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68-644: In 1526, after the Battle of Mohács , the Kingdom of Hungary was overrun by the Ottomans , but effectively split into 3 parts in 1541 when the Ottomans captured Buda . The Habsburgs got a foothold in the north and west ( Royal Hungary ), with the new capital Pressburg (Pozsony). King John I of Hungary from the Zápolya house, the former voivode of Transylvania and the wealthiest and

136-499: A Patriarchal cross and Árpád stripes , both traditional symbols of the Hungarian nation featured on the coat of arms of Hungary . Battle of Moh%C3%A1cs Ottoman victory Ottoman Empire Mediterranean The Battle of Mohács ( Hungarian: [ˈmohaːt͡ʃ] ; Hungarian : mohácsi csata , Turkish : Mohaç Muharebesi or Mohaç Savaşı) was fought on 29 August 1526 near Mohács , Kingdom of Hungary , between

204-417: A pincer movement , and in the center the Hungarian heavy knights and infantry were repulsed and suffered heavy casualties, especially from the well-positioned Ottoman cannons and well-armed and trained Janissary musketeers. The Hungarians could not hold their positions, and those who did not flee were surrounded and killed or captured. Nearly the entire Hungarian royal army was destroyed in about two hours on

272-502: A breakdown of communication between Louis and his brother-in-law, Archduke Ferdinand. Ferdinand was unaware of the urgency of the situation. To make the matter worse, Louis and the Hungarian court failed to inform him that they had decided to fight a decisive battle on the plain of Mohács (this decision was made on 26 August, one day before Ferdinand's departure: in a conference in Louis's camp in Bata,

340-693: A defensive position. The question was who could force the other to start the attack on the battlefield, that is, to attack positions that could then be defended with cannons and arquebuses. The currently known division of the Hungarian army by arms includes: 3,000 armoured knights from the Hungarian noble banderiums , the king's bodyguard (1,000 armoured knights), 4,500 light cavalry (mainly hussars of Serbian origin), 6,700 mainly Hungarian infantry, 5,300 papal infantry (mainly German Landsknechte , but Italian and Spanish contingents were also represented in smaller numbers) and 1,500 Polish infantry, with an unknown number of artillerymen. Available data do not allow

408-584: A detailed reconstruction of the rest of the army. The geography of the area meant that the Hungarians could not know the Ottomans' ultimate goal until the latter crossed the Balkan Mountains , and when they did, the Transylvanian and Croatian forces were farther from Buda than the Ottomans were. Contemporary historical records, though sparse, indicate that Louis preferred a plan of retreat, in effect ceding

476-501: A law against the export of Hungarian-made arquebuses for the Ottoman Empire. Contrary to popular belief, the Hungarian infantry was so well equipped with arquebuses that, it had an unusually high firepower in a comparison with contemporary Western European standards. Both armies faced a tactical challenge, namely that they could not move their firepower very well. As a result, they were only able to use it effectively if they fired from

544-636: A politically united people. The resulting degradation of order paved the way for Ottoman pre-eminence. King Louis II of Hungary married Mary of Habsburg in 1522. The Ottomans saw this Jagiellonian–Habsburg marital alliance as a threat to their power in the Balkans and worked to break it. After Suleiman I came to power in Constantinople in 1520, the High Porte made the Hungarians at least one and possibly two offers of peace. For unclear reasons, Louis refused. It

612-408: A tactical challenge, namely that they could not move their firepower very well. As a result, they were only able to use them effectively if they fired from a defensive position. The question was who could force the other to start the attack on the battlefield, that is, to attack positions that could then be defended with cannons and arquebuses. Only half of the jannisaries used arquebuses and muskets,

680-613: Is possible that Louis was well aware of Hungary's situation (especially after the Ottomans defeated Persia in the Battle of Chaldiran (1514) and the Polish-Ottoman peace from 1525) and believed that war was a better option than peace. Even in peacetime, the Ottomans raided Hungarian lands and conquered small territories (with border castles), but a final battle still offered Louis a glimmer of hope. Accordingly, another Ottoman–Hungarian war ensued, and in June 1526 an Ottoman expedition advanced up

748-403: Is said to have lamented: "I came indeed in arms against him; but it was not my wish that he should be thus cut off before he scarcely tasted the sweets of life and royalty." The result was catastrophic for the Hungarians, with their lines advancing into withering fire and flank attacks, and falling into the same trap that John Hunyadi had so often used successfully against the Ottomans. Beside

