Hungarians, promising them some kind of autonomy. In 1867, as a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise , Transylvania become again an integral part of

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2332-781: The Huns from the east pressured most of the German tribes to leave. In the Battle of Nedao the East Germanic Gepids defeated the Huns and founded Gepidia in the territory of present-day Transylvania. This marked the end of the Hunnic Empire . The territory of the Székely Land was part of the Avar Khaganate . During this period, Avar and Slavic groups migrated into Transylvania . From around 900 to 1526

2438-524: The Kingdom of Romania by the Treaty of Trianon of 1920. During the interwar period , the city became the seat of Turda County . In 1944, the Battle of Turda took place here, between German and Hungarian forces on one side and Soviet and Romanian forces on the other. It was the largest battle fought in Transylvania during World War II . After 1950, the city became the headquarters of Turda raion within

2544-519: The Middle Paleolithic , some 60,000 years ago. The Dacians established a town that Ptolemy in his Geography calls Patreuissa , which is probably a corruption of Patavissa or Potaissa , the latter being more common. It was conquered by the Romans , who kept the name Potaissa , between AD 101 and 106, during the rule of Trajan , together with parts of Decebal 's Dacia . The name Potaissa

2650-567: The Transylvanian Saxons settled in the southern and north-eastern regions in the 11th and 12th centuries. In 1224, Andrew II of Hungary granted privileges to the Saxons who inhabited southern Transylvania, putting them under the authority of a royal official, the Count of Hermannstadt , and authorizing them to freely elect their local leaders. After a Saxon rebellion, Charles I of Hungary abolished

2756-526: The voivode was the superior of the ispáns (or heads) of the Transylvanian counties from the late 12th century. A separate royal official, the Count of the Székelys , lead the Hungarian-speaking Székelys from the 1220s. The Székelys had moved from other regions of the kingdom to Transylvania and formed a community of free warriors. Their administrative units were known as " seats " from

2862-452: The 14th century. The seats were headed by elected officials. The Székelys initially held their lands in common. However, disparity between wealthy and poor Székelys grew, enforcing royal legislation to acknowledge the existence of Székely groups of diverse status in 1473. Thereafter, only the wealthiest Székelys fought in the royal army on horse; those who could only fight as foot-soldiers started to lose their political rights. The ancestors of

2968-408: The 2011 official census, 570,033 Hungarians (53.22%) live in the counties of Covasna, Harghita and Mureș (out of a total population of 1,071,890 inhabitants). In Mureș county the Romanians have a slight majority (52.6%), while in the counties of Covasna and Harghita, the Hungarians make up the majority (79.6% and 85.9%). The 2011 census compared to the data of the previous census (2002) also shows that

3074-499: The Count of the Székelys in 1505 established a supreme court for Székely Land . Transylvania was mentioned as a regnum (or realm) in royal charters already in the second half of the 13th century. When writing of the regnum Transylvanum , the royal charters initially referred to the Transylvanian noblemen who formed a closed community "bound together by certain reciprocal rights and duties". The Székely and Saxon communities were included in

3180-453: The Diet made sure that all who had been invited were present. For this purposes, two delegates were required to read out the names of all delegates at the opening of the Diet. The speaker was also responsible for keeping order during the debates. The sessions of the Diets were public, but the Diet could decide to hold a close meeting. In most documented cases, the "propositions" of the monarch about

3286-484: The Diet to pass decrees concerning issues which had not been mentioned in his letter of invitation, the delegates resisted, saying that their instructions did not cover these topics. If the Diet was held in a town other than the prince's seat, the prince came to the town days before the opening of the Diet. The delegates of each Nation or denomination could hold separate meetings before the opening to draft their own proposals on specific issues relating to their community. On

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3392-506: The Diet. The number of these "regalists" was not regulated, but more than twenty noblemen received a personal invitation from the monarch before each Diet. The number of regalists increased: more than 80 noblemen were personally invited to the Diet in 1686. Most regalists were members of the wealthiest noble families. Székely leaders were also personally invited, although the Székely community opposed this practice. According to János Bethlen's notes,

