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100-542: The Titan II GLV (Gemini Launch Vehicle) or Gemini-Titan II was an American expendable launch system derived from the Titan II missile , which was used to launch twelve Gemini missions for NASA between 1964 and 1966. Two uncrewed launches followed by ten crewed ones were conducted from Launch Complex 19 at the Cape Canaveral Air Force Station , starting with Gemini 1 on April 8, 1964. The Titan II

200-458: A paraglider under development to enable a Gemini spacecraft to paraglide to a dry-land touch-down, but was unable to get it working in time for Project Gemini missions. In March 1964, NASA attempted to get the USAF interested in using the paraglider with Gemini B, but after reviewing the troubled program, the USAF concluded that the paraglider still had too many problems to overcome, and it turned down

300-567: A 22 February 1962 memorandum to the Secretary of the Air Force , Eugene Zuckert , the Secretary of Defense , Robert McNamara , decided to fast track Dyna-Soar and save money by skipping the suborbital testing phase; the Dyna-Soar was now planned to be launched by a Titan III booster. The same 22 February 1962 memorandum gave tacit approval for the development of a space station. The USAF staff and

400-472: A circular field of view 2,700 meters (9,000 ft) across, although at top magnification it was more like 1,300 meters (4,200 ft). This was much smaller than many of the targets that the NRO was interested in, such as air bases, shipyards and missile ranges. The astronauts would search for targets using the tracking and acquisition telescopes, which had a circular view about 12.0 km (6.5 nmi) across, with

500-652: A closed one, for example), they would save film, the major limitation, since it had to be returned in the small Gemini B spacecraft. In cloudy areas like Moscow, it was estimated that the MOL would be 45 percent more efficient in its use of film than an automated satellite system through the ability to react to cloud cover, but for sunnier areas like the Tyuratam missile complex , this might be no more than 15 percent. The selective targeting afforded by human-guided surveillance would be more efficient than that obtained by robotic satellites. Of

600-510: A core diameter of 1.25 m, with two liquid propellant stages, a single thrust chambered first stage and a two-thrust chambered, step-throttled second stage, the SLV has a lift off mass exceeding 26 tons. The first stage consists of a lengthened up-rated Shahab-3C . According to the technical documentation presented in the annual meeting of the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs , it is

700-523: A jet's afterburner or large train. Walter Schirra and Gordon Cooper reported that the ride was smoother than on the Atlas, however. Two retired Titan II missiles are on display repainted as Gemini Launch Vehicles, along with a few replicas. [REDACTED] Media related to Titan II Gemini at Wikimedia Commons Expendable launch system Arianespace SA is a French company founded in March 1980 as

800-531: A more flexible suit than those of NASA astronauts. The NASA astronauts had custom-made sets of flight, training and backup suits, but for the MOL the intention was that spacesuits would be provided in standard sizes with adjustable elements. The USAF sounded out the David Clark Company , International Latex Corporation , B. F. Goodrich and Hamilton Standard for design proposals in 1964. Hamilton Standard and David Clark each developed four prototype suits for

900-553: A much higher thrust-to-weight ratio than the Saturn V . Astronauts experienced almost 6G before the second stage stopped firing at 100 miles (160 km) altitude. Richard F. Gordon Jr. compared the Titan II to "a young fighter pilot's ride. It's faster than the Saturn's old man's ride." Frank Borman said that simulations did not prepare him for the "almost deafening" noise, which he compared to

1000-495: A paper that considered the development of a space station equipped with telescopes and other observation devices. The USAF had already started a satellite program in 1956 called WS-117L. This had three components: SAMOS , a spy satellite; Corona , an experimental program to develop the technology; and MIDAS , an early warning system. The launch of Sputnik 1 , the first satellite , by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957, came as

1100-418: A physiology test console; Bay 5, an exercise device; Bay 6, two emergency oxygen masks; Bay 7, a view port and instrument panel; and Bay 8, the main spacecraft control station. The MOL program's requirements for a spacesuit were a product of the spacecraft design. The Gemini B capsule had little room inside, and the MOL astronauts gained access to the laboratory through a hatch in the heat shield. This required

