97-471: Arnold Joseph Toynbee CH FBA ( / ˈ t ɔɪ n b i / ; 14 April 1889 – 22 October 1975) was an English historian, a philosopher of history , an author of numerous books and a research professor of international history at the London School of Economics and King's College London . From 1918 to 1950, Toynbee was considered a leading specialist on international affairs ; from 1929 to 1956 he
194-640: A Christian moralist than of a historian. In his 2011 article for the Journal of History titled "Globalization and Global History in Toynbee," historian Michael Lang wrote: Toynbee's work, however, continues to be referenced by some classical historians, because "his training and surest touch is in the world of classical antiquity." His roots in classical literature are also manifested by similarities between his approach and that of classical historians such as Herodotus and Thucydides . Comparative history , in which his work
291-421: A despotic minority. According to an Editor's Note in an edition of Toynbee's A Study of History, Toynbee believed that societies always die from suicide or murder rather than natural causes; and nearly always the former. He sees the growth and decline of civilizations as a spiritual process, writing that "Man achieves civilization, not as a result of superior biological endowment or geographical environment, but as
388-455: A detailed annual overview of international relations, the survey's primary role was 'to record current international history'. The survey continued until 1963 and was well received throughout the Institution, coming to be known as 'the characteristic external expression of Chatham House research: a pioneer in method and a model for scholarship.' In 1926, 14 members of Chatham House represented
485-425: A meeting may discuss the content of this meeting in the outside world, but may not discuss who attended nor identify what a specific individual said. The Chatham House Rule evolved to facilitate frank and honest discussion on controversial or unpopular issues by speakers who may not have otherwise had the appropriate forum to speak freely. However, most meetings at Chatham House are held on the record rather than under
582-687: A number of pro- Allied propaganda leaflets. He served as a delegate to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, where he helped shape the Treaty of Sèvres . He was present at the meeting at the Hotel Majestic when Lionel Curtis proposed the formation of an Institute of International Affairs, resulting in the formation of Chatham House in London and The Council on Foreign Relations in New York. Following
679-704: A project promoting opposition to the Venezuelan government of Nicholas Maduro . After Juan Guaidó failed to replace Maduro as president, Sabatini said "The current strategy on Venezuela hasn't worked, so we have to try something else. The Guaidó government was a failure but it did provide a rallying point which no longer exists". In 2015, several reports were published by Chatham House, including Nigeria's Booming Borders: The Drivers and Consequences of Unrecorded Trade , which urges formalising trade and driving more sustainable and less volatile growth; Changing Climate, Changing Diets: Pathways to Lower Meat Consumption examines
776-914: A public health crisis. In 2016, Chatham House published Elite Perceptions of the United States in Latin America and the Post-Soviet States , examining how elites in Latin America and the former Soviet Union view the United States, and providing recommendations on how the US could adjust its policies based on these perceptions. 2017 reports included The Struggle for Ukraine , an exploration of, four years after its Euromaidan revolution, Ukraine's fight for survival as an independent and viable state; Chokepoints and Vulnerabilities in Global Food Trade advocates for policymakers to take immediate action to mitigate
873-530: A reduction in global meat consumption as critical to keeping global warming below the "danger level" of two degrees Celsius; Heat, Light and Power for Refugees: Saving Lives, Reducing Costs examines the reasons why energy provision to displaced people undermines the fundamental humanitarian aims of assistance; and Towards a New Global Business Model for Antibiotics: Delinking Revenues from Sales argued for revenues for pharmaceutical companies to be de-linked from sales of antibiotics to avoid their over-use and avert
970-458: A response to a challenge in a situation of special difficulty which rouses him to make a hitherto unprecedented effort." Named after Arnold J. Toynbee, the [Toynbee Prize] Foundation was chartered in 1987 'to contribute to the development of the social sciences , as defined from a broad historical view of human society and of human and social problems.' In addition to awarding the Toynbee Prize,
1067-443: A scholarship to Oxford University, he read literae humaniores (i.e. classics ) at Balliol College, Oxford . Early in Toynbee's degree, his father suffered a nervous collapse and was institutionalised , causing financial difficulties for the family. Regardless, Toynbee achieved first class honours in mods and in greats and graduated with a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree. From 1911 to 1912, he toured Italy and Greece to study