3498-567: The Diets to the fortresses of Fogaras and Radnót (now Făgăraș and Iernut in Romania) in the late 1680s. The delegates received detailed instructions at their appointment. Most instructions concerned local issues (such as trade privileges and conflicts between burghers and noblemen), enabling the delegates to freely discuss general topics. However, they could occasionally refer to the lack of instructions if they did not want to discuss certain subjects. For instance, when Michael I Apafi tried to persuade

3604-638: The Diets, according to historian Zsolt Trócsányi. The bishops of the Orthodox Romanians were certainly notified when the Diet was announced, but their regular presence is not documented. The presence of Catholic prelates is uncertain. János Bethlen recorded that the vicar of the Catholic Diocese of Transylvania was deliberately ignored in 1666, because the Catholic priests had denied to pay taxes. The princes were entitled to invite individuals to attend

3710-517: The Estates to cancel it in 1622. Most Diets assembled in Gyulafehérvár, especially in the 1590s and between 1613 and 1658. Although the town had customarily been the Transylvanian rulers' seat, the delegates preferred Torda, Kolozsvár and Nagyenyed (now Cluj-Napoca and Aiud in Romania), which were located in the central region of the principality. Frequent invasions forced Michael I Apafi to convoke

3816-524: The Forests") was a borderland in the medieval Kingdom of Hungary . The development of royal administration is documented from the second half of the 11th century. The royal castle at Torda (now Turda in Romania) was first mentioned in 1075, the fortress at Küküllő (now Cetatea de Baltă in Romania) in 1177. Most royal castles developed into the seats of counties , which were important administrative units, each named for its center. A high-ranking royal official,

3922-409: The Hungarian census from 1910, the town had 13,455 inhabitants, of which 9,674 were Hungarians, 3,389 Romanians, and 100 Germans. According to the 2011 Romanian census , there were 47,744 people living within the city. Of this population, 84.7% were ethnic Romanians , while 8.98% were ethnic Hungarians , 6.03% ethnic Roma , and 0.4% others. At the 2021 census , Turda had a population of 43,319,

4028-536: The Kingdom of Hungary, within Austria-Hungary . In 1876, a general administrative reform abolished all the autonomous areas in the Kingdom of Hungary and created a unified system of counties. As a result, the autonomy of the Székely Land came to an end as well. Four counties were created in its place: Udvarhely , Háromszék , Csík , and Maros-Torda . (Only half of the territory of Maros-Torda originally belonged to

4134-569: The Roman site, in a similar manner to Apulum and Sirmium . After conquering the place, the Huns settled down near. From this time three solidus were found from graves. Burying with coins was a Gepid tradition not typical of the Huns, meaning that they settled their vassals in Transylvania too. The territory changed hands between the Gepids and Langobards multiple times before both were expelled by

4240-478: The Romanian ethnic ratio in the Székely Land has been decreasing (due to emigration). Târgu Mureș is the home for the largest community of Hungarians in Romania (60,669 in 2011), but the town itself has a Romanian majority (69,702 out of 134,290 inhabitants). Important centers of the Székely Land are Târgu-Mureș ( Marosvásárhely ), Miercurea Ciuc ( Csíkszereda ), Sfântu Gheorghe ( Sepsiszentgyörgy ), and Odorheiu Secuiesc ( Székelyudvarhely ). The following

4346-568: The Romanians adhered to the Orthodox Church. Their administrative units were known as lands or districts. The Romanian districts were initially located in royal estates, but most of them were given away to noblemen or prelates by the end of the Middle Ages, or the local chiefs (or knezes ) achieved the acknowledgement of their ownership from the kings. General assemblies of the noblemen from one or more counties developed into important forums of

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4452-504: The Székely Land became a part of Romania in 1920, in accordance with the Treaty of Trianon . In August 1940, as a consequence of the Second Vienna Award , northern territories of Transylvania , including the Székely Land, were returned to Hungary . Northern Transylvania came under the control of Soviet and Romanian forces in 1944, and were confirmed as part of Romania by the Paris Peace Treaties signed after World War II. Under

