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125-598: The Tohono Oʼodham Nation is the collective government body of the Tohono Oʼodham tribe in the United States. The Tohono Oʼodham Nation governs four separate sections of land with a combined area of 2.8 million acres (11,330 km), approximately the size of Connecticut and the second-largest Indigenous land holding in the United States. These lands are in the Sonoran Desert of south central Arizona and border

250-590: A field hockey -like game called toka which is still enjoyed and is a frequent school sport on the modern reservation. Though they shared a linguistic root with the Pima, and could understand the languages of nearby tribes, such tribes were considered distant cousins at best. Even within the Oʼodham there were linguistic and cultural differences that led to the groups being only loosely united. Different groups had different origin stories, linguistic quirks, and appearances. Where

375-518: A 40-acre (160,000 m) parcel of land named San Lucy Village, near Gila Bend, Arizona . In January 1986, the enrolled members of the three reservations adopted a new tribal constitution that changed the tribe name from Papago Tribe of Arizona to the Tohono Oʼodham Nation and adopted a three-branch form of government. Also in 1986, the federal government and the Nation approved a settlement whereby

500-487: A Mexican citizen and a member of the Tohono Oʼodham tribe. As advocacy for the border wall continues to grow, inspections and securities along these boundaries have heightened, limiting tribal members' access to resources beyond the border. The cultural resources of the Tohono Oʼodham are threatened—particularly the language—but are stronger than those of many other aboriginal groups in the United States. Every February

625-562: A combined area of 2.8 million acres (11,330 km), making it the second-largest Native American land holding in the U.S. The lands include the main reservation, the Gila Bend Reservation, San Xavier Reservation, and Florence Village. Of the four lands bases, the largest is the main reservation at more than 2.7 million acres (10,925 km). The San Xavier reservation is the second-largest, at 71,095 acres (287.71 km), just south of Tucson . The Gila Bend Indian Reservation

750-422: A common operational picture. But the technology and functionality of SBInets did not meet expectations and costs began to exceed the budget by $ 1.4 billion. This led to a shift toward IFTs. The implementation of these towers will aid Border Patrol in monitoring illegal crossings and suspicious activity that occurs near the border. Although the towers would benefit Border Patrol in controlling illegal activities, for

875-555: A fence that encompasses up to 10,000 feet. The radio technology of the tower permits the machine to be able to detect movement as far as from a 9.3-mile radius and vehicles from an 18.6 mile radius, while the long-range camera allows for video footage from 13.5 miles away. In March 2014, in efforts to raise border security, the United States Customs and Border Protection contracted a project with Elbit Systems of America to design and manufacture Integrated Fixed Towers (IFTs) along

1000-503: A generally peaceful people. They rarely, if ever, initiated conflict, and got along well with most neighboring tribes. The exception was the Apache , who were frequent raiders of the Oʼodham and other tribes. The Apache were to the east and northeast of the Oʼodham, and had probably moved into the area sometime in the 15th century. The Apache had limited interest in farming, and preferred to raid neighboring troops for supplies. The eastern Oʼodham,

1125-570: A more regular bi-seasonal pattern. According to the Köppen climate classification system, the majority of the Sonoran Desert has a hot desert climate ( BWh ). Hot semi-arid climate ( BSh ) exists on some of the higher elevation mountains within the desert, as well as in a continuous swath on the eastern and northeastern fringes as elevations gradually rise toward the Madrean Sky Islands in

1250-405: A neighboring tribe, referred to them as Ba꞉bawĭkoʼa , meaning "eating tepary beans ". The Spanish colonizers learned that name from the Pima and transliterated it as Pápago , in their pronunciation. Anglo settlers in the area adopted that term. The historical lands of the Tohono Oʼodham stretched over much of what are now the jurisdictions of southern Arizona and Northern Mexico, across most of

1375-545: A new school. The new boarding school opened in 1908; it has a separate post office, known as the Escuela Post Office. Sometimes this name was used in place of the Tucson Indian School. By the mid-1930s, the Tucson Indian School covered 160 acres, had 9 buildings, and was capable of educating 130 students. In 1940, about 18 different tribes made up the population of students at the school. With changing ideas about

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1500-418: A person lived was the best indicator of which group they belonged to, more so than the other differences. As of the 1700s, when Europeans began to categorize the tribes, there were probably at least six groups. The actual number of groups has varied by author. The following categorization is from Eric Winston's 1994 textbook on the Oʼodham, and includes seven groups, along with some subgroups. The Oʼodham were

1625-467: A population close to 900,000. Ciudad Obregón, Sonora , in the southern part of the desert, has a population of 375,800. The Coachella Valley , located in the Colorado Desert section of the Sonoran Desert, has a population of 365,000. Several famous Southern California desert resort cities such as Palm Springs and Palm Desert are located here. During the winter months, from November to April,

1750-415: A population of 25,000, with 20,000 living on its Arizonan reservation lands. The nation is governed by a three branch system. The executive which includes a chairman and vice-chairman, who are elected by eligible adult members of the nation. According to their constitution, elections are conducted under a complex formula intended to ensure that the rights of small Oʼodham communities are protected, as well as

1875-485: A population of about 1,700, and Florence Village has a population of about 195. The remaining roughly 14,600 members live off the reservations. The lands of the Nation are in the Sonoran Desert in south central Arizona , in areas of a series of parallel mountains and valleys. The vegetation is consistent with other parts of the Sonoran Desert. Saguaro cactus , Cholla , prickly pear , palo verde , velvet mesquite , whitethorn acacia , desert ironwood , and willow are

2000-636: A portion of its people's original Sonoran desert lands. It is organized into eleven districts. The land lies in three counties of the present-day state of Arizona : Pima , Pinal , and Maricopa . The reservation's land area is 11,534.012 square kilometres (4,453.307 sq mi), the third-largest Indian reservation area in the United States (after the Navajo Nation and the Uintah and Ouray Indian Reservation ). The 2000 census reported 10,787 people living on reservation land. The tribe's enrollment office tallies