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#17328546951651164-639: A secularised West. A heated debate ensued, and an editorial in The Times promptly attacked Toynbee for treating communism as a "spiritual force". Toynbee was a leading analyst of developments in the Middle East. His support for Greece and hostility to the Turks during World War I had gained him an appointment to the Koraes Chair of Modern Greek and Byzantine History at King's College, University of London . However, after
1261-537: A series of events and initiatives such as the SNF CoLab, the Common Futures Conversations project, and the introduction of a panel of young advisers, plus three Chatham House Centenary Awards for Sir David Attenborough , Melina Abdullah and Greta Thunberg . In April 2022, Russia designated Chatham House as an " undesirable organisation ". Christopher Sabatini, a senior fellow at Chatham House, leads
1358-460: A society capable of carrying out large-scale irrigation projects; or social, as when the Catholic Church resolved the chaos of post-Roman Europe by enrolling the new Germanic kingdoms in a single religious community. When civilisations responded to challenges, they grew; but they disintegrated when their leaders stopped responding creatively, sinking into nationalism, militarism, and the tyranny of
1455-515: Is awarded every other year for work that makes a significant contribution to the study of global history. The recipients have been Raymond Aron , Lord Kenneth Clark , Sir Ralf Dahrendorf , Natalie Zemon Davis , Albert Hirschman , George Kennan , Bruce Mazlish , J. R. McNeill , William McNeill , Jean-Paul Sartre , Arthur Schlesinger, Jr. , Barbara Ward , Lady Jackson , Sir Brian Urquhart , Michael Adas , Christopher Bayly , and Jürgen Osterhammel . Companion of Honour The Order of
1552-407: Is known as Chatham House. It is a Grade I listed 18th-century building that was designed in part by Henry Flitcroft and was occupied by three British prime ministers, including William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham , whose name became associated with the house. Canadian philanthropists Lieutenant-Colonel Reuben Wells Leonard and Kate Rowlands Leonard purchased the property in 1923 and then donated
1649-487: Is often categorised, has been in the doldrums. Toynbee is thanked in the acknowledgment section of Mark Lane 's Rush to Judgment (1966), which critiques the official explanation of the assassination of John F. Kennedy , for having been "kind enough to read the manuscript and make suggestions" to the book. While the writing of the Study was underway, Toynbee produced numerous smaller works and served as Director of Studies of
1746-647: Is the Sovereign of the Order of the Companions of Honour, and a maximum of 65 members. Additionally, foreigners or Commonwealth citizens from outside the Commonwealth realms may be added as honorary members. Members are organised into a single class and are appointed by the monarch of the Commonwealth realms in their capacity as sovereign of the order. While membership of the order confers no title or precedence , those inducted into
1843-565: The Commonwealth 's new political stature, in light of growing calls for decolonisation and the development of the Cold War . A board of studies in race relations was created in 1953, allowing for the close examination of changing attitudes and calls for racial equality throughout the world. The group broke off into an independent charity in 1958, forming the Institute of Race Relations . Following
1940-599: The Cuban Missile Crisis and Brazilian coup d'état , the institute developed a growing focus on the Latin American region. Che Guevara , then Cuba 's Minister of Industry, wrote an analysis of 'The Cuban Economy: Its Past and Present Importance' in 1964 for International Affairs . Chatham House played a more direct role in the international affairs of the Cold War through the October 1975 Anglo-Soviet round-table,
2037-469: The Journal of Cyber Policy since 2016. It has also published a monthly global affairs magazine, The World Today , since 1945. The Royal Institute of International Affairs originated in a meeting, convened by Lionel Curtis , of the American and British delegates to the Paris Peace Conference on 30 May 1919. Curtis had long been an advocate for the scientific study of international affairs and, following
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#17328546951652134-575: The United Kingdom at the first conference of the Institute of Pacific Relations , a forum dedicated to the discussion of problems and relations between Pacific nations. The IPR served as a platform for the institute to develop a political and commercial awareness of the region, with special focus being placed upon China's economic development and international relations. In the same year the Institute received its royal charter , thereupon being known as
2231-644: The United Nations and the International Monetary Fund . Combining this with the institute's early support of the League of Nations and impact of the gold study on the Bretton Woods system , Chatham House found itself to be a leading actor in international political and economic redevelopment. In reaction to the changing post-war world, Chatham House embarked on a number of studies relating to Britain and
2328-442: The gold standard two years later. Around this time Chatham House became known as the place for leading statesmen and actors in world affairs to visit when in London; notably, Mahatma Gandhi visited the institute on 20 October 1931, in which he delivered a talk on "The Future of India". The talk was attended by 750 members, making it the institute's largest meeting up to that point. In 1933 Norman Angell , whilst working within