4558-590: The Székely Land was held on 28 April 1944; it covered the counties of Csík, Háromszék, Maros-Torda and Udvarhely. The area's Jews were ghettoized in Szászrégen ( Reghin ), Sepsiszentgyörgy ( Sfântu Gheorghe ) and Marosvásárhely. Roundups began on 3 May 1944 and were completed within a week. The Hungarian authorities actively participated in the crimes of the Nazis. The Jews ghettoized at Sepsiszentgyörgy were later sent to Szászrégen, whence on 4 June 1944, 3,149 were boarded on

4664-494: The Székely Land. Those Székely Hungarians who possessed degrees were subjected to resettlement. In March 1990, the city of Târgu Mureș witnessed violent clashes between ethnic Romanian and Hungarian groups. After the fall of communism , many hoped that the former Magyar Autonomous Region , abolished by Nicolae Ceauşescu 's regime, would soon be restored. This did not happen; however, there are Székely autonomy initiatives and further efforts from Székely organisations to reach

4770-551: The Székely Land.) The isolated Aranyosszék became a district of Torda-Aranyos county. In December 1918, in the wake of the First World War , Romanian delegates from throughout Transylvania voted to join the Kingdom of Romania . There was an attempt in Udvarhely to found a "Székely republic" on 9 January 1919; however, its creation was unsuccessful. In 1920, by the Treaty of Trianon , Transylvania along with further territories

4876-456: The Székelys could be convoked by the Count of the Székelys, or by the captain of Udvarhelyszék. The internal issues of the Saxons communities were initially regulated by the assemblies of the Saxon seats and districts. From 1486, the Count of the Saxons presided over the annual general assemblies of the entire community, which consisted of the highest-ranking officials of the seats and districts and elected delegates. The monarchs or on their behalf

4982-592: The Tisza and Transylvania) were represented. The delegates swore fealty to the Zápolyas and acknowledged the sultan's suzerainty . The following similar Diet was held only in 1544, but thereafter the delegates from the Partium were always invited to attend the Diet. Consequently, the Diet of John Sigismund's realm became a legal successor of the medieval Diet of Hungary . Laws could only be enacted and taxes could only be collected with

5088-507: The administration of justice in the entire Kingdom of Hungary in the second half of the 13th century. Noblemen formed the highest level of the society in the Transylvanian counties. The wealthiest nobles owned dozens of villages, but most noble families had only one or two villages, or only a part of a village. They had specific privileges, such as tax exemption (from 1324), and the right to administer justice in their estates (from 1342). Székely chiefs could only seize private landed property in

5194-592: The administrative divisions of Romania—are dissimilar. The exact territory of the present-day Székely Land is not disputed. According to Minahan its territory is approximately 16,943 square kilometres (6,542 sq mi), though the autonomy proposal of the Szekler National Council consists of about 13,000 km . This size is close to the extent of the historical Székely Land, though it does not contain Aranyos Seat . The UDMR 's autonomy project covers

5300-580: The area was under the direct control of the Hungarian state . The Székelys presumably settled in Transylvania in the 12th century from present day Bihar and Bihor counties . Ancient Hungarian legends suggest a connection between the Székelys and Attila's Huns . The origin of the Székely people is still debated. The Székely seats were the traditional self-governing territorial units of the Transylvanian Székelys during medieval times . (Saxons were also organised in seats.) The Seats were not part of

5406-477: The area were drafted into forced labor battalions . For example, 1,200 Jewish males of Marosvásárhely ( Târgu Mureș ) were conscripted between 1941 and 1944; over half died in Ukraine, Poland and Hungary. However, despite discrimination and many casualties, most of the community lived in relative safety until the March 1944 occupation of Hungary by Nazi Germany. A conference devoted to the concentration of Jews in

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5512-511: The army of the voivode, Ladislaus Csáki , in July. Without seeking royal authorization, the vice-voivode convoked the noblemen and the leaders of the Székelys and Saxons to hold a joint assembly at Kápolna (now Căpâlna in Romania). At the meeting, the representatives of the noblemen, Székelys and Saxons concluded a "brotherly union" on 16 September, pledging to provide assistance to each other against their internal and external enemies. The agreement of