2125-569: A result, the desert people preserved their traditions largely intact for generations. The Tohono Oʼodham share linguistic and cultural roots with the closely related Akimel Oʼodham (People of the River), historically known as Pima, whose lands lie just south of present-day Phoenix , along the lower Gila River . The ancestors of both the Tohono Oʼodham and the Akimel Oʼodham resided along the major rivers of southern Arizona. Ancient pictographs adorn

2250-462: A rock wall that juts up out of the desert near the Baboquivari Mountains . On the nature of the Oʼodham, Eric Winston writes: The Oʼodham were not a people in a political sense. Instead, their sense of belonging came from similar traditions and ways of life, language and related legends, and experiences shared in surviving in a beautiful but not entirely hospitable land. Debates surround

2375-497: A set of food systems programs that contribute to public health, cultural revitalization, and economic development. It has started a cafe that serves traditional foods. The Tohono Oʼodham community has made efforts to combat future issues by attempting to rehabilitate the systems the tribe had in place before government intervention. The Indigenous group has been advocating for the restoration of their water privileges so that they will be able to effectively produce traditional crops for

2500-486: A time of need that you would repay the debt when you could. Despite a shared language and heritage, the Oʼodham were only loosely connected across their lands. Loyalty laid with the village, not the people. However, the Oʼodham generally got along well with neighbors. They regularly gathered with nearby villages, and would even partner with them in times of conflict against outsider tribes. Gatherings for races, trade, socialization, and gossip were frequent events. Gambling

2625-641: A total population of over 180,000 and has a similar climate to that of the Coachella Valley. Other cities include Borrego Springs , Indio , Coachella , Calexico , El Centro , Imperial , and Blythe . Straddling the Mexico–United States border , the Sonoran desert is an important migration corridor for humans and animals. The harsh climate conditions and border militarism mean that the journey can be perilous, usually moving at night to minimize exposure to

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2750-459: A treaty with the federal government, but the Oʼodham experienced challenges common to other nations. As Oʼodham communal lands were allocated to households and some "surplus" sold to non-Native Americans under the Dawes Act of 1888, a variety of religious groups entered the territory. Presbyterian missionaries built schools and missions there, vying with Roman Catholics and Mormons to convert

2875-608: Is Puerto Peñasco ('Rocky Point') in the state of Sonora, Mexico . Sonoran Desert sub-regions include: The Sonoran desert has an arid subtropical climate and is considered to be the most tropical desert in North America . In the lower-elevation portions of the desert, temperatures are warm year-round, and rainfall is infrequent and irregular, often less than 90 mm (approx. 3.5") annually. The Arizona uplands are also warm year-round, but they receive 100–300 mm (approx. 4–12") of average annual rainfall, which falls in

3000-561: Is 473 acres (1.91 km) and Florence Village 25 acres (0.10 km). With the 1853 Gadsden Purchase , the territory of the Tohono Oʼodham was split between the U.S. and Mexico. Consequently, the Nation is directly exposed to the Mexico–United States border for 74 miles (119 km). There is no reservation for the Tohono Oʼodham people in Mexico, so the Nation's southern border is the Mexico–United States border. Before colonization,

3125-517: Is a hot desert and ecoregion in North America that covers the northwestern Mexican states of Sonora , Baja California , and Baja California Sur , as well as part of the Southwestern United States (in Arizona and California ). It is the hottest desert in both Mexico and the United States. It has an area of 260,000 square kilometers (100,000 sq mi). In phytogeography ,

3250-437: Is bundled together to make a harvesting tool called a kuibit . They then reduce the freshly harvested fruit into a thick syrup through several hours of boiling, as the fresh fruit does not keep for long. Four kilograms (9 pounds) of fruit will yield about 1 liter ( 1 ⁄ 4 U.S. gallon) of syrup. Copious volumes of fruit are harvested; an example harvest in 1929 yielded 45,000 kg (99,000 lb) among 600 families. At

3375-525: Is home to the cultures of over 17 contemporary Native American tribes, with settlements at American Indian reservations in California and Arizona , as well as populations in Mexico. The largest city in the Sonoran Desert is Phoenix, Arizona , with a 2017 metropolitan population of about 4.7 million. Located on the Salt River in central Arizona, it is one of the fastest-growing metropolitan areas in

3500-510: Is more gentle. Snows are extremely rare, and winters have a few days below freezing. The growing season is very long, up to 264 days in places. Summer temperatures are extreme, reaching up to 120 °F (49 °C) for weeks at a time. The Tohono Oʼodham migrated between summer and winter homes, usually moving to follow the water. They built their summer homes along alluvial plains , where they channeled summer rains onto fields they were cultivating. Some dikes and catchment basins were built, as

3625-552: Is scarce but is believed to have been more plentiful before European colonization. Their practices of cattle grazing and well drilling decreased stream flows. Localized natural springs provided water in some areas. In some areas, the people also relied on tinajas , or potholes, that were filled with rainwater in the mountains. Rains are intensely seasonal in the Sonoran Desert, with much rainfall occurring in late summer monsoons . Monsoon storms are generally fierce and produce flooding. The remainder of rainfall generally falls in winter and

3750-627: The Arizona House of Representatives that would allow the city of Glendale to incorporate land the tribe owned, making it ineligible for inclusion within the reservation. As of March 2014, after a change of heart, the City of Glendale has been negotiating with the Nation over its proposed West Valley casino. The McCain-Franks bill was designed to prohibit the Glendale project and in the process would have changed federal law by unilaterally repealing critical parts of

3875-623: The Baja California desert . Within the southern Sonoran Desert in Mexico is found the Gran Desierto de Altar , with the El Pinacate y Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve , encompassing 2,000 square kilometres (770 sq mi) of desert and mountainous regions. The biosphere reserve includes the only active erg dune region in North America. The nearest city to the biosphere reserve