2425-573: The 1940s and 1950s. Toynbee was born on 14 April 1889 in London , England, to Harry Valpy Toynbee (1861–1941), secretary of the Charity Organization Society , and his wife Sarah Edith Marshall (1859–1939). His mother took the equivalent of an undergraduate degree in English history at Cambridge University, when higher education for women was unusual and before women were allowed to graduate from
2522-616: The Chairman) at Oxford until 1941 when Ivison Macadam took over the role from Curtis. There were four deputy directors. The four Deputy Directors were Alfred Zimmern , George N. Clark , Herbert J. Patton and Charles K. Webster and a number of experts in its nineteen divisions. It was moved to the Foreign Office 1943–46. While on a visit in Berlin in 1936 to address the Law Society, Toynbee
2619-561: The Chatham House Rule. Chatham House research is structured around five thematic programmes, comprising: environment and society; global economy and finance; global health security; international law; and international security; as well as seven regional programmes, covering Africa, the Asia-Pacific region, Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, Russia and Eurasia, the USA and Americas and
2716-557: The Companions of Honour is an order of the Commonwealth realms . It was founded on 4 June 1917 by King George V as a reward for outstanding achievements. It was founded on the same date as the Order of the British Empire . The order was originally intended to be conferred upon a limited number of persons for whom this special distinction seemed to be the most appropriate form of recognition, constituting an honour dissociated from either
2813-534: The Energy and Research Programme and the International Economics Programme, formed in 1980 - 1981. In addition to reshaping its research practices, the institute also sought to strengthen its international network, notably amongst economically prosperous nations. For example, Chatham House's Far East programme, created with the intention of improving Anglo-Japanese relations in the long and short term,
2910-599: The Foreign Office, and in 1917 he published a memorandum with his colleague Lewis Namier which supported exclusive Jewish political rights in Ottoman Palestine. He expressed support for Jewish immigration to Palestine , which he believed had "begun to recover its ancient prosperity" as a result. Historian Isaiah Friedman felt Toynbee had been influenced by the Palestine Arab delegation which was visiting London in 1922. His subsequent writings reveal his changing outlook on
3007-631: The Foreign Press and Research Service of the Institute worked closely with the Foreign Office to provide intelligence for and to work closely with the Foreign Office dedicating their research to the war effort under the Chairmanship of Waldorf Astor . The formal remit of Chatham House for the FPRS at Balliol was: 1. To review the press overseas. 2. To “produce at the request of the Foreign Office, and
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3104-614: The German National Socialists' account might be, not that they had exterminated a majority of the Western Jews, but that they had caused the surviving remnant of Jewry to stumble." In 1971 and '73, Toynbee met and corresponded with Daisaku Ikeda , president of the Soka Gakkai International . Their dialogue was later edited and presented in the form of a book, Choose Life . The handsome payment he received from
3201-576: The Institute announced its Academy for Leadership in International Affairs, offering potential and established world leaders a 12-month fellowship at the institution with the aim of providing "a unique programme of activities and training to develop a new generation of leaders in international affairs." In November 2014, The Queen formally launched the academy under the title of the "Queen Elizabeth II Academy for Leadership in International Affairs." The Institute celebrated its centenary in 2020 with
3298-493: The Institute in 1938. These additional properties provided much needed additional space for the institute's activities. 1929 also saw the inception of the institute's special study group on the international gold problem. The group, which included leading economists such as John Maynard Keynes , conducted a three-year study into the developing economic issues which the post-war international monetary settlement created. The group's research anticipated Britain's decision to abandon
3395-475: The Institute in an attempt to develop their international and political awareness as well as post war reconstruction planning. Chatham House had been researching potential post-war issues as early as 1939 through the Committee on Reconstruction. Whilst a number of staff returned to the Institute at the end of the war, a proportion of members found themselves joining a range of international organisations, including
3492-543: The Institute quickly focused upon Edward Grey's resolution, with the 1920s proving an active decade at Chatham House. The journal International Affairs was launched in January 1922, allowing for the international circulation of the various reports and discussions which took place within the institute. After being appointed as Director of Studies, Professor Arnold Toynbee produced the institute's annual Survey of International Affairs until his retirement in 1955. While providing