5618-543: The assembly. The Diet could also pass a decree ordering the summon of the following Diet, but this happened only exceptionally. The prince or his deputy convened the Diet in a letter, which was in most cases also signed by the chancellor. The letter was posted 2–4 weeks before the opening of the Diet. The appearance at the Diet was obligatory: those who failed were fined 100-200 florins. More than 320 Diets were held from 1571 to 1690, but their annual number fluctuated from year to year. The delegates assembled more frequently during

5724-730: The battle of Turda, Ahmed Pasha defeated George II Rákóczi in 1659. In 1711 the Grand Principality of Translyvania was formed which became in 1804 part of the Austrian Empire . In 1867, by the Austro-Hungarian Compromise , the city became again part of Hungary . After World War I , following the proclamation of the Union of Transylvania with Romania of December 1918 and the Hungarian–Romanian War of 1918–1919, Turda passed under Romanian administration, and then became part of

5830-450: The boundaries of noble estates. The Diets also functioned as a high court of justice, especially in politically motivated cases. Gabriel Bethlen was found guilty of high treason at the Diet in November 1612, but this decision was cancelled at the first Diet of his rule in October 1613. The Diet sentenced Kata Iffjú, the widow of János Imreffy (who had been Gabriel Báthory's chancellor) to death for incest, fornication and witchcraft during

5936-417: The cave system. King Stephen V ensured its quick revival by giving privileges. On 8 January, 1288, Ladislaus IV attended the first national assembly in Torda and recruited an army of Transylvanians to repel the Cuman invasion. He pursued the Cumans back to the border. During this time the Hungarians were the absolute majority in the city. Numerous meetings were held here afterwards. The Hungarian Diet

6042-484: The championships under the name HSC Csíkszereda and that year it won its first Erste League title as well. The team's main achievements so far: The Romanian Championship (fifteen times winner): 1949, 1952, 1957, 1960, 1963, 1997, 2000, 2004, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013. The Romanian Cup (ten times winner): 1950, 1952, 1995, 2001, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2010, 2011, 2014. Pannonian League (one-time winner): 2004. Erste League (one-time winner): 2011. The majority of

6148-426: The concept only after the confirmation of the Union of the Three Nations in 1459. The Tripartitum —the compendium of the customary law of Hungary, completed in 1514—explicitly acknowledged that Transylvania was a separate realm, with her own peculiar customs, but it also emphasized that Transylvania was an integral part of the Kingdom of Hungary. The laws of the Kingdom of Hungary were to be applied in Transylvania and

6254-400: The consent of the Diet, but most Diets were dominated by the monarch's partisans, which secured the imposition of royal will. John Sigismund only renounced the title of king of Hungary in the Treaty of Speyer in 1570. Thereafter he was styled prince of Transylvania , but his successors' right to use the new title was acknowledged by the Habsburg rulers of Royal Hungary only in 1595, during

6360-453: The counties, outside Székely Land . The wealthiest Saxons also attempted to acquire landed property in the counties, outside the jurisdiction of the Saxon communities. Being obliged to render services (primarily of military nature) for the lands that they possessed, the Romanian leaders' position was similar to the status of the " nobles of the Church " and other groups of conditional nobles . Consequently, they were not regarded real nobles, but

6466-406: The county seat, Cluj-Napoca , to which it is connected by the European route E81 , and 6.7 km (4.2 mi) from nearby Câmpia Turzii . The city consists of four neighborhoods: Turda Veche, Turda Nouă, Oprișani, and Poiana. It is traversed from west to east by the Arieș River and north to south by its tributary, Valea Racilor . There is evidence of human settlement in the area dating to

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6572-401: The decisions of the royal courts of justice were also to be obeyed in the province. Unlike the autonomous Kingdom of Croatia , medieval Transylvania was not a separate Land of the Holy Crown of Hungary , it was simply an administrative district, and an integral part of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary. ...[A]lthough the ... Transylvanians have various customs quite different from ours regarding

6678-461: The defense was breaking under the Carps , Goths , Gepids , and Vandals . Objects dated to post-Aurelian retreat found at the site (for example an inscribed onyx gem depicting the Good Shepherd, and silver coins of Diocletian) together with a large burial containing sarcophagi and a cremation stone box point at continuous habitation until the early fifth century. The situation changes in the next two centuries when dwellings and cemeteries superpose