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4000-698: The Great Basin , Mojave , and Chihuahuan deserts ) because it provides subtropical warmth in winter and two seasons of rainfall (in contrast, for example, to the Mojave's dry summers and cold winters). This creates an extreme contrast between aridity and moisture. The Sonoran desert wraps around the northern end of the Gulf of California , from Baja California Sur ( El Vizcaíno Biosphere Reserve in central and Pacific west coast, Central Gulf Coast subregion on east to southern tip), north through much of Baja California , excluding

4125-524: The Heard Museum and has contributed cover art to Arizona Highways magazine and University of Arizona Press books. Chana illustrated books by Tucson writer Byrd Baylor and created murals for Tohono Oʼodham Nation buildings. In 2004, the Heard Museum awarded Danny Lopez its first heritage award, recognizing his lifelong work sustaining the desert people's way of life. At the National Museum for

4250-581: The Kofa National Wildlife Refuge . The Sonoran Desert is home to a wide variety of fauna that have adapted and thrive in the hot, arid desert environment, such as the Gila monster , bobcat , mule deer , antelope jackrabbit , burrowing owl , greater roadrunner , western diamondback rattlesnake , and elf owl . There are 350 bird species, 20 amphibian species, over 100 reptile species, 30 native fish species, and over 1000 native bee species found in

4375-516: The Los Angeles Times reported that Mexican O'odham were taking advantage of medical facilities and welfare checks on the Arizona side of the border. An increase in militarization occurred again in the 1980s and 1990s, further inhibiting tribal members from traveling back and forth and slowing migration. The Mexican government made gestures to improve the condition of the O'odham in Mexico by opening

4500-479: The Mexico–United States border for 74 miles (119 km). The Nation is organized into 11 local districts and has a tripartite system of government. Sells is the Nation's largest community and functions as its capital. The Nation has about 34,000 enrolled members, most of whom live off of the reservations. In 1874, President of the United States Ulysses S. Grant signed an executive order creating

4625-564: The San Xavier Indian Reservation , surrounding the 18th-century Mission San Xavier del Bac . In 1882, President Chester A. Arthur signed an executive order creating the Gila Bend Indian Reservation as additional lands for the Tohono Oʼodham people. In 1916, a third reservation was created by executive order with Indian Oasis (now Sells, Arizona) as its headquarters. In 1937, The Tohono Oʼodham Nation, then called

4750-493: The Santa Cruz River , from early pioneer Sam Hughes. The new facility opened in 1888, with 54 boys and girls. At the new semi-religious boarding school, boys learned rural trades like carpentry and farming, while girls were taught sewing and similar domestic skills of the period. In 1890, additional buildings were completed but the school was still too small for the demand, and students had to be turned away. To raise funds for

4875-706: The Sonoran Desert . In the south, their land abutted against that of the Seris and Opata peoples. To the east, they ranged to at least the San Miguel River valley. The people may have migrated further east in seasonal travel. The Gila River represents the northern limits. To the west, their lands extended to the Colorado River and the Gulf of California . The frontiers of their territory would have been shared to an extent with neighboring tribes. These lands are characterized by wide plains bordered by tall mountains. Water

5000-594: The Tohono Oʼodham Indian Reservation , a major reservation located in southern Arizona . It encompasses portions of three counties: Pima , Pinal , and Maricopa in the United States. Tohono O'odham territory extends into the Mexican state of Sonora . The Tohono Oʼodham tribal government and most of the people have rejected the common exonym Papago since the 1980s. They call themselves Tohono Oʼodham, meaning "desert people". The Akimel O'odham ,

5125-718: The Tucson Indian School . This boarding school was founded in 1886, when T.C. Kirkwood, superintendent of the board of national missions of the Presbyterian Church in the United States , asked the Tucson Common Council for land near where the University of Arizona would be built. The Common Council granted the Board of Home Missions a 99-year lease on land at $ 1 a year. The Board purchased 42 acres (17 ha) of land on

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5250-512: The U.S.-Canada border , the Tohono Oʼodham were not offered dual citizenship when the U.S. drew a border across their lands in 1853 by the Gadsden Purchase . The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo did not specify the rights of the Oʼodham to cross the international border. The population was split between Mexico and the U.S., but after the treaty the U.S. government guaranteed that Oʼodham freedom of movement would be protected. For decades, members of

5375-434: The U.S.–Mexico border . There are also associated social problems. In an area of acute poverty, offers from smugglers for Oʼodham to assist in illegal activity are common, and in some instances drug traffickers have purchased Oʼodham land along the border. Many of the thousands of Mexican and other nationals illegally crossing the border to work in U.S. agriculture or to smuggle drugs into the U.S. seek emergency assistance from

5500-459: The 11 districts, the judicial comprises the judges and courts, and the legislative consists of tribal council representatives from each administrative district. As a whole, the Tohono Oʼodham Nation is governed by a democratically elected chairperson and legislative council. All the reservations are overseen administratively by a central government in Sells. As of 2023, the Nation's chair is Verlon Jose and

5625-609: The 1986 Tohono O'odham constitution gives the tribe sovereignty over their territory, this is nonetheless subject to the plenary power of Congress. About 2,000 members live in Mexico, and a wall would physically separate them from members in the U.S. Most of the 25,000 Tohono Oʼodham today live in southern Arizona , but several thousand, many related by kinship, live in northern Sonora , Mexico. Many tribal members still make an annual pilgrimage to San Xavier del Bac and Magdalena, Sonora , during St. Francis festivities to commemorate St. Francis Xavier and St. Francis of Assisi , founder of

5750-631: The American Indian (NMAI), the Tohono O'odham were represented in the founding exhibition and Lopez blessed the exhibit. The Tohono Oʼodham children were required to attend Indian boarding schools, designed to teach them the English language and assimilate them to the mainstream European-American ways. According to historian David Leighton, of the Arizona Daily Star newspaper, the Tohono Oʼodham attended