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1200-639: A profound shock to the American public, which had assumed American technical superiority. One benefit of the Sputnik crisis was that no government protested Sputnik's overflying their territory, thereby tacitly acknowledging the legality of satellites. While there was a big difference between Sputnik and a spy satellite, it made it much harder for the Soviets to object to overflights by satellites from another country. In February 1958, President Dwight D. Eisenhower ordered

1300-562: A resolution of about 9.1 meters (30 ft). The main camera would focus on the most important targets, providing a very high resolution image. The aim was to have the most interesting part of the target in the center of the image; due to the optics used, the image would not be as sharp around the edges. While surveillance targets were pre-programmed and the camera could operate automatically, astronauts could decide target priority for photographing. By avoiding cloudy areas and identifying more interesting subjects (an open missile silo instead of

1400-535: A result of the Apollo 1 fire in January 1967, in which three NASA astronauts were killed in a ground test of their spacecraft, the MOL was switched to use a helium-oxygen atmosphere instead of a pure oxygen one. At takeoff, the astronauts would breathe pure oxygen in their spacesuits while the cabin was pressurized with helium. It would then be brought up to a helium-oxygen mix. This was an option that had been provided for in

1500-490: A selection board to review candidates before forwarding their names to NASA. The Chief of Staff of the USAF, General John P. McConnell , informed Schriever that he expected the selection of MOL astronauts to follow the same procedure. A selection board was convened in September 1965, chaired by Major General Jerry D. Page . On 15 September 1965, the selection criteria for MOL was announced. Candidates had to be: In October 1965,

1600-560: A shirt-sleeve environment in space for up to thirty days. The USAF recommended that the MOL use the Gemini B spacecraft with the Titan III booster. A program of six flights (one uncrewed and five crewed) was proposed, the first flight taking place in 1966. The program was costed at US$ 1.653 billion (equivalent to $ 12 billion in 2023). The Science Advisor to the President , Donald Hornig , reviewed

1700-462: A two-stage rocket with all liquid propellant engines. The first stage is capable of carrying the payload to the maximum altitude of 68 kilometres. The Israel Space Agency is one of only seven countries that both build their own satellites and launch their own launchers. The Shavit is a space launch vehicle capable of sending payload into low Earth orbit . The Shavit launcher has been used to send every Ofeq satellite to date. The development of

1800-652: Is a launch vehicle that improved reliability while reducing costs by making significant improvements to the H-II, and the M-V was the world's largest solid-fuel launch vehicle at the time. In November 2003, JAXA's first launch after its inauguration, H-IIA No. 6, failed, but all other H-IIA launches were successful, and as of February 2024, the H-IIA had successfully launched 47 of its 48 launches. JAXA plans to end H-IIA operations with H-IIA Flight No. 50 and retire it by March 2025. JAXA operated

1900-618: Is also an ELV customer, having designed the Titan, Atlas, and Delta families. The Atlas V from the 1994 Evolved ELV (EELV) program remains in active service, operated by the United Launch Alliance . The National Security Space Launch (NSSL) competition has selected two EELV successors, the expendable Vulcan Centaur and partially reusable Falcon 9 , to provide assured access to space. Iran has developed an expendable satellite launch vehicle named Safir SLV . Measuring 22 m in height with

2000-667: Is to market Ariane 6 launch services, prepare missions, and manage customer relations. At the Guiana Space Centre (CSG) in French Guiana , the company oversees the team responsible for integrating and preparing launch vehicles. The rockets themselves are designed and manufactured by other companies: ArianeGroup for the Ariane 6 and Avio for the Vega. The launch infrastructure at the CSG is owned by

2100-465: Is very experienced in development, assembling, testing and operating system for use in space. Manned Orbiting Laboratory The Manned Orbiting Laboratory ( MOL ) was part of the United States Air Force (USAF) human spaceflight program in the 1960s. The project was developed from early USAF concepts of crewed space stations as reconnaissance satellites , and was a successor to

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2200-504: The Air Force Systems Command (AFSC) began planning for a space station, which was now known as a Military Orbital Development System (MODS). By the end of May 1962, a proposed system package plan (PSPP) had been drawn up. For tracking purposes, it was designated Program 287. MODS consisted of a space station, a modified NASA Gemini spacecraft that became known as Blue Gemini , and a Titan III launch vehicle. The space station