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816-616: The Austrian Empire following the Revolutions of 1848 the traditional counties of Transylvania (including the Partium territories of Zaránd, Kraszna, Közép-Szolnok and Kővár) were abolished and reorganised into five Kreise (districts; literally "circles") in 1851; Zaránd's territory was incorporated into the Kreis of Karlsburg . In 1854 the Kreis system was revised significantly with

884-499: The Croatian count Christoph Frankopan , numbering around 5,000 men. The Ottomans deployed the largest field artillery of the era, comprising some 300 cannons, while the Hungarians had only 85 cannons, though even this number was greater than other contemporary Western European armies deployed on the battlefields during the major conflicts of Western European powers. The number of regular professional paid soldiers ( Kapıkulu ) employed by

952-504: The Danube . In the early 1500s, Vladislav II (ruled 1490–1516), Louis II and Croatian nobles repeatedly asked Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I for help, but during Maximilian's reign, assistance for Hungary remained a plan. After the first chain of fortresses fell however, assessing the threat to his own provinces, Archduke Ferdinand (later Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I ) made a significant effort to help his brother-in-law. When Nándorfehérvár

1020-476: The High Porte throughout the Ottoman Empire did not exceed 15,000–16,000 men in the first third of the 16th century. During this time Suleiman could raise an army between 50,000–60,000 for campaigns. The Ottomans obtained most of the arquebuses for their janissary army from Hungarian and Venetian gunsmiths. This phenomenon was so widespread and severe, that in 1525 the Hungarian Parliament had to pass

1088-568: The House of Habsburg . During the battle, the Ottomans utilised the firearm kneeling position, the first of its kind , with 200 tüfenks ( muskets ) forming "nine consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row" in a "kneeling or standing position without the need for additional support or rest". This method was later adopted by the Chinese , with writer Zhao Shizhen deeming Turkish muskets superior to European ones. Volley fire with matchlocks

1156-633: The Northern Maramureș region of the Zakarpattia Oblast , Ukraine . In present-day Hungarian usage, Partium chiefly refers to the part of the region that lies in Romania. With the support of Hungarian People's Party of Transylvania , which advocates territorial autonomy for Partium, the Council for Autonomy in Partium was created in 2013. The Council approved a new flag for Partium in 2015 composed of

1224-566: The Peace of Nikolsburg in 1621, the Habsburgs restored the religious toleration agreement of 1606 and recognized Transylvanian rule over seven stated Partium counties: Ugocsa , Bereg , Zemplén , Borsod , Szabolcs , Szatmár and Abaúj . These were returned to Habsburg Royal Hungary at Bethlen's death in 1629, but were once again seized by Transylvanian prince George I Rákóczi in 1644 and formally ceded by Habsburg Royal Hungary to Transylvania at

1292-648: The Sava and Drava Rivers. At Mohács the Hungarians numbered some 25,000 to 30,000 soldiers. The only external help was a small contingent of Polish troops (1,500 soldiers and knights) led by the royal captain Lenart Gnoiński (but organized and equipped by the Papal State). The Ottoman army numbered perhaps 50,000, though some contemporary and modern-day historians put the number of the Ottoman troops at 100,000. Most of

1360-565: The Transleithanian part of Austria-Hungary . ( See comitatus system. ) With the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the end of World War I , Partium was split, under the terms of the 1920 Treaty of Trianon , among the successor states of the former Kingdom of Hungary : about 60% became part of Romania , about 20% went to Hungary , and another 20% to Czechoslovakia . The latter part, known as Carpathian Ruthenia ,

1428-466: The arquebuses for their janissary army from Hungarian and Venetian gunsmiths. This phenomenon was so widespread and severe, that in 1525 the Hungarian Parliament had to pass a law against the export of Hungarian-made arquebuses for the Ottoman Empire. Contrary to popular belief, the Hungarian infantry was so well equipped with arquebuses that, it had an unusually high firepower in a comparison with contemporary Western European standards. Both armies faced

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1496-615: The 16th century Zaránd was part of the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom and later the Partium territories of the Principality of Transylvania . It returned to Habsburg Hungary in 1699. In 1744 most of the western territory of Zaránd County, including its capital Zaránd/ Zărand , was transferred to Arad County ; Körösbánya/ Baia de Criș became the capital of the new rump county. During a period of significant administrative reform in

1564-509: The Balkans. As the first of Suleiman's troops, the Rumelian army, advanced onto the battlefield, they were attacked and routed by Hungarian troops led by Pál Tomori. This attack by the Hungarian right caused considerable chaos among the irregular Ottoman troops, but even as the Hungarian attack pressed forward, the Ottomans rallied with the arrival of Ottoman regulars deployed from the reserves. While