6784-445: The delegates of the Three Nations developed into "Transylvania's foremost representative" assemblies, providing basis for the Transylvanian Diet. The legislative function of the assemblies strengthened in the second half of the 15th century. In 1463, the representatives of the "Three Nations" ordered that the poorest noblemen and the Hungarian peasants should stay behind to defend the province although King Matthias Corvinus had ordered

6890-406: The delegates to take their votes on the issue under discussion. The decisions passed at the Diets were sanctioned by the monarch. The execution of the laws was also a royal prerogative. The princes were elected at the Diets, according to the fundamental laws of the principality. The negotiations preceding a prince's election enabled the Three Nations to secure the issue of a specific charter in which

6996-442: The east of the Tisza on behalf of her infant son, John Sigismund Zápolya , who had already been elected king at the initiative of his father's staunch supporter, George Martinuzzi . Martinuzzi held an assembly for the representatives of the privileged groups of John Sigismund's realm in Debrecen on 18 October 1541. This was the first Diet where both the Three Nations of Transylvania and the counties of Partium (the region between

7102-407: The ensuing civil war, the medieval Kingdom of Hungary was actually divided into two parts, with John Zápolya controlling the eastern regions, including Transylvania. Taking advantage of the turmoil which followed Zápolya's death in 1540, Suleiman conquered the central regions of the kingdom in late summer 1541. However, he allowed Zápolya's widow, Isabella Jagiellon , to continue to rule the lands to

7208-492: The first day of the Diet, the delegates attended a morning worship in a church which was in most cases also the venue of the sessions of the Diets. The sessions could also be held in military camps, or even in a barn in case of emergency. After the morning worship, the delegates sent envoys to the monarch to inform him that they had assembled for the Diet. The princes rarely attended the sessions, but they were represented either by their appointed heirs or lieutenants. The speaker of

7314-408: The following Diet where the successor of John Sigismund was to be elected. However, this was an extremely high number; sporadic data show that each autonomous community dispatched two to eight delegates to most Diets. The speaker of the Diet (or praeses ) held the third most important office in the principality. The speakers and their deputies were almost always appointed by the monarchs. Gábor Haller

7420-478: The future monarch pledged to respect their liberties. However, few monarchs were actually freely elected. For instance, Gabriel Báthory seized the throne with the support of the irregular Hajdú troops in 1608; the delegates elected Gabriel Bethlen "freely in their fear" of Ottoman intervention in 1613, according to the contemporaneous Ferenc Nagy Szabó's sarcastic remark. The Diets performed legislative, administrative and judicial functions. The Diet could authorize

7526-409: The general assembly testified that he had been their lawful owner. Transylvania was regularly raided by Ottoman armies from the 1420s, forcing the monarchs and the local authorities to strengthen the defense of the province. At the initiative of Sigismund of Luxembourg , King of Hungary , the general assembly of the Transylvanian noblemen ordered in 1419 that one third of the noblemen and one tenth of

7632-576: The ground for 65 days each winter. In July and August, the average temperature is approximately 18 °C (64 °F), despite the fact that temperatures sometimes reach 35–40 °C (95–104 °F) in mid-summer in the city centre. Although average precipitation and humidity during summer is low, there are infrequent yet heavy and often violent storms. During spring and autumn, temperatures vary between 13–18 °C (55–64 °F), and precipitation during this time tends to be higher than in summer, with more frequent yet milder periods of rain. According to

7738-697: The historic center were demolished to create space for apartment buildings. The town's role of an industrial powerhouse has diminished from the 1990s onwards, but tourist attractions have kept the city in a good state up to today. Turda has a continental climate, characterised by warm dry summers and cold winters. The climate is influenced by the city's proximity to the Apuseni Mountains , as well as by urbanisation. Some West-Atlantic influences are present during winter and autumn. Winter temperatures are often below 0 °C (32 °F), even though they rarely drop below −10 °C (14 °F). On average, snow covers