2300-486: The Atlas LV-3B , which had been selected for Project Mercury , because Titan's hypergolic -fueled engines contained far fewer components. Several modifications were made to the Titan missile to human-rate it for Project Gemini: Modifications were overseen by the Air Force Systems Command . The Aerojet company, the manufacturer of the Titan's engines, had released a revised model during mid-1963 due to deficiencies in

2400-458: The Director of Defense Research and Engineering (DDR&E), Harold Brown , examined options for a space station. He preferred a four-man station that would be launched separately and crewed by astronauts arriving in Gemini spacecraft. Crews would rotate every 30 days, with resupply of consumables arriving every 120 days. On 10 December 1963, McNamara issued a press release that officially announced

2500-607: The European Space Agency , while the land itself belongs to and is managed by CNES , the French national space agency. During the 1960s and 1970s, India initiated its own launch vehicle program in alignment with its geopolitical and economic considerations. In the 1960s–1970s, the country India started with a sounding rocket in the 1960s and 1970s and advanced its research to deliver the Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 and

2600-771: The H-IIB , an upgraded version of the H-IIA, from September 2009 to May 2020 and successfully launched the H-II Transfer Vehicle six times. This cargo spacecraft was responsible for resupplying the Kibo Japanese Experiment Module on the International Space Station . To be able to launch smaller mission on JAXA developed a new solid-fueled rocket, the Epsilon as a replacement to the retired M-V . The maiden flight successfully happened in 2013. So far,

2700-642: The Redstone missile to the Delta , Atlas , Titan and Saturn rocket families, have been expendable. As its flagship crewed exploration replacement for the partially reusable Space Shuttle , NASA's newest ELV, the Space Launch System flew successfully in November 2022 after delays of more than six years. It is planned to serve in a major role on crewed exploration programs going forward. The United States Air Force

2800-626: The Space Shuttle between 1981 and 1985. The Titan IIIM rocket developed for the MOL never flew, but its UA1207 solid rocket boosters were used on the Titan IV , and the Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster was based on materials, processes and designs developed for them. NASA spacesuits were derived from the MOL ones, MOL's waste management system flew in space on Skylab , and NASA Earth Science used other MOL equipment. SLC-6

2900-519: The 159 KH-7 Gambit photographs of the Tyuratam area, only 9 percent showed missiles on the launch pads, and of 77 photographs of missile silos, only 21 percent were with the doors open. The analysts identified 60 MOL targets in the complex. Only two or three could be photographed on each pass, but astronauts could select the most interesting ones, and photograph them with greater resolution than KH-7 Gambit. The Air Force expected that an improved version of

3000-456: The 40-man, Y-shaped station as a " spaceborne command post " in synchronous orbit . With the "key requirement – post attack survivability", the station would be capable of "Strategic/tactical decision making" during a general war. The Gemini spacecraft originated at NASA in 1961 as a development of the Mercury spacecraft , and was originally called Mercury Mark II. The name "Gemini"

3100-502: The Air Force aspects of NRO activities), Major General Robert Evans Greer , to look into the MOL's potential reconnaissance capabilities. These studies cost US$ 3,237,716 (equivalent to $ 24.3 million in 2023). The most expensive was of the Gemini B spacecraft, which cost US$ 1,189,500 (equivalent to $ 8.93 million in 2023), followed by the Titan III interface, which cost US$ 910,000 (equivalent to $ 6.83 million in 2023). The USAF issued an RFP to twenty firms in January 1965. At

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3200-444: The Gemini program was code-named "Green Man" and involved momentary pitch oscillations of the Titan second stage following engine cutoff. This phenomenon had happened on both Gemini and uncrewed Titan II/III flights and had resulted in the failure of the ablative skirt on the second stage at least twice (those instances were dubbed "Brown Man"). Investigation following skirt failure on a Titan IIIC launch concluded that pressure buildup in

3300-524: The MOL Policy Committee decided that MOL crew members would be designated "MOL Aerospace Research Pilots" rather than astronauts. The names of the first group of eight MOL pilots were announced on 12 November 1965 as a Friday night news dump to avoid press attention. To prevent their return to the Navy on graduation, Finley and Truly were retained as instructors until the announcement. In late 1965,

3400-531: The MOL SPO concurred with all but the last, noting that while IBM had a technically superior bid to UNIVAC , its estimated cost was US$ 32 million (equivalent to $ 230 million in 2023) compared to UNIVAC's US$ 16.8 million (equivalent to $ 121 million in 2023). Douglas decided to let study contracts to both firms. To provide prospective astronauts for the X-15 rocket-powered aircraft , Dyna-Soar and MOL programs, on 5 June 1961