1632-584: The Battle of Bicocca (1522), King Francis I of France tried – unsuccessfully – to ally himself with King Sigismund I of Poland . The Hungarian royal court also rejected the French offer. However, John Zápolya, the Voivode of Transylvania , showed a willingness to cooperate with the French, although the formal treaty was not signed until 1528. King Francis I of France was defeated at the Battle of Pavia on 24 February 1525 by

1700-581: The European princes for help, but only King Henry VIII of England offered aid (which arrived only in 1527 to Queen Mary of Hungary in Pozsony) and the Pope offered 50,000 gold pieces, while neither Charles V nor Ferdinand Habsburg (Archduke of Austria, the Hungarian king's brother-in-law) did anything. The fact is that the Habsburgs' armies were still on the battlefields of Italy. The general apathy that had characterized

1768-578: The Habsburg pressure on France, in 1525 Francis asked Suleiman to make war on the Holy Roman Empire, and the road from Turkey to the Holy Roman Empire led across Hungary. The request of the French king coincided well with the ambitions of Suleiman in Europe and gave him an incentive to attack Hungary in 1526, leading to the Battle of Mohács. At the news of the war, the young King Louis II of Hungary appealed to

1836-461: The Hungarian hand cannon "Szakállas puska" in the 15th century. Hungary had a long tradition of unusually extensive use of handheld firearms ( arquebus ) as early as the 15th century, for example in the famous Black Army of the late ruler King Matthias Corvinus (r. 1458 - 1490). The Hungarians abandoned the use of the bow and crossbow completely in the last decade of the 15th century and switched entirely to firearms. The Ottomans obtained most of

1904-488: The Hungarian right advanced far enough at one time to place Suleiman in danger from Hungarian bullets that struck his cuirass , the superiority of the Ottoman regulars and the timely charge of the Janissaries overwhelmed the attackers, particularly on the Hungarian left. The Hungarians took serious casualties from the skillfully handled Turkish artillery and musket volleys. The Hungarian army was surrounded by Ottoman cavalry in

1972-543: The Ottoman Balkan forces registered before this battle were described as Bosnians or Croats. The Hungarian army was arrayed to take advantage of the terrain and hoped to engage the Ottoman army piecemeal. They had the advantage that their troops were well-rested, while the Turks had just completed a strenuous march in scorching summer heat. The earliest type of Turkish hand cannons are called as "Şakaloz", which word came from

2040-618: The Ottomans organised a new vilayet . During the Great Turkish War , as Ottoman occupied Hungary was conquered by the Habsburgs , the principality was also absorbed into the Habsburg monarchy in 1687 ( de facto ) / 1699 (by treaty with the Ottomans ). The Principality of Transylvania continued as a separate entity from the Kingdom of Hungary within the Habsburg domain. The status of the Partium

2108-495: The Partium between 1621-1629 and 1645-1648. All of Transylvania was at the time under permanent threat of being overrun by both Habsburgs and Ottomans . After the disastrous Transylvanian intervention in the Deluge , Ottoman troops invaded Transylvania in 1658-1661. In this war, Transylvania lost many of its border regions: most of Szörény, Arad, Zaránd and Bihar counties, including the important city of Várad (Oradea), around which

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2176-596: The Principality of Transylvania which included Partium. For some decades during the 17th century Partium was part of the Principality of Transylvania , and consequently a part of the Ottoman Empire . On 5 September 1619, the prince of Transylvania, Gabriel Bethlen captured Kassa (now Košice ) in Partium Abaúj County with the assistance of the future George I Rákóczi in another anti-Habsburg insurrection. By

2244-643: The Treaty of Linz (1645). Initially, Partium consisted of the counties of Máramaros , Közép-Szolnok  [ de ] , Kraszna , and Bihar , Zaránd , Arad , Szörény  [ de ] as well as the Kővárvidék . These territories were ruled by Transylvania, but were not formally part of the Principality (later Grand Principality ) of Transylvania, and so the name Partium was coined. Seven additional counties (Borsod, Abaúj, Zemplén, Szabolcs, Bereg, Ugocsa and Szatmár) were briefly ceded to Transylvania and thus

2312-630: The Turks advanced up the Danube River and took Nándorfehérvár (present-day Belgrade , Serbia ) – the strongest Hungarian fortress on the Danube – and Szabács (now Šabac , Serbia). This left most of southern Hungary indefensible. The loss of Nándorfehérvár caused great alarm in Hungary. On October 18, 1523, the Hungarian aristocrats united for the recapture of Belgrade, pledging funds that would support an army of 60,000 troops and 100 cannons—an undertaking that