5875-519: The Apache 'enemy' is ob. The Oʼodham were settled agricultural people who raised crops. According to their history, they knew the Apache would raid when they ran short on food, or hunting was bad. The relationship between the Oʼodham and Apache was especially strained after 1871 when 92 Oʼodham joined Mexicans and Anglo-Americans and killed an estimated 144 Apache in the Camp Grant massacre . All but eight of

6000-680: The Arizona State Museum on the campus of the University of Arizona, has undertaken a documentary history of the Oʼodham, offering translated colonial documents that discuss Spanish relations with the Oʼodham in the 17th and 18th centuries. Oʼodham musical and dance activities lack "grand ritual paraphernalia that call for attention" and grand ceremonies such as pow-wows . Instead, they wear muted white clay. Oʼodham songs are accompanied by hard wood rasps and drumming on overturned baskets , both of which lack resonance and are "swallowed by

6125-424: The Arizona border. The competition for a $ 145 million contract lasted between major defense contractors such as General Dynamics, Lockheed Martin, and Raytheon. This contract gave Elbit jurisdiction to implement these structures at an unknown number of sites at anonymous locations and the power for both the company and Border Patrol to deeply monitor the border. Originally, it was said that 16 IFTs would be placed along

6250-615: The Franciscan Order. Integrated fixed towers (IFTs) are solar-powered structures that integrate high technology, such as infrared and video machinery, to provide long-range, 360-degree, all-weather surveillance along the border. The proposed layout and size of the IFTs is said to range between 120 and 180 feet high, with each tower having its own equipment such as generators, propane tanks, and equipment shelters. The lot size of each tower varies between 2,500 square feet and 25,600 square feet, plus

6375-621: The Gila Bend Indian Reservation Lands Replacement Act, which was passed to settle a dispute over federal flooding of tribal reservation lands. In 2009, the Nation acquired 650 acres (2.6 km) of land near Why, Arizona , with the intention of eventually creating a new district of the Tohono Oʼodham Nation for the Hia C-eḍ Oʼodham . On October 30, 2012, a new tribal law created the Hia-Ced District as

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6500-405: The Mexican side would not be able to pay loans back. During WWI concerns were raised about the proximity of the Oʼodham to the border, but the U.S. government ignored requests for additional military presence, and trans-border smuggling thrived in the 1910s and 1920s. This included liquor, food, and guns. The War Department attempted to halt this, but the reporting system on such a wide area of land

6625-473: The Nation agreed to give up its legal claims in exchange for $ 30,000,000 and the right to add replacement land to its reservation. In 2009, the tribe announced that it had purchased approximately 135 acres (0.55 km) near Glendale, Arizona . The city of Glendale and the Gila River Indian Community opposed attempts to develop the land though court challenges and supporting a measure passed by

6750-403: The Nation's website. Like other tribes, the Tohono Oʼodham felt land pressures from American ranchers, settlers, and the railroads. Documentation was poor, and many members did not leave their lands in a written will. John F. Trudell, a US attorney general assistant recorded an Oʼodham man declaring "I do not know anything about a land grant. The Mexicans never had any land to give us. From

6875-480: The O'odham migrated along a north–south axis in a "two village" system, rotating between summer and winter settlements. These migrations formed the foundation of their subsistence economies and enabled religious pilgrimages. This pattern continued throughout Apache, Spanish, and American expansion, but shifted with the re-drawing of boundaries that followed the Mexican–American War. Unlike aboriginal groups along

7000-503: The Oʼodham gave them a "transnational identity", but Indigenous conflicts on the Mexico–United States barrier arose. Land theft and forced assimilation decreased the numbers of southern Oʼodham and alienated them from their northern counterparts. By 1910, it was estimated that only 1,000 Oʼodham remained in Mexico. The disparities in wealth between the two sides also led to cultural shifts. The traditional practice of lending between Oʼodham decreased as many Arizona Oʼodham felt that those on

7125-408: The Oʼodham to their faith. Major farmers established the cotton industry, initially employing many Oʼodham as agricultural workers. Under the U.S. federal Indian policy of the late 19th and early 20th century, the government required native children to attend Indian boarding schools . They were forced to use English, practice Christianity, and give up much of their tribal cultures in an attempt by

7250-642: The Papagos Tribe of Arizona, adopted its first constitution. In 1960, the Army Corps of Engineers completed construction of the Painted Rock Dam on the Gila River . Flood waters impounded by the dam periodically inundated approximately 10,000 acres (40 km) of the Gila Bend Indian Reservation . The area the tribe lost contained a 750-acre (3.0 km) farm and several communities. Residents were relocated to

7375-816: The Sobapuris, bore the brunt of Apache attacks. The original Oʼodham diet consisted of regionally available wild game , insects, and plants. Through foraging , Oʼodham ate a variety of regional plants, such as: ironwood seed , honey mesquite , hog potato , and organ-pipe cactus fruit . While the Southwestern United States does not have an ideal climate for cultivating crops, Oʼodham cultivated crops of white tepary beans , peas, and Spanish watermelons. They hunted pronghorn antelope, gathered hornworm larvae , and trapped pack rats for sources of meat. Preparation of foods included steaming plants in pits and roasting meat on an open fire. Saguaro cactus fruit

7500-488: The Sonoran Desert , Forrest Shreve divided the Sonoran Desert into seven regions according to characteristic vegetation: Lower Colorado Valley, Arizona Upland, Plains of Sonora, Foothills of Sonora, Central Gulf Coast, Vizcaíno Region, and Magdalena Region. Many ecologists consider Shreve's Vizcaíno and Magdalena regions, which lie on the western side of the Baja California Peninsula , to be a separate ecoregion ,

7625-529: The Sonoran Desert is within the Sonoran floristic province of the Madrean Region of southwestern North America, part of the Holarctic realm of the northern Western Hemisphere . The desert contains a variety of unique endemic plants and animals , notably, the saguaro ( Carnegiea gigantea ) and organ pipe cactus ( Stenocereus thurberi ). The Sonoran Desert is clearly distinct from nearby deserts (e.g.,