3589-512: The Middle East and North Africa examines the common economic factors that continue to drive conflict in Iraq, Libya, Syria and Yemen. And Kazakhstan: Tested by Transition examines if the country can pursue modernisation and reform, and break from its authoritarian past. In 2020 and 2021, there were reports on The Business Case for Investment in Nutrition claiming to be the first of its kind to reveal
3686-520: The Paris Agreement on climate change, and Artificial Intelligence and International Affairs arguing the rise of AI must be better managed in the near term in order to mitigate longer term risks and to ensure that AI does not reinforce existing inequalities. 2019 saw three major reports produced. The UK and Japan makes the case that a stronger relationship could advance each country's ability to address shared global concerns. Conflict Economies in
3783-683: The Royal Institute of International Affairs, Chatham House, (from 1929-1956). He also retained his position at the London School of Economics until his retirement in 1956. Toynbee worked for the Political Intelligence Department of the British Foreign Office during World War I and served as a delegate to the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. He was Director of Studies at Chatham House from 1929 to 1956. Toynbee
3880-402: The Royal Institute of International Affairs. The Charter set out the aims and objectives of the institute, which were to "advance the sciences of international politics... promote the study and investigation of international questions by means of lectures and discussion... promote the exchange of information, knowledge and thought on international affairs." The year 1929 marked the next stage in
3977-528: The Service and other Departments, memoranda giving the historical and political background on any given situation on which information is desired”. 3. “To provide information on special points desired" (in regards to each country). It provided various reports on foreign press, historical and political background of the enemy and various other topics. Many eminent historians served on the FPRS under Arnold J. Toynbee as its Director and with Lionel Curtis (represented
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4074-585: The Theater G-5 officer (Civil-Military Affairs), MG Ray W. Barker . Research facilities were opened to refugee and allied academics, whilst arrangements were made for both the National Institute of Economic and Social Research and the Polish Research Centre to relocate to the Institute following the bombing of their premises. In addition, allied officers undertook courses in international affairs at
4171-592: The UK in the World launched in 2023. Chatham House contains the Sustainability Accelerator (formerly Hoffmann Centre for Sustainable Resource Economy), which focuses on the political economy of resource production and consumption. Chatham House regularly hosts speakers from the UK and international policy and business communities. Chatham House has produced the policy journal International Affairs since 1922, and
4268-478: The acceptance of title or the classification of merit. It is now described as being "awarded for having a major contribution to the arts, science, medicine, or government lasting over a long period of time". The first recipients of the order were all decorated for "services in connection with the war " and were listed in The London Gazette . The order consists of the monarch of the Commonwealth realms, who
4365-443: The allegedly megalomaniacal Ikeda prompted the accusation that Toynbee was all too willing, on this occasion and throughout his earlier career, to associate himself with unworthy persons and organizations for money, write historian Louis Turner. In 1984 his granddaughter Polly Toynbee wrote an article for The Guardian regretting her late grandfather's association with Ikeda. With the civilisations as units identified, he presented
4462-610: The allegedly negative portrayal of Judaism in A Study of History , Toynbee's frequent use of the adjective Judaic to describe episodes of "extreme brutality" even where Jews were not involved, as in the Gothic persecution of Christians , Toynbee's reference to the Jewish presence in Palestine at the time of the publication of A Study of History as merely a "fossil remnant," his portrayal of Judaism as fanatical and provincial and as having advanced
4559-615: The allocation of disputed territories, an idea brought to fruition by the postwar use of plebiscites. In his 1915 book Nationality & the War , Toynbee offered various elaborate proposals and predictions for the future of various countries, both European and non-European. For example, he advocated an autonomous Poland in a federal arrangement with Russia, the retention of Austro-Hungarian dominion over Czech and Slovak lands, Austro-Hungarian relinquishment of Galicia , Transylvania , and Bukovina , independence for Bosnia , Croatia , and Slovenia ,
4656-402: The allocation of this award to that country's citizens in preference to other Australian honours. The last Australian member, Doug Anthony , former Deputy Prime Minister of Australia, died on 20 December 2020. Companions from other Commonwealth realms continue to be appointed, Dame Kiri Te Kanawa , a New Zealand soprano, was given the award in 2018 and Canadian author Margaret Atwood was given