3500-532: The MOL definition phase activities. Johnson had announced two MOL contractors: Douglas and General Electric. While the former had considerable technical and managerial experience from the Thor , Genie and Nike projects, General Electric had experience with large optical systems, and, perhaps more importantly, had over a thousand personnel immediately cleared for Dorian, while Douglas had very few. A US$ 10.55 million (equivalent to $ 76 million in 2023) fixed-price contract

3600-571: The MOL space station, known as Block II, expected to be available for the sixth crewed flight in July 1974, would add image transmission and geodetic system targeting. Astronauts would perform infrared , multispectral , and ultraviolet astronomy when they had time during an extended mission duration on twice-annual flights. After Block II, the MOL program managers hoped to build larger, permanent facilities. A planning document depicted 12-man and 40-man stations, both with self-defense capability. It described

3700-464: The MOL. A competition was held at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in January 1967, and a production contract awarded to Hamilton Standard. At least 17 blue MOL MH-7 training suits were delivered between May 1968 and July 1969. A single MH-8 flight configuration suit was delivered in October 1968 for certification testing. The flight suit was intended to be worn during launch and reentry. The contract for

3800-567: The Shavit began in 1983 and its operational capabilities were proven on three successful launches of the Ofek satellites on September 19, 1988; April 3, 1990; and April 5, 1995. The Shavit launchers allows low-cost and high-reliability launch of micro/mini satellites to a low Earth orbit . The Shavit launcher is developed by Malam factory, one of four factories in the IAI Electronics Group. The factory

3900-518: The Soviet Union. Twenty-four U-2 missions produced images of about 15 percent of the country with a maximum resolution of 0.61 meters (2 ft) before the downing of a U-2 in 1960 abruptly ended the program. This left a gap in American espionage capabilities that it was hoped spy satellites would fill. In July 1957 – before anyone had flown in space – the USAF Wright Air Development Center published

4000-473: The Titan II was resolving problems with resonant vibration known as "pogo" (since the action was said to resemble that of a pogo stick ) that could produce g-forces sufficient to incapacitate astronauts, but the Air Force were not interested in helping NASA with a problem that did not affect the ICBM program and could potentially delay it, or require major modifications to the design. However, Martin-Marietta argued that

4100-560: The USAF Ballistic Systems Division. He had also been the Corona program manager, and had supervised SAMOS, MIDAS and SAINT , together with the early communications and weather satellite programs. As well as being Schriever's deputy, Evans became Zuckert's Special Assistant for MOL on 18 January 1965. In this role, he reported directly to Zuckert, and was responsible for liaising between MOL and other agencies such as NASA. In

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4200-631: The USAF began selecting a second group of MOL pilots. This time applications were accepted. Selection occurred at the same time as that for NASA Astronaut Group 5 , many applying to both programs. Successful candidates were told that NASA or MOL had chosen them, with no explanation why they had been chosen by one and not the other. Over 500 applications were received and 100 were forwarded to USAF Headquarters. The MOL Program Office selected 25, who were sent to Brooks Air Force Base for physical evaluation in January and February 1966. Five were selected, and their names were publicly announced on 17 June 1966: Bobko

4300-792: The USAF created the Aerospace Research Pilot Course at the USAF Experimental Flight Test Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base in California. The school was renamed the Aerospace Research Pilot School (ARPS) on 12 October 1961. Four classes were conducted between June 1961 and May 1963, the third receiving instruction on Dyna-Soar as part of the course. The commandant of the ARPS, Colonel Charles E. "Chuck" Yeager , advised Schriever to restrict

4400-478: The USAF submitted a request for US$ 5 million (equivalent to $ 39 million in 2023) in funding for space station studies in fiscal year 1963, but no funding was forthcoming. In its 26 April 1961 project plan, Dyna-Soar was to be launched into space on a suborbital ballistic trajectory by a Titan I booster, its first piloted suborbital flight in April 1965, followed by its first piloted orbital flight in April 1966. In