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7750-546: The Sonoran desert on the Gulf of California slope of the Baja California Peninsula. To the north in California and northwest Arizona, the Sonoran Desert transitions to the colder-winter, higher-elevation Mojave , Great Basin , and Colorado Plateau deserts. The coniferous Arizona Mountains forests are to the northeast. The Chihuahuan Desert and Sierra Madre Occidental pine–oak forests are at higher elevations to

7875-522: The Sonoran. The Sonoran Desert area southeast of Tucson and near the Mexican border is vital habitat for the only population of jaguars living within the United States. The Colorado River Delta was once an ecological hotspot within the Sonoran desert due to the Colorado river in this otherwise dry area, but the delta has been greatly reduced in extent due to damming and use of the river upstream. Species that have higher heat tolerance are able to thrive in

8000-457: The Tohono O'odham nation, the integration of these structures will result in further territorial disputes and invasion of privacy. The rapidly increasing surveillance and security in the borderlands has instilled fear within Indigenous communities. IFTs have begun to interfere with the Tohono O'odham's spiritual rituals and daily routines. Tribes such as the Tohono O'odham are no longer free to cross

8125-427: The Tohono O'odham police when they become dehydrated or are stranded. On the ground, border patrol emergency rescue and tribal EMTs coordinate and communicate. The tribe and the state of Arizona pay a large proportion of the bills for border-related law enforcement and emergency services. Former Arizona governor Janet Napolitano and Tohono Oʼodham government leaders have repeatedly asked the federal government to repay

8250-580: The US. The goal was to make the Indians into "real" Americans, but the boarding schools generally offered training only for low-level domestic and agricultural labor, typical of jobs available in rural areas. "Assimilation" was the official policy, but full participation was not the goal. Boarding school students were supposed to function within the segregated society of the United States as economic laborers, not leaders. The Tohono Oʼodham have retained many traditions into

8375-479: The United States. In 2007 in the Phoenix area, desert was losing ground to urban sprawl at a rate of approximately 4,000 square meters (1 acre) per hour. The next largest cities are Tucson , in southern Arizona, with a metro area population of just over 1 million, and Mexicali, Baja California , with a similarly sized metropolitan population of around 1,000,000. The metropolitan area of Hermosillo, Sonora , has

8500-419: The United States. While the people are nominally Catholic , the Nation's schools teach native language and culture. The Nation has about 34,000 enrolled members. Most of its members live off the reservations. The main reservation, Tohono Oʼodham Indian Reservation, has a resident population of about 11,000. The San Xavier Indian Reservation has a resident population of 1,200. The Gila Bend Indian Reservation has

8625-406: The border to visit their families or explore outside their homes without risking scrutiny by agents. Even with set boundaries and size guidelines for the towers, the IFTs have exceeded the established range and are beginning to occupy parts of O'odham territory. Moreover, the growing number of towers has brought increased numbers of Border Patrol agents: 1,500 positioned in three districts that control

8750-628: The central northwest mountains and Pacific west coast, through southeastern California and southwestern and southern Arizona to western and central parts of Sonora . It is bounded on the west by the Peninsular Ranges , which separate it from the California chaparral and woodlands (northwest) and Baja California desert (Vizcaíno subregion, central and southeast) ecoregions of the Pacific slope. The Gulf of California xeric scrub ecoregion lies south of

8875-421: The conditions of the Sonoran Desert. One such insect species that has evolved a means to thrive in this environment is Drosophila mettleri , a Sonoran Desert fly. This fly contains a specialized P450 detoxification system that enables it to nest in the cool region of exudate moistened soil. Thus, the fly is one of few that can tolerate the high desert temperatures and successfully reproduce. The Sonoran Desert

9000-422: The cross-border violence, tribal members continued to experience other social and legal consequences from the border. Tribal members born in Mexico or who had insufficient documentation to prove U.S. birth or residency found themselves trapped in a remote corner of Mexico with no access to the tribal centers only tens of miles away. In 2001, a bill was proposed that would give citizenship to all Tohono Oʼodham, but it

9125-441: The daytime temperatures in the Coachella Valley range from 70 °F (21 °C) to 90 °F (32 °C) and corresponding nighttime lows range from 46 °F (8 °C) to 68 °F (20 °C) making it a popular winter resort destination. Due to its warm year-round climate citrus and subtropical fruits such as mangoes, figs, and dates are grown in the Coachella Valley and adjacent Imperial Valley . The Imperial Valley has

9250-411: The dead were women and children. The Oʼodham also captured 29 Apache children, whom they sold into slavery in Mexico. Conflict with European settlers encroaching on their lands eventually resulted in the Oʼodham and the Apache finding common interests. Little of early Oʼodham history is known. That recorded by Europeans reflects their biases. The first European exploration and recording of Oʼodham lands

9375-445: The desert floor". Dancing features skipping and shuffling quietly in bare feet on dry dirt, the dust raised being believed to rise to atmosphere and assist in forming rain clouds. Society focused on the family, and each member had specific roles to play. Women were in charge of food preparation and also gathered the bulk of food, although all members helped. Older girls in the family would be in charge of fetching water each morning,

9500-522: The desert people had embraced the Catholicism of the Spanish conquistadors . Tohono Oʼodham villages resisted such change for hundreds of years. During the 1660s and in 1750s, two major rebellions rivaled in scale the 1680 Pueblo Rebellion . Their armed resistance prevented the Spanish from increasing their incursions into the lands of Pimería Alta . The Spanish retreated to what they called Pimería Baja . As

9625-509: The desert subdivisions found on Baja California, cardon cactus, elephant tree, and boojum tree occur. The California fan palm ( Washingtonia filifera ) is found in the Colorado Desert section of the Sonoran Desert, the only native palm in California, among many other introduced Arecaceae genera and species. It is found at spring -fed oases , such as in Anza Borrego Desert State Park , Joshua Tree National Park , and