7844-497: The historical Székely areas. Hungarian authorities subsequently restored the pre-Trianon structure with slight modifications. Ion Gigurtu 's antisemitic laws, the Romanian version of Nuremberg Laws , were replaced by Hungarian ones. The Jews of the Székely Land were subjected to particularly harsh treatment. These individuals had their citizenship status reviewed, many of them being detained. In Csíkszereda ( Miercurea Ciuc ), dozens of families were rounded up and expelled. The men in

7950-613: The issues of minority rights and regional autonomy. Băsescu stated "The Hungarian minority will never be given territorial autonomy." In 2014, the UDMR and the Hungarian Civic Party had a joint autonomy proposal for the Székely Land, but the Szekler National Council also possessed its own suggestion. In 2016, Hans G. Klemm , the United States Ambassador to Romania , together with other local officials, were pictured with

8056-488: The latter including Gyergyószék ; Covasna County covers more or less the territory of the former Háromszék ; and what was once Maros-Torda is mostly part of present-day Mureș County . The former Aranyosszék is today divided between Cluj and Alba counties. Nicolae Ceaușescu came to power in 1965. For the next couple of decades, due to the Romanianization efforts, a large number of ethnic Romanians settled in

8162-611: The members of the Diets adhered to the Reformed Church in the 17th century. The Saxons represented the Evangelical Church , but the Catholic and Unitarian denominations were in practice reduced to background. Royal counselors, judges of the royal court of justice and other high-ranking royal officials were ex officio members of the Diet. Available data show that the bishops of the Reformed and Evangelical Churches also had seats at

8268-534: The middle of the 14th century. Instead, the voivodes or their deputies held general assemblies for all noblemen from all the counties of the province. The first recorded general meeting of the "nobles of the realm of Transylvania" was held in Keresztes at Torda (now Cristiș in Romania) on 8 June 1288. The assembly authorized the vice-voivode , Ladislaus Borsa, to assist the representative of Peter Monoszló , Bishop of Transylvania , in taking possession of three villages of

8374-427: The military service the Székely provided until the beginning of the 18th century . The medieval Székely Land was an alliance of the seven autonomous Székely seats of Udvarhely , Csík , Maros , Sepsi , Kézdi , Orbai and Aranyos . The number of seats later decreased to five, when Sepsi , Kézdi and Orbai seats were united into one territorial unit called Háromszék (literally Three seats ) . The main seat

8480-422: The monarch could award them with nobility. The ennobled Romanians adopted their Hungarian peers' way of life, but dozens of Romanian noble families remained Orthodox for centuries. In comparison with Hungary proper, the autonomy of the Transylvanian counties was limited, because the voivodes restricted the development of their self-governing bodies. The general assemblies of the Transylvanian counties disappeared in

8586-480: The monarch is also documented, especially in the second half of the 17th century. Turda Turda ( Romanian pronunciation: [ˈturda] ; Hungarian : Torda , Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈtorda] ; German: Thorenburg ; Latin : Potaissa ) is a city in Cluj County , Transylvania , Romania . It is located in the southeastern part of the county, 34.2 km (21.3 mi) from

8692-439: The monarch or the royal council to perform its functions. For instance, Christopher Báthory was authorized to take actions against radical Protestants in 1578. Almost 5,000 decrees were passed in the 16th and 17th centuries. Their analysis evidence that the monarchs dominated the political life of the principality. The delegates almost always accepted the royal propositions concerning taxation and made only one attempt to regulate

8798-439: The name Magyar Autonomous Region , with Târgu Mureș as capital, parts of the Székely Land enjoyed a certain level of autonomy between 8 September 1952 and 16 February 1968. There are territorial autonomy initiatives with the aim to obtain self-governance for this region within Romania. Szekely Land is located in the middle of modern-day Romania, in eastern Transylvania. Its historical extent and present-day boundaries—set by

8904-429: The name Székely Land denoted the territories of a number of autonomous Székely seats within Transylvania . The self-governing Székely seats had their own administrative system, and existed as legal entities from medieval times until the 1870s. The privileges of the Székely and Saxon seats were abolished and seats were replaced with counties in 1876 . Along with Transylvania and eastern parts of Hungary proper ,