4753-519: The award in 2019. Sebastian Coe , Baron Coe CH represented the Order at the 2023 Coronation . The insignia of the order is in the form of an oval medallion, surmounted by a royal crown (but, until recently, surmounted by an imperial crown ), and with a rectangular panel within, depicting on it an oak tree, a shield with the Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom hanging from one branch, and, on
4850-566: The beneficial exchange of information after the peace conference, argued that the method of expert analysis and debate should be continued when the delegates returned home in the form of international institute. The British and American delegates formed separate institutes, with the Americans developing the Council on Foreign Relations in New York . The British Institute of International Affairs, as it
4947-456: The building to the fledgling institute as its headquarters. As a result, the Chatham House name is used as a metonym for the institute as a whole. Chatham House accepts individual members, as well as members from corporations , academic institutions , and NGOs . Chatham House is the origin of the non-attribution rule known as the Chatham House Rule, which provides that a participant in
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#17328546951655044-565: The cause of civilization only as a seedbed for Christianity, his view that Zionism offends Jewish piety by attempting to effect a return to the Mideast through secular means rather than entrusting it to a divinely promised Messiah, and certain troubling passages in Toynbee's oeuvres , such as a passage in Vol.8 of A Study of History in which Toynbee wrote that, "On the Day of Judgement, the gravest crime standing to
5141-542: The classical landscape and remains that "he had thitherto known only through books". In 1912, having returned from his travels, Toynbee was elected a fellow of his alma mater Balliol College, Oxford, and appointed a tutor in ancient history. Unusually for a British classical scholar of that time, his interests crossed Greek and Roman civilisation, and ranged from Bronze Age Greece to the Byzantine Empire . He also combined traditional classical literary scholarship with
5238-622: The division of Bessarabia between Russia and Romania and joint use by those two countries of the port of Odessa , Russian acquisition of Outer Mongolia and the Tarim Basin in central Asia and of Pontus and the Armenian Vilayets in the Ottoman Empire , a strong, independent, central government in Persia. and a Russo-British partitioning of Afghanistan . Michael Lang says that for much of
5335-404: The emerging discipline of classical archaeology . At the start of the First World War , Toynbee was found, because of a bout of dysentery after his return from Greece, to be unfit for military service. In 1915, he began working for the intelligence department of the British Foreign Office . He worked under Viscount Bryce to investigate the Ottoman atrocities against the Armenians and wrote
5432-422: The end of the First World War , he returned to the University of London , specialising in the Byzantine Empire and Modern Greek studies and being appointed to the Koraes Professor of Modern Greek and Byzantine History, Language and Literature at King's College London in 1919. He would ultimately resign from the chair in 1924, following an academic dispute (see subsection on Greece below). In 1921 and 1922 he
5529-416: The enemy and various other topics. Many eminent historians served on the FPRS under Arnold J. Toynbee as its director and with Lionel Curtis (represented the Chairman) at Oxford until 1941 when Ivison Macadam took over from him. There were four deputy directors, Alfred Zimmern , George N. Clark , Herbert J. Patton and Charles K. Webster , and a number of experts in nineteen national divisions. It
5626-419: The first Presidents of the institute, with Lionel Curtis and G. M. Gathorne–Hardy appointed joint Honorary Secretaries. By 1922, as the institute's membership grew, there was a need for a larger and more practical space and the Institute acquired, through the gift of Canadian Colonel R. W. Leonard , Chatham House, Number 10 St. James's Square , where the institute is still housed. Following its inception,
5723-481: The first in a series of meetings between Chatham House and the Institute of World Economy and International Relations in Moscow. As an early example of two-track diplomacy , the meeting sought to develop closer communication and improved relations between Britain and the Soviet Union. At the start of the 1980s, the Council moved to expand the institute's research capabilities in two key emerging areas. The first modern programmes to be created under this initiative were
5820-425: The first six volumes sold over 300,000 copies in the US. Toynbee appeared on the cover of Time magazine in 1947, with an article describing his work as "the most provocative work of historical theory written in England since Karl Marx's Capital ". He became a regular commentator for the BBC on the then-current hostility between east and west and on non-western views of the western world. Toynbee's overall theory
5917-409: The foundation sponsors scholarly engagement with global history through sponsorship of sessions at the annual meeting of the American Historical Association , of international conferences, of the journal New Global Studies and of the Global History Forum. The Toynbee Prize is an honorary award, recognising social scientists for significant academic and public contributions to humanity. Currently, it