9750-529: The dominant vegetation in the landscape. The landscape is interspersed with plains and mountains. These include the Quinlan and Baboquivari Mountains , which include Kitt Peak, the Kitt Peak National Observatory and telescopes, and Baboquivari Peak . Sells, Arizona , is the Nation's largest community and functions as the capital. The Tohono Oʼodham Nation occupies four separate pieces of land for

9875-547: The duty would fall to the wife if there were no daughters. Women also wove baskets, and made pottery, such as ollas . Men performed many of the farming tasks, and hunted. Older men would hunt larger game like bighorn sheep , younger men and boys hunted small game. Most communities had a medicine man , a usually male position. Decisions were made by men in a communal fashion, with elders holding prominence. Children were free to play until age six, around which time they began to learn their roles. Grandparents and older siblings were

10000-570: The earliest times our fathers have owned land which was given to them by the Earth's prophet." Because the Oʼodham lived on public lands or had no documentation of ownership, their holdings were threatened by white cattle herders in the 1880s. However, they used their history of cooperation with the government in the Apache Wars to bargain for land rights. Today, Oʼodham lands are made up of multiple reservations: The Tohono Oʼodham Community Action (TOCA)

10125-538: The east and the Mogollon Rim in the northeast. There are also a few small areas of cold semi-arid climate ( BSk ) and even hot-summer Mediterranean climate ("Csa") on only the highest mountain peaks within the region. Many plants not only survive, but thrive in the harsh conditions of the Sonoran Desert. Many have evolved specialized adaptations to the desert climate. The Sonoran Desert's bi-seasonal rainfall pattern results in more plant species than any other desert in

10250-530: The east. To the south the Sonoran–Sinaloan transition subtropical dry forest is the transition zone from the Sonoran Desert to the tropical dry forests of the Mexican state of Sinaloa . The desert's sub-regions include the Colorado Desert of southeastern California; and the Yuma Desert east of the north-to-south section of the Colorado River in southwest Arizona. In the 1957 publication Vegetation of

10375-467: The economic resources and activities of the Tohono O'odham Nation." Many tribal members felt these promises were not guaranteed. At the end of the decade, O'odham on the Mexican side of the border wrote an "open letter" to O'odham on the American side. In it they wrote: "our human rights and aboriginal rights have slowly been violated or disappeared in Mexico." This articulated the concerns of many Oʼodham about

10500-411: The education of tribal children, the federal government began to support education where the children lived with their families. By August 1953, it had no grades lower than 7th grade. In 1960, the school closed its doors. The site was developed as Santa Cruz Plaza, just southwest of Pueblo Magnet High School . The Tohono Oʼodham Nation within the United States occupies a reservation that incorporates

10625-416: The end of the harvest, each family would contribute a small amount of syrup to a communal stock that would be fermented by the medicine man. This was cause for rainmaking celebrations. Stories would be told, there was much dancing, and songs would be sung. Each man would drink some of the saguaro wine. The resulting intoxicated state was seen as holy, and any dreams it brought on were considered portentous. This

10750-563: The festivals rather than lose 4–8 days of labor while tribal members traveled by wagon. The end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th saw a decline in the subsistence economies of the Oʼodham, and after the Bureau of Indian Affairs drilled wells for them, their need to migrate declined. Despite these changes, the Oʼodham continued to move through the region with their families, working as hired hands on farms, mines, and ranches where work appeared. The pre-contact legacy and economic lifestyles of

10875-568: The first and current church building were constructed by Oʼodham. The second building was constructed under direction of Franciscan priests, during a mission period from 1783 to 1797. The oldest European building in present-day Arizona, the mission is considered a premier example of Spanish colonial design. It is one of many missions built in the Southwest by the Spanish on what was then the northern frontier of their colony. Tourists sometimes assume that

11000-476: The government to assimilate the children of various tribes into the American mainstream. The current tribal government, established in the 1930s under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934, reflects years of commercial, missionary, and federal intervention. While the federal government encouraged tribes to reestablish their governments, it approved models based on the electoral system and structure of

11125-614: The growing international divide and population loss in Sonora. In its 1990 census, the Mexican government recorded no Oʼodham living in Sonora. The O'odham saw a subsequent rise in illegal crossing and smuggling through tribal lands as the surrounding security increased. In 2003 the Nation hosted a Congressional hearing on illegal activity on tribal lands. In the hearing tribal leaders and law enforcement officers testified about "incidents of cross-border violence, and even incursions by Mexican military personnel in support of drug smugglers." Along with

11250-527: The interests of the larger communities and families. The legislative branch which includes the tribal council which is made up two representatives from each of the twelve districts. The third branch is the Judicial which includes five judges. present chairman is Ned Norris Jr , Vice Chairwoman is Wavalene Saunders, Legislative Chairman is Timothy Joaquin Gu Achi, and Chief Judge is Donald Harvey. This can all be found on

11375-438: The most frequent teachers, as parents tended to be very busy. Marriages were generally arranged by parents, or if the parents had died, older siblings. Since individual villages tended to be closely related, marriages were generally between villages, as close relatives were not allowed to marry. A wife would generally move to the village of her husband, but exceptions could be made if the wife's village needed more help. Polygamy

11500-462: The nation continued to move freely across the international border. Throughout this time, tribal members traveled and migrated to work, participate in religious ceremonies, keep medical appointments in Sells, and visit relatives. The O'odham were deliberate in attending their religious festivals, and left their employers for two to four weeks to travel to Magdalena, Sonora. Oʼodham labor was so valued that employers began to drive their O'odham employees to

11625-417: The nation holds the annual Sells Rodeo and Parade in its capital. Sells District rodeo has been an annual event since being founded in 1938. It celebrates traditional frontier skills of riding and managing cattle. In the visual arts, Michael Chiago and the late Leonard Chana gained widespread recognition for their paintings and drawings of traditional Oʼodham activities and scenes. Chiago has exhibited at