2380-469: The Zápolya held Partium before, but the treaty allowed them to do this without fear that the Habsburgs would contest the house of Zápolya 's lordship. In a sense, Zápolya traded title for territory. The Eastern Hungarian Kingdom ceased to exist, and became simply the Principality of Transylvania . All rulings after 1570 as King of Hungary refer to the territory known as "Royal Hungary", and as Prince refer to

2448-447: The aid funds he had brought, arguing that: "if the Hungarians were capable of assembling such an enormous force, then they had no need for the money." The huge 60,000-strong royal army – led by the king, but recruited too late and too slowly – neglected to take food along and bad organization of logistics. Therefore, the army disbanded spontaneously under pressure from hunger and disease without even trying to recapture Belgrade from

2516-538: The approaching danger, did not immediately heed their king's call for troops. Eventually, the Hungarians assembled in three main units: the Transylvanian army under John Zápolya , charged with guarding the passes in the Transylvanian Alps , with between 8,000 and 13,000 men; the main army, led by Louis himself (beside numerous Spanish, German, Czech, and Serbian mercenaries); and another smaller force, commanded by

2584-552: The battlefield. During the retreat, the twenty-year-old king died when he fell backwards off his horse while trying to ride up a steep ravine of the Csele stream. He fell into the stream and, weighed down by his armor, was unable to stand up, and drowned. Suleiman the Magnificent expressed regret at the death of his young adversary. Upon encountering the lifeless body of King Louis, the Sultan

2652-597: The chancellor Stephen Brodarics advised the king to wait for reinforcements from Austria and Bohemia, but a group of impetuous nobles managed to persuade the king to engage in an open, immediate battle on the plains of Mohacs against the numerically superior Ottomans). Ferdinand, facing religious tensions and uprisings in his own lands as well as his brothers' requests for more troops for other theaters, decided to tend to what he thought to be more urgent affairs first. According to Stephen Fischer-Galati, that literature shows that Louis himself seemed to be unable to fully understand

2720-401: The country forced Tomori to lean on his own bishopric revenues when he started to repair and reinforce the second line of Hungary's border defense system. ( Pétervárad would fall to the Turks on July 15, 1526, due to the chronic lack of castle garrisons.) Three years later, an Ottoman army set out from Constantinople on 16 April 1526, led by Suleiman the Magnificent personally. The Danube River

2788-401: The country to Ottoman advances, rather than directly engaging the Ottoman army in open battle. The Hungarian war council – without waiting for reinforcements from Croatia and Transylvania only a few days march away – made a serious tactical error by choosing the battlefield near Mohács, an open but uneven plain with some swampy marshes. Fichtner writes that before the Battle of Mohács, there was

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2856-689: The country's ability to defend itself. Vladislaus became the magnates ' helpless "prisoner"; he could make no decision without their consent. Europe's largest standing mercenary army (the Black Army ) of Matthias Corvinus was dissolved by the aristocracy. The magnates also dismantled the national administration systems and bureaucracy throughout the country. The country's defenses sagged as border-guards and castle garrisons went unpaid, fortresses fell into disrepair, and initiatives to increase taxes to reinforce defenses were stifled. Hungary's international role declined, its political stability shaken; social progress

2924-516: The forces of the Kingdom of Hungary and its allies, led by Louis II , and those of the Ottoman Empire , led by Suleiman the Magnificent . The Ottoman victory led to the partition of Hungary for several centuries between the Ottoman Empire, the Habsburg monarchy , and the Principality of Transylvania . Further, the death of Louis II as he fled the battle marked the end of the Jagiellonian dynasty in Hungary and Bohemia, whose dynastic claims passed to

2992-437: The king, some 1,000 other Hungarian nobles and leaders were also killed. It is generally accepted that more than 14,000 Hungarian soldiers were killed in the initial battle. Suleiman could not believe that this small, suicidal army was all that the once powerful country could muster against him, so he waited at Mohacs for a few days before moving cautiously against Buda. On 31 August, 2,000 Hungarian prisoners were massacred on

3060-405: The late most serene king John of Hungary, Dalmatia, Croatia, etc., by the grace of God prince of Transylvania and parts of the Kingdom of Hungary), from which derives the name Partium. This treaty, like the earlier Nagyvárad accord, endorsed the principle of a united Hungary. Partium and Transylvania were entrusted to John II Sigismund , but under the title of imperial prince . As mentioned above,