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#17328546951656014-529: The freeholds of 6 Duke of York Street, then called York Street (largely through the generosity of Waldorf Astor , John Power , and others) and later 9 St James's Square, then the Portland Club , in 1943 (through a donation to cover its purchase by Henry Price ), and connect these adjoining properties to the original freehold property of Chatham House at 10 St James Square (with the cost of these connections covered by Astor's sons, William, David, and John). Power also donated his leasehold property in Chesham Place to
6111-445: The hidden costs of malnutrition for business, and the extent to which these costs are recognised and addressed by multinational companies and Myths and misconceptions in the debate on Russia which aims to deconstruct sixteen of the most prevalent myths and misconceptions that shape contemporary Western thinking on Russia. As of 2024 , The chairman of the Council of Chatham House is Sir Nigel Sheinwald GCMG , and its director and CEO
6208-424: The history of each in terms of challenge-and-response, a process he proposed as a scientific law of history. Civilizations arose in response to some set of extreme challenges, when "creative minorities" devised new solutions that reoriented their entire society. Challenges and responses were physical, as when the Sumerians exploited the intractable swamps of southern Iraq by organising the Neolithic inhabitants into
6305-448: The implications of recent Imperial Conferences. With various dominion nations seeking to follow individual foreign policy aims, Major-General Sir Neill Malcolm , the chairman of the Council of the institute, emphasised the need for "essential agreement in matters of foreign policy between the various Governments," with the Commonwealth Relations Conference being the vehicle upon which this cooperation would be achieved and maintained. At
6402-419: The institute's Council, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his book The Great Illusion , making him the first and only Laureate to be awarded the prize for publishing a book. Chatham House held the first Commonwealth Relations Conference in Toronto, Ontario , Canada in 1933. Held roughly every five years, the conference provided a forum for leading politicians, lawyers, academics and others to discuss
6499-423: The institute's development, with the appointment of a full-time chief executive or director. Ivison Macadam was appointed to the position (Secretary and then Director-General), in which he oversaw the institute's rapid expansion with its growing research, organisational and financial needs, a role he occupied until 1955. Macadam was able to secure funding to expand the physical plant of the Institute by acquiring
6596-463: The left shoulder. Chatham House The Royal Institute of International Affairs , commonly known as Chatham House , is a British think tank based in London , England. Its stated mission is "to help governments and societies build a sustainably secure, prosperous, and just world". It is the originator of the Chatham House Rule . The Royal Institute of International Affairs has its headquarters in central London at 10 St James's Square , which
6693-405: The left, a mounted knight in armour. The insignia's blue border bears in gold letters the motto IN ACTION FAITHFUL AND IN HONOUR CLEAR , Alexander Pope 's description (in iambic pentameter ) in his Epistle to Mr Addison of James Craggs the Younger , later used on Craggs's monument in Westminster Abbey . Men wear the badge on a neck ribbon (red with golden border threads) and women on a bow at
6790-504: The order are entitled to use the post-nominal letters CH . Appointments to the order are generally made on the advice of prime ministers of the Commonwealth realms. For Canadians, the advice to the Sovereign can come from a variety of officials. Originally, the order was limited to 50 ordinary members, but in 1943 it was enlarged to 65, with a quota of 45 members for the United Kingdom , seven for Australia , two each for New Zealand and South Africa , and nine for India , Burma , and
6887-428: The other British colonies . The quota numbers were altered in 1970 to 47 for the United Kingdom, seven for Australia, two for New Zealand, and nine for other Commonwealth realms. The quota was adjusted again in 1975 by adding two places to the New Zealand quota and reducing the nine for the other countries to seven. Whilst still able to nominate candidates to the order, the Cabinet of Australia has effectively stopped
6984-417: The outbreak of nuclear war." Though Toynbee co-authoured papers with and commissioned articles from Jewish scholars, and included Jewish friends among those whom he praised in his book Acquaintances , Toynbee's views on Judaism and Middle East politics prompted allegations of antisemitism. Abba Eban 's 1955 speech The Toynbee Heresy , for example, bases the accusation of antisemitism on, among other things,
7081-526: The outbreak of the Second World War the institute was decentralised for security reasons, with many of the staff moving to Balliol College, Oxford from Chatham House's main buildings in St James's Square . There, the Foreign Press and Research Service of the Institute worked closely with the Foreign Office to provide intelligence for and to work closely with the Foreign Office dedicating their research to