11750-516: The native cities were grander than Mexico City , which led to the Coronado expedition . Considerable evidence suggests that, before the late 17th century, the Oʼodham and Apache were friendly and engaged in the exchange of goods and marriage partners. Oʼodham oral history , however, suggests that intermarriages resulted instead from raiding between the two tribes. It was typical for women and children to be taken captive in raids, to be used as slaves by

11875-427: The new 12th district of the Tohono Oʼodham Nation. On April 25, 2015, the Hia-Ced District was dissolved by referendum vote, returning the Nation to its original 11 districts. Most Tohono Oʼodham people live in the United States. A small number are across the international border in northwestern Mexico . The Tohono Oʼodham Nation speaks a common language, Oʼodham , which is the 10th most-spoken indigenous language in

12000-521: The office of the National Indian Institute , but the office struggled with inadequate resources and institutionalized corruption. In the 1980s, O'odham in Sonora responded to decades of land theft and bureaucratic failure by staging an occupation at the "weak and underfunded" National Indian Institute offices. The tribal constitution ratified in 1986 reads: "All members of the Tohono O'odham Nation shall be given equal opportunity to participate in

12125-478: The original crops that the Indigenous group produced, such as tepary beans, squash, and the buds of cholla cactus, were items that could have aided in combating the diabetes crisis within the community. These foods possessed nutrients that would have helped normalize blood sugar and minimize the impact of diabetes. However, as a result of government intervention, many of these traditional foods were lost. A local nonprofit, Tohono Oʼodham Community Action (TOCA), has built

12250-610: The origins of the Oʼodham. Claims that the Oʼodham moved north as recently as 300 years ago compete with claims that the Hohokam , who left the Casa Grande Ruins , are their ancestors. In the Santa Barbara Mission Archive-Library are materials collected by a Franciscan friar who worked among the Tohono Oʼodham. These include scholarly volumes and monographs. The Office of Ethnohistorical Research, located at

12375-400: The records are susceptible to easy alteration or falsification. O'odham can cross the border with Tribal Identification Cards, but these can be denied at the border and legal documentation on the reservation is poor. Separation from family members and detainment are possibilities for O'odham crossing into the United States. Today, the tribal government incurs extra costs due to the proximity of

12500-453: The reservation. The Nation is organized into 11 local districts. Nine districts are on the Tohono Oʼodham Indian Reservation with the Gila Bend and San Xavier reservations, which are separated from the main reserve, making up the other two. The Tohono Oʼodham Nation's government has three branches: executive, judicial, and legislative. The executive includes the chairmen and vice chairmen of

12625-478: The school and support its expansion, its superintendent entered into a contract with the city of Tucson to grade and maintain streets. While officially called the Tucson Indian Training School, "any person of either sex, regardless of race or color", who showed "promise of development into a Christian leader or citizen and whose educational needs may, in the judgement of the school, be better served by

12750-547: The school than by another available resource" was eligible for admission. In 1903, Jose Xavier Pablo, who later went on to become a leader in the Tohono Oʼodham Nation , graduated from the school. Three years later, the school bought the land they were leasing from the city of Tucson and sold it at a significant profit. In 1907, they purchased land just east of the Santa Cruz River, near present-day Ajo Way and built

12875-542: The southern border of Mexico and western border of the Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument. An article published in March 2018 revealed that there are 52 IFTs in place along Arizona's southern border. Before the implementation of IFTs, the government had been using SBInets. These machines were intended to serve the same purpose as the towers, while also allowing Border Patrol agents to observe information from

13000-401: The species and seasonal temperatures. Creosote bush ( Larrea tridentata ) and bur sage ( Ambrosia dumosa ) dominate valley floors. Indigo bush ( Psorothamnus fremontii ) and Mormon tea are other shrubs that may be found. Wildflowers of the Sonoran Desert include desert sand verbena ( Abronia villosa ), desert sunflower ( Geraea canescens ), and evening primroses . Ascending from

13125-405: The state and tribe for the costs of border-related emergencies. Tribe Chairman Ned Norris Jr. has complained about the lack of reimbursement for border enforcement. Citing the impact it would have on wildlife and on the tribe's members, Tohono O'odham tribal leaders made a series of official statements opposing President Donald Trump 's plan to build a wall along the U.S.–Mexico border. While

13250-487: The tribe operates have become its major source of revenue and jobs. The tribe operates the Tohono Oʼodham Utility Authority, a tribal firm established in 1970 to provide electric and water service to the reservation. Basket weaving remains an economic pursuit; the tribe produces more basketry than any other tribe in the United States. Tohono O%CA%BCodham people The Tohono Oʼodham Nation governs

13375-521: The tribe's water source, preventing the Indigenous group from being able to produce traditional crops. This resulted in the widespread trend of type 2 diabetes among members of the tribe. The adaptation of a processed food diet caused the presence of type 2 diabetes to rise at alarming rates, with nearly 60 percent of the adult population in the tribe facing this disease and 75 percent of children expected to contract this disease in their lifetime. Children are also at risk for childhood obesity. Many of

13500-421: The tribe. Moreover, even in tribal schools, such as those in the local Baboquivari Unified School District, the quality of lunch programs is being reassessed in order to bring a larger emphasis of the need for healthier food options. The Tohono Oʼodham Nation is one of the only Indigenous groups to offer tribal members access to medical treatment in the United States. Requirements for this enrollment include being

13625-506: The twenty-first century, and still speak their language . Since the late 20th century, however, U.S. mass culture has penetrated and in some cases eroded Oʼodham traditions as their children adopt new trends in technology and other practices. Beginning in the 1960s, government intervention in the tribe's agricultural cultivation caused the Tohono Oʼodham tribe members to shift from a traditional plant-based diet to one that favored foods high in fat and calories. The government began to close off

13750-457: The valley up bajadas , various subtrees such as velvet mesquite ( Prosopis velutina ), palo verde ( Parkinsonia florida ), desert ironwood ( Olneya tesota ), desert willow ( Chilopsis linearis ssp. arcuata ), and crucifixion thorn ( Canotia holacantha ) are common, as well as multi-stemmed ocotillo ( Fouquieria splendens ). Shrubs found at higher elevations include whitethorn acacia ( Acacia constricta ), fairy duster, and jojoba . In