3128-576: The most modest parish had to turn to the merchants of Augsburg." The Fugger family controlled the distribution of the Roman Catholic Church's indulgences , which, among other reasons, soon led to an international scandal and then to strong social unrest. After 1517, European public opinion became increasingly preoccupied and divided by the Reformation launched by Martin Luther. The religious upheaval

3196-574: The most powerful landlord after Mohács, secured the eastern part of the Kingdom (referred to as Eastern Hungarian Kingdom by Hungarian scholars) with the help of the Ottomans. On 29 February 1528, the sultan assented to an alliance with Zápolya and gave written assurance of his support. From 1541 or 1542, the house of Zápolya also controlled the region that after 1571 became known as Partium. In 1570, John II Sigismund Zápolya , son of John I Zápolya renounced his claim as King of Hungary (1540-1570) in favour of Maximilian II of Habsburg , who also claimed

3264-414: The need for additional support or rest". This method was later adopted by the Chinese , with writer Zhao Shizhen deeming Turkish muskets superior to European ones. Volley fire with matchlocks was also first used in this battle by Janissaries . The Ottomans deployed the largest field artillery of the era, comprising some 300 cannons, while the Hungarians had only 85 cannons, though even this number

3332-483: The newly installed Turkish garrisons. In 1523, Archbishop Pál Tomori , a valiant priest-soldier, was made captain of Southern Hungary. In Europe, especially in Germany, negative trends had started to unfold. The Fuggers, who had taken control of the finances, "by around 1503 had a veritable monopoly of 'favoritism' in Germany, Hungary, Poland and Scandinavia, to the extent that any priest who wanted to get access to even

3400-406: The nobility. Thus the king tried to stabilize his new reign and preserve his popularity among the magnates. Given the naive fiscal and land policy of the royal court, the central power began to experience severe financial difficulties, largely due to the enlargement of feudal lands at royal expense. The noble estate of the parliament succeeded in reducing their tax burden by 70–80%, at the expense of

3468-417: The notoriously weak-willed King Vladislaus of Bohemia , who reigned as King Vladislaus II of Hungary from 1490 to 1516. He was known as King Dobře (or Dobzse in Hungarian orthography), meaning "all right", for his habit of accepting, without question, every petition and document laid before him. The freshly-elected King Vladislaus II donated most of the Hungarian royal estates, régales , and royalties to

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3536-553: The orders of the Sultan. Zar%C3%A1nd County Zaránd County ( Hungarian : Zaránd vármegye , Latin : Comitatus Zarandiensis ) was an administrative unit of the Kingdom of Hungary and the Principality of Transylvania from the middle ages until 1876. Located mainly in the Fehér-Körös/ Crișul Alb river valley, today its former territory lies mostly in Romania , with a small amount in south-eastern Hungary . In

3604-408: The other half still belonged to the traditional archery. The Ottomans have no numerical superiority regarding to handheld firearms during the battle of Mohács. During the battle, the Ottomans utilised the firearm kneeling position, the first of its kind , with 200 tüfenks ( muskets ) forming "nine consecutive rows and they fired their weapons row by row" in a "kneeling or standing position without

3672-559: The previously five Kreise becoming ten; Zaránd's territory became part of the new Kreis of Broos . The pre-1848 counties, including Zaránd, were restored in 1860. Zaránd county was finally permanently dissolved as part of the 1876 administrative reform in the Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen ; most of its territory became part of Hunyad County as the Körösbánya and Brád districts, with

3740-532: The return of the Partium multiple times (1741, 1792, 1836), but it was never enacted until the Revolution of 1848. On May 29, 1848 all of Transylvania, alongside the Partium was unified with Hungary. After the fall of the revolution, the Partium was again part of a separately administered Transylvania. In 1867, at the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 , the Partium territories were incorporated into

3808-648: The seriousness or immediacy of the Turkish threat. It was possible that Louis based his confidence on the assurances of John Zápolya and his supporters, who promised to help. Magnates who feared Habsburg interference desired a total Hungarian effort to either contain (militarily or diplomatically) or reach a truce with the Porte. The Ottomans had advanced toward Mohács almost unopposed. While Louis waited in Buda, they had besieged several towns ( Petervarad , Ujlak , and Eszek ), and crossed