7178-698: The practice; and America's International Role Under Donald Trump explores the impact of US President Donald Trump 's personality and style—brash, unpredictable, contradictory and thin-skinned—on his engagement in foreign affairs. Major reports in 2018 included Transatlantic Relations: Converging or Diverging? which argues that the longer-term fundamentals of the transatlantic relationship remain strong, Making Concrete Change: Innovation in Low-carbon Cement and Concrete exploring why significant changes in how cement and concrete are produced and used are urgently needed to achieve deep cuts in emissions in line with
7275-481: The pre-Arab inhabitants of Palestine, had a further claim to a national home in Palestine," but even so Toynbee felt the Balfour Declaration had guaranteed that such a claim was valid "only in so far as it can be implemented without injury to the rights and to the legitimate interests of the native Arab population of Palestine." Although not the official view of Chatham House which discussed numerous opinions on
7372-435: The rise and fall of 26 civilisations in the course of human history, and he concluded that they rose by responding successfully to challenges under the leadership of creative minorities composed of elite leaders. A Study of History was both a commercial and an academic success. In the US alone, more than 7,000 sets of the ten-volume edition were sold by 1955. A 1947 one-volume 1947 abridgement by David Churchill Somervell of
7469-461: The risk of severe disruption at certain ports, maritime straits, and inland transport routes, which could have devastating knock-on effects for global food security; Collective Action on Corruption in Nigeria: A Social Norms Approach to Connecting Society and Institutions examines how anti-corruption efforts could be made significantly more effective through new ways of understanding why people engage in
7566-461: The same year. He died on 22 October 1975, age 86. In his 1915 book Nationality & the War , Toynbee argued that any eventual postwar peace settlement should be guided by the principle of nationality . In Chapter IV of his 1916 book The New Europe: Essays in Reconstruction , Toynbee argued against the competing principle of "natural borders." Toynbee encouraged the use of plebiscites for
7663-595: The subject, and by the late 1940s he had moved away from the Zionist concept taking into account the Palestine Arabs' tenure. Toynbee maintained that the Jewish people had neither historic nor legal claims to Palestine, stating that the Arab "population's human rights to their homes and property over-ride all other rights in cases where claims conflict." Toynbee did concede that Jews, "being the only surviving representatives of any of
7760-528: The then evolving situation, Toynbee came to be known, by his own admission, as "the Western spokesman for the Arab cause." The views Toynbee expressed in the 1950s continued to oppose the formation of a Jewish state, partly out of his concern that it would increase the risk of Middle East conflict with the Jews and Arabs and could lead to a nuclear confrontation.Toynbee in his article "Jewish Rights in Palestine", challenged
7857-542: The twentieth century, Toynbee was perhaps the world's most read, translated, and discussed living scholar. His output was enormous, hundreds of books, pamphlets, and articles. Of these, scores were translated into thirty different languages....the critical reaction to Toynbee constitutes a veritable intellectual history of the midcentury: we find a long list of the period's most important historians, Beard , Braudel , Collingwood , and so on. In his best-known work, A Study of History , published 1934–1961, Toynbee examined
7954-507: The university, and his sister Jocelyn Toynbee was an archaeologist and art historian. Arnold Toynbee was a grandson of Joseph Toynbee , a nephew of the 19th-century economist Arnold Toynbee (1852–1883), and a descendant of prominent British intellectuals for several generations. Having won a scholarship, he was educated at Winchester College , an all-boys independent boarding school in Winchester, Hampshire. From 1907 to 1911, having won
8051-634: The views of the editor of the Jewish Quarterly Review , historian and talmudic scholar Solomon Zeitlin , who published his rebuke, "Jewish Rights in Eretz Israel (Palestine)" in the same issue. However, as a result of Toynbee's debate in January 1961 with Yaakov Herzog , the Israeli ambassador to Canada, Toynbee softened his view and called on Israel, by then established, to fulfil its special "mission to make contributions to worldwide efforts to prevent
8148-539: The war effort under the Chairmanship of Waldorf Astor , The formal remit of Chatham House for the FPRS at Balliol was: 1. To review the press overseas. 2. To “produce at the request of the Foreign Office, and the Service and other Departments, memoranda giving the historical and political background on any given situation on which information is desired”. 3. “To provide information on special points desired" (in regards to each country). It provided various reports on foreign press, historical and political background of
8245-476: The war he accused Greece's military government in occupied Turkish territory of atrocities and massacres. This earned him the enmity of the wealthy Greeks who had endowed the chair, and in 1924 he was forced to resign the position. His stance during World War I reflected less sympathy for the Arab cause and took a pro-Zionist outlook. Toynbee investigated Zionism in 1915 at the Information Department of