13875-553: The vice chair is Carla Johnson. The chief justice is Violet Lui-Frank, and the legislative chair is Timothy Joaquin Gu Achi. The Tohono Oʼodham Nation operates its own educational system, which includes Tohono Oʼodham Community College , a fire department, several recreation centers, a health center, a nursing home, and a public utilities company. Economic support for the tribe comes from a variety of sources. Some Tohono Oʼodham still farm or engage in subsistence ranching. The tribe sells and leases copper mineral rights. The four casinos

14000-481: The victors. Often women married into the tribe in which they were held captive and assimilated under duress. Both tribes thus incorporated "enemies" and their children into their cultures. The San Xavier District is the site of Mission San Xavier del Bac , the "White Dove of the Desert". This is a major tourist attraction near Tucson . The mission was founded in 1700 by Jesuit missionary and explorer Eusebio Kino . Both

14125-492: The wild. Cholla ( Cylindropuntia spp.), beavertail ( Opuntia basilaris ), hedgehog ( Echinocereus spp.), fishhook ( Ferocactus wislizeni ), prickly pear ( Opuntia spp.), nightblooming cereus ( Peniocereus spp.), and organ pipe ( Stenocereus thurberi ) are other taxa of cacti found here. Cacti provide food and homes to many desert mammals and birds, with showy flowers in reds, pinks, yellows, and whites, blooming most commonly from late March through June, depending on

14250-453: The world. The Sonoran Desert includes plant genera and species from the agave family, palm family, cactus family, legume family, and numerous others. Many of these adaptations occur in food crops. Mission Garden is a living agricultural museum that showcases foods that have been grown in the Sonoran Desert for over 4000 years. The Sonoran is the only place in the world where the famous saguaro cactus ( Carnegiea gigantea ) grows in

14375-557: Was a common recreational event, with men playing a game with sticks similar to dice, and women playing a game which required tossing painted sticks. They would bet trinkets such as shells or beads, as well as valuables such as blankets and mats. Betting also occurred on races, which were the most important sport. Girls were already generally good runners due to being water fetchers, and all members needed to be able to run to escape danger or attacks. Day long races were popular events, and courses would be 10–15 mi (16–24 km). Women played

14500-441: Was allowed. Although women had little choice in whom they married, they could choose to leave their marriage if unhappy; they would then return to their village and a new marriage would be arranged. Society was intensely communal, and there were few positions of authority. Hunters shared their catches with the entire village. Food and supplies were shared with those who needed it. It was expected that if you had been given things in

14625-454: Was an especially important food. The Tohono Oʼodham use long sticks to harvest the fruits, which are then made into a variety of products including jams, syrups, and ceremonial wine. Tohono O'odham cooks made porridge from its edible seeds. The harvest begins in June; villages would travel to the saguaro stands for the duration of the harvest. A pair of saguaro ribs, about 6 m (20 ft) long,

14750-459: Was forgotten in the aftermath of 9/11. Since then, bills have repeatedly been introduced in Congress to solve the "one people-two country" problem by granting U.S. citizenship to all enrolled members of the Tohono Oʼodham, but so far they have not passed. Opponents of granting U.S. citizenship to all enrolled members of the Nation say that many births on the reservation have been informally recorded and

14875-484: Was founded by current CEO and President Terrol Dew Johnson and co-founder Tristan Reader in 1996 on the basis of wanting to restore and re-integrate lost tribal traditions into the community. Located in Sells, Arizona, they originally started as a community garden and offered basketweaving classes. Now, the organization has expanded to having its own two farms, restaurant, and art gallery. Sonoran Desert The Sonoran Desert ( Spanish : Desierto de Sonora )

15000-413: Was made by crushing the pods of the trees), cholla cactus, and acorns. On the agricultural side of their diet, farmers focused on corn, squash, and tepary beans. It was not until more numerous Americans of Anglo-European ancestry began moving into the Arizona territory that the outsiders began to oppress the people's traditional ways. Unlike many tribes in the United States, the Tohono Oʼodham never signed

15125-568: Was made in the early 1530s by Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca of the ill-fated Narváez expedition . Esteban the Moor passed through these lands, one of the four survivors of the Narvaez expedition. He returned later to lead Fray Marcos de Niza in an attempt to find the mythical Seven Cities of Gold . Esteban was killed by the Zuni when he dishonored their customs, and de Niza cut short his journey. De Niza wrote that

15250-485: Was most commonly used during summer monsoons. Mission Garden in Tucson, Arizona, includes O'odham areas that show foods and farming methods before and after European contact. This includes planting in basins that hold the monsoon rains. Traditional tribal foods were a combination of goods provided by nature and items they cultivated. From nature, the Tohono Oʼodham would consume rabbit, sap and flour from mesquite trees (flour

15375-629: Was slow and ineffective. The Oʼodham were accused of participating in the Yaquis' international weapons smuggling. As Mexicans were deported during the Great Depression , the Mexican government gave them Oʼodham tribal lands. Notions of isolation were further intensified during WWII as the U.S.–Mexico border was militarized to protect against potential invasions via the Sea of Cortez , and tribal lands in Sonora were privatized to increase government production. In 1977

15500-457: Was the only time that the Oʼodham drank alcohol during the year. Ak cin , known as "mouth of the wash", refers to the farming method in which farmers would monitor the weather for signs of storm cloud formations. The appearance of storm clouds signified that there was going to be a downpour of rain. Farmers would anticipate these moments and quickly prep their plantations for seeding as the rain began to flood their lands. This type of agriculture

15625-472: Was typical of Pima practices to the north. But most streams were not reliable enough for the people to build permanent canal systems. Winter villages were built in the mountains, to take advantage of more reliable water, and to enable the men to engage in hunting games. Historically, the Oʼodham were enemies of the nomadic Apache from the late 17th until the beginning of the 20th century. The Oʼodham word for

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