3876-476: The title since 1563. Instead John II Sigismund Zápolya remained Prince of Transylvania between 1570 and 1571. In 1570, by the Treaty of Speyer (Spires), John II Sigismund , John I's son, abdicated as king of Hungary, and a new dukedom was invented for him: "Joannes, serenissimi olim Joannis regis Hungariae, Dalmatiae, Croatiae etc. filius, Dei gratia princeps Transsylvaniae ac partium regni Hungariae" (John, son of

3944-492: The troops of the Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V . After several months in prison, Francis I was forced to sign the Treaty of Madrid . In a watershed moment in European diplomacy, Francis formed a formal Franco-Ottoman alliance with Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent as an ally against Charles V. The French-Ottoman strategic, and sometimes tactical, alliance lasted for about three centuries. To relieve

4012-489: The unified leadership that the ban had held until that time. Alfred Kohler opines that the coordination effort attempted by Ferdinand, Mary and Louis failed because the young Hungarian king showed a lack of vigour, which was also recognized by Hungarian nobles. Mary, on the other hand, was much more decisive and vigorous, but the non-Hungarian advisors she relied on created distrust. The Hungarians had long opposed Ottoman expansion in southeastern Europe, but in 1521

4080-407: Was also first used in this battle by Janissaries . It has been argumented that the size of the Ottoman army was the main reason for the defeat of the well-armed Hungarian army, which could not withstand an enemy three times its size. After the death of the absolutist King Matthias Corvinus in 1490, the Hungarian magnates , who did not want another heavy-handed king, procured the accession of

4148-408: Was an extremely important transport route for the Ottoman army in the region, so it was clear to everyone that the Ottoman army would follow the line of the Danube. For about 400 km (250 mi) along the banks of the Danube between Pétervárad and Buda there was no single Hungarian fortification, town, or even a village of any sort. The Hungarian nobles, who still did not realize the magnitude of

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4216-410: Was an unprecedentedly huge and costly military force by contemporary European standards. The opinion of the papal legate in the Hungarian royal court, January of 1524 I note that by raising an army of 60,000, the Hungarian government effectively scored an 'own goal', losing numerous financial supporters from Western Europe. Even the papal legate, by the end of January 1524, denied the disbursement of

4284-418: Was being besieged, he summoned his estates and proposed sending troops to Hungary. In the end, 2,000 German infantry troops were sent. From 1522 to the 1526 defeat at Mohács, field troops from Austria frequently arrived but were not placed into fortresses at the border as regular garrisons yet. Even though this military aid purportedly strengthened this area of the border, it had the undesired effect of dissolving

4352-682: Was ceded to the Soviet Union after World War II , becoming part of the Ukrainian SSR ; since 1991 it has belonged to Ukraine . The Romanian part roughly corresponds to the Crişana and partly Banat regions of Romania . The Hungarian part corresponds to the Hajdú-Bihar county, and small parts of the Szabolcs-Szatmár-Bereg and Békés counties of Hungary . The Ukrainian part corresponds to

4420-746: Was compounded by the German Peasants' War of 1524–1526, which mobilised considerable forces and, in addition to the material damage, caused more than 100,000 deaths. Between 1521 and 1526, the Western European powers were preoccupied with the current episode of the Italian wars (which lasted from 1494 to 1559, with minor interruptions). France first sought allies in Eastern Europe against Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. French envoy Antonio Rincon visited Poland and Hungary several times between 1522 and 1525. After

4488-412: Was deadlocked. The arrival of Protestantism further worsened internal relations in the country. In 1514, the weakened and old King Vladislaus II faced a major peasant rebellion led by György Dózsa , which was ruthlessly crushed by the nobles , led by John Zápolya . After the Dózsa Rebellion, the brutal suppression of the peasants greatly aided the 1526 Turkish invasion as the Hungarians were no longer

4556-473: Was disputed between Hungary and Transylvania, taxed by the former but administered by the latter. This situation was resolved on December 31, 1732, when Máramaros and most of Zaránd county (merged to Arad county) was fully granted to Hungary, while Közép-Szolnok, Kraszna counties, Kővárvidék and the eastern rump of Zaránd was granted to Transylvania. Between 1732 and 1848 this smaller area was continued to be described as Transylvania. The Hungarian nobility demanded

4624-475: Was greater than other contemporary Western European armies deployed on the battlefields during the major conflicts of Western European powers. The Hungarian deployment for battle consisted of two lines. The first had a center of mercenary infantry and artillery and the majority of the cavalry on either flank. The second was a mix of levy infantry and cavalry. The rest of the Ottoman force consisted of feudal Timarli cavalry and conscripted levies from Rumelia and

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