8342-556: Was bolstered by the support of the Japan 2000 group in 1984. In 1998, Chatham House launched the Angola Forum. Angola's oil reserves, combined with growing international ambition, facilitated Angola 's quick ascent as an influential African nation. Chatham House said the Angola Forum was intended to create an international platform for "forward looking, policy focused and influential debate and research". The institute's wider Africa Programme
8439-520: Was co-editor with his research assistant, Veronica M. Boulter, of the RIIA's annual Survey of International Affairs, from 1922-1956. It became the "bible" for international specialists in Britain. At the outbreak of the Second World War the institute was decentralised for security reasons, with many of the staff moving to Balliol College, Oxford from Chatham House's main buildings in St James's Square . There,
8536-434: Was created in 2002, beginning the modern structure of area studies programmes. In 2005, Security, Terrorism and the UK was published. The Chatham House Prize was launched in 2005, recognising heads of state and organisations that made a significant contribution to international relations during the previous year. Queen Elizabeth II presented the debut award to Ukrainian President Victor Yushchenko . In January 2013,
8633-692: Was elected a Fellow of the British Academy (FBA) in 1937. He was elected an International Member of the American Philosophical Society in 1941 and an International Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1949. His first marriage was to Rosalind Murray (1890–1967), daughter of Gilbert Murray , in 1913; they had three sons, of whom Philip Toynbee was the second. They divorced in 1946; Toynbee then married his research assistant, Veronica M. Boulter (1893-1980), in
8730-483: Was invited to a private interview with Adolf Hitler at Hitler's request. During the interview, which was held a day before Toynbee delivered his lecture, Hitler emphasized his limited expansionist aim of building a greater German nation, and his desire for British understanding and co-operation with Nazi Germany. Hitler also suggested Germany could be an ally to Britain in the Asia-Pacific region if Germany's Pacific colonial empire were restored. Toynbee believed that Hitler
8827-449: Was moved to the Foreign Office 1943–46. The institute also provided many additional services to scholars and the armed forces at its St. James's Square home. The Institute reopened formally on 28 October 1943; the session was addressed by the American commanding general of U.S. Army logistics forces in the ETO, then-Maj. Gen. John C. H. Lee , who spent a substantial part of his time working with
8924-684: Was sincere and endorsed Hitler's message in a confidential memorandum for the British prime minister and foreign secretary. Toynbee presented his lecture in English, but copies of it were circulated in German by Nazi officials, and it was warmly received by his Berlin audience who appreciated its conciliatory tone. Tracy Philipps , a British 'diplomat' stationed in Berlin at the time, later informed Toynbee that it 'was an eager topic of discussion everywhere'. Back home, some of Toynbee's colleagues were dismayed by his attempts at managing Anglo-German relations. Toynbee
9021-465: Was taken up by some scholars, such as Ernst Robert Curtius , as a sort of paradigm in the post-war period. In the opening pages of his own study of medieval Latin literature,. Curtius wrote: After 1960, Toynbee's ideas faded in both academia and in popular culture. His work is seldom cited today. In general, historians pointed to his preference for myths, allegories, and religion over factual data. His critics argued that his conclusions are more those of
9118-635: Was the Manchester Guardian correspondent during the Greco-Turkish War , an experience that resulted in the publication of The Western Question in Greece and Turkey . In 1925 he became Research Professor of International History at the London School of Economics . In 1929 he became Director of Studies at the Royal Institute of International Affairs ( Chatham House ), a post he held until 1956. He
9215-527: Was the Director of Studies at Chatham House , in which position he also produced 34 volumes of the Survey of International Affairs, a "bible" for international specialists in Britain. He is best known for his 12-volume A Study of History (1934–1961). With his prodigious output of papers, articles, speeches and presentations, and numerous books translated into many languages, Toynbee was widely read and discussed in
9312-469: Was then known, held its inaugural meeting, chaired by Robert Cecil , on 5 July 1920. In this, former Foreign Secretary Edward Grey moved the resolution calling the institute into existence: "That an Institute be constituted for the study of International Questions, to be called the British Institute of International Affairs." These two, along with Arthur J. Balfour and John R. Clynes , became
9409-580: Was troubled by the Russian Revolution since he saw Russia as a non-Western society and the revolution as a threat to Western society. However, in 1952, he argued that the Soviet Union had been a victim of Western aggression. He portrayed the Cold War as a religious competition that pitted a Marxist materialist heresy against the West's spiritual Christian heritage, which had already been foolishly rejected by
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