9010-405: The office of the Count of Hermannstadt and appointed royal judges to head the Saxon districts in 1324. However, the wealth of the Saxon merchants, who controlled the trade routes towards Wallachia and Moldavia , enabled them to gradually achieve the restoration of their autonomy. In 1486, Matthias Corvinus united the Saxon communities under the leadership of the elected mayor of Hermannstadt, who

9116-586: The payment of man-price and fines and in certain other legal procedures and in the observing of [judicial] terms..., and have the right to use and enjoy these customs, and are allowed, even now, with the [monarch's] consent, to make statues and ordinances among themselves on similar matters; nevertheless, they cannot establish any law and they have no right to make statutes in contravention of general statutes and decrees of this kingdom of Hungary or against sentences and judicial decisions in cases of goods and property rights which are usually made, passed and pronounced in

9222-482: The peasants were to take up arms in case of an Ottoman invasion against the Székely and Saxon territories. New taxes were introduced and the old taxes were increased to cover the costs of defense, which outraged the peasantry. After George Lépes , Bishop of Transylvania , demanded the payment of the tithe that he had failed to collect in the previous years, thousands of Hungarian and Romanian commoners and lesser noblemen took up arms against him in early 1437. They routed

9328-458: The periods of turmoil. For instance, the Diet was convoked more than fifty times between 1594 and 1606 , and more than fifty-five times between 1657 and 1667. According to customary law, the princes were required to hold two Diets in each year. The first Diet of the year was convoked around Saint George's Day (24 April). The second or "short Diet" was customarily held around the feast of Saint Michael (29 September), but Gabriel Bethlen persuaded

9434-438: The presence of minorities in political life being repressed. The election of Hungarians was consistently nullified. The place-names were subjected to Romanianization. The minority languages were excised from official life and the local authorities were mostly led by appointed ethnic Romanians. In 1940, as a result of the Second Vienna Award , Northern Transylvania became part of Hungary again; this territory included most of

9540-473: The provinces of Dacia Porolissensis, Dacia Apulensis and Meuse and fortified with numerous camps such as those at Inlăceni ( Praetoria Augusta) and Sânpaul (Harghita county) Breţcu (Angustia) and Oltenia (Covasna county) or Brâncoveneşti and Călugăreni (Mureș county). After the fall of Roman Dacia , the present-day territory of the Székely Land became part of the Thervingi kingdom " Gutthiuda " . The migration of

9646-414: The reign of Sigismund Báthory . In that year, Báthory joined the anti-Ottoman Holy League of Pope Clement VIII . The Diet was unicameral , with both appointed and elected members. Most Diets were attended by 130-150 persons. The noblemen (the "Hungarian nation") dominated the Diets, but the Székelys' military power and the Saxons' wealth secured the effective protection of their interests. The majority of

9752-400: The reign of Báthory's successor, Gabriel Bethlen in early 1614. The legal cases were heard at specific judicial sessions. The Diets sometimes entered into direct correspondence with foreign powers, but the letters evidence that the support of the monarchs' specific diplomatic acts was the delegates' principal purpose. Correspondence between the Diet and pretenders or other internal opponents of

9858-513: The royal court by justices ordinary. The Ottoman Sultan , Suleiman the Magnificent , annihilated the royal army in the Battle of Mohács on 29 August 1529. Louis II of Hungary died and two candidates laid claim to the vacant throne. The majority of the noblemen elected the voivode of Transylvania, John Zápolya , king, but the wealthiest magnates offered the throne to Louis II's brother-in-law, Ferdinand of Habsburg , Archduke of Austria . During

9964-427: The spending of tax revenues in 1593. They also regularly authorized the monarch to mobilize the general levy . They enacted the state monopolies without significant resistance, although, during the reign of George I Rákóczi , only after lengthy negotiations with the prince. On the other hand, the Diets passed hundreds of decrees about issues of local interest, including the regulation of the quest for runaway serfs or of

10070-446: The three privileged groups gave rise to the idea of the " Union of the Three Nations of Transylvania ", which replaced the previous concept about the three Transylvanian regions (that is, the counties, and the Székely and Saxon seats). The noblemen (including the Székely, Saxon, Romanian nobles who held landed property in the counties) made up the Hungarian nation, but the Hungarian peasants were excluded from this group. The Székelys formed

10176-443: The topics to be discussed were read out soon after the opening of the Diet. Next, the delegates compiled a memorandum to air the grievances of each Nation, asking the prince to remedy their problems. The prince was required to respond each point of the memorandum. If the monarch's answer did not satisfy the delegates, the prince and the Diet started to exchange letters about the debated issues. The correspondence lasted until they reached

10282-456: The traditional Hungarian county system, and their inhabitants enjoyed a higher level of freedom (especially until the 18th century) than those living in the counties . From the 12th and 13th centuries, the Székely Land enjoyed a considerable but varying amount of autonomy, first as a part of the Kingdom of Hungary , then inside the Principality of Transylvania . The autonomy was largely due to

10388-475: The voivodes could also convoke the representatives of all privileged groups of Transylvania to meet at a joint assembly. Andrew III of Hungary was the first king to hold such an assembly for the representatives of the Transylvanian noblemen, Saxons, Székelys and Romanians in early 1291. According to Andrew's charter mentioning the meeting, the king ordered the return of two domains to Ugrin Csák after those who attended

10494-468: The widows of former regalists were customarily also requested to send representatives to the Diets. The counties, Saxon and Székely seats and about twenty towns had the right to send delegates to the Diets. The number of delegates depended of the importance of the issues to be discussed. According to a decree of the Diet which assembled in April 1571, each county and Székely seat had to send ten representatives to

10600-519: Was Udvarhely seat, which was also called the Principal seat ( Latin : Capitalis Sedes ) At Székelyudvarhely (Odorheiu Secuiesc) were held many national assemblies of the Székelys A known exception is the 1554 assembly, which took place at Marosvásárhely (Târgu Mureș) Due to the Ottoman conquest Transylvania became a semi-independent polity. From the end of the 17th century, Transylvania became part of

10706-429: Was created in 1952 under the Soviets' pressure, which encompassed most of the land inhabited by the Székelys. In 1960, the region was renamed to Mureș-Magyar Autonomous Region. It was abolished in 1968, when Romania, following an administrative reform , returned to its traditional local administrative system based on counties . Roughly speaking, present-day Harghita County encompasses the former Udvarhely and Csík ,

10812-449: Was expelled from these territories in October due to the activities of the Romanian paramilitary groups created in the area to avenge the atrocities committed by the Hungarians against the Romanians during the Hungarian rule in Northern Transylvania. For instance, the so-called Iuliu Maniu Guards terrorized the Székely villages, butchered the local Hungarians by axe and hatchet and operated

10918-526: Was held here in 1467, by Matthias Corvinus . Later, in the 16th century, Turda was often the residence of the Transylvanian Diet , too. After the Battle of Mohács , the city became part of the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom and since 1570 the Principality of Transylvania . The 1558 Diet of Turda declared free practice of both the Catholic and Lutheran religions. In 1563 the Diet also accepted

11024-406: Was officially ceded to the Kingdom of Romania . The Romanian language officially replaced Hungarian in the Székely Land, but Székely county boundaries were preserved, and Székely districts were able to elect their own officials at local level and to preserve Hungarian-language education. After 1930, the Romanian authorities began to Romanianize the Hungarian population of the Székely Land, with

11130-420: Was the only speaker who was elected by the delegates in the Diets of 1660 and 1661. In most documented cases, the heads of the royal court of justice presided over the Diets. Most speakers were also royal counselors and heads of a county or a Székely seat. The monarchs had the right to summon the Diets. If the prince was absent and during interregnums, the prince's representative (the voivode or governor) convened

11236-492: Was thereafter known as the Count of the Saxons. The Gesta Hungarorum —a book of debated reliability—stated that Vlachs (or Romanians ) had already been present in Transylvania in the late 9th century. The earliest contemporaneous records evidence that Romanian communities existed in southern Transylvania in the first decade of the 13th century. In contrast with the Roman Catholic Hungarians, Székelys and Saxons,

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