4500-603: The USAF to proceed as quickly as possible with Corona as a joint interim project with the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). In August 1958, Eisenhower decided to give responsibility for most forms of human space flight to the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Deputy Secretary of Defense Donald A. Quarles transferred US$ 53.8 million (equivalent to $ 436 million in 2023) that had been set aside for USAF space projects to NASA. This left

4600-577: The USAF with a few programs with direct military impact. One was a delta-wing, rocket-propelled glider that came to be called the Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar . The USAF remained interested in space, and in March 1959, the Chief of Staff of the Air Force , General Thomas D. White asked the USAF Director of Development Planning to prepare a long-range plan for a USAF space program. One project identified in

4700-474: The USAF's submission. He noted that for the sophisticated reconnaissance missions proposed, a human-operated system was far superior to an automated one, but speculated that with sufficient effort, the gap between the two could be reduced. He also noted that while countries had not objected to satellites passing overhead, a crewed space station might be a different matter, but the Secretary of State , Dean Rusk , thought that this could be managed. There remained

4800-454: The ablative skirt caused the pitch oscillations, but NASA decided that there was probably little chance of loose debris from the skirt contacting the Gemini spacecraft, so no corrective action had to be taken and in any case, the Titan IIIC incident was found to be the result of poor quality control which would not affect the more strictly supervised Gemini program. The assembly of these rockets

4900-516: The astronauts to prepare for a splashdown and the possibility of the spacecraft sinking. NASA had pioneered neutral buoyancy simulation as a training aid . The pilots were given scuba diving training at the U.S. Navy Underwater Swimmers School in Key West, Florida . Training was then conducted on a General Electric simulator on Buck Island , near Saint Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands . Water survival training

5000-572: The basic equipment of a satellite reconnaissance equipment. Other studies examined key MOL subsystems such as environmental control, electrical power, navigation, attitude control stabilization, guidance, communications and radar. The United States Under Secretary of the Air Force and the Director of the National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), Brockway McMillan , asked the director of NRO Program A (the component of NRO responsible for

5100-415: The canceled Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar military reconnaissance space plane. Plans for the MOL evolved into a single-use laboratory, for which crews would be launched on 30-day missions, and return to Earth using a Gemini B spacecraft derived from NASA 's Gemini spacecraft and launched with the laboratory. The MOL program was announced to the public on 10 December 1963 as an inhabited platform to demonstrate

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5200-481: The cancellation of Dyna-Soar and the initiation of the MOL program. Soon after coming to office, the Kennedy administration tightened security regarding spy satellites in response to Soviet sensitivities. No administration official would even admit they existed until President Jimmy Carter did so in 1978. MOL was therefore a semi-secret project, with a public face but a covert reconnaissance mission, similar to that of

5300-497: The classified aspect. They received security clearances and were introduced to Sensitive Compartmented Information such as Dorian, Gambit, Talent (intelligence obtained from spy plane overflights) and Keyhole (intelligence obtained from satellites). Truly was amazed to learn that his country had not one but "two space programs: the public, what the public knew and [NASA] astronauts and all that jazz, and then this other world of capability that didn't exist". Phase I of crew training

5400-426: The ejection seat headrests to allow access to the hatch. The seats were therefore mirror images of each other instead of being the same. Gemini B also had a larger diameter heat shield to handle the higher energy of reentry from a polar orbit . The number of reentry control system thrusters was increased from four to six. There was no orbit attitude and maneuvering system (OAMS), because capsule orientation for reentry

5500-580: The end of February 1965, Boeing , Douglas , General Electric and Lockheed were selected to carry out design studies. Covert NRO activities to be carried out by MOL were classified secret and given the code name "Dorian". In February 1969, the MOL was given a Keyhole (reconnaissance satellite) designation as KH-10 Dorian. As a black project (i.e. one that was secret and publicly unacknowledged), but one impossible to completely conceal, MOL needed some "white" (i.e. unclassified and publicly acknowledged) experiments as cover. An MOL Experiments Working Group

5600-417: The environmental control system; Bay 3, the hygiene/waste compartment; Bay 4, the biochemical test console and work station; Bays 5 and 6, the airlock; and Bay 7, a glovebox for handling liquids; below that, a secondary food console. In the "lower" half, Bay 1 contained a motion chair that measured the mass of the crew; Bay 2, two performance test panels; Bay 3, the environmental control system controls; Bay 4,

5700-416: The first stage turbopump gearbox was prone to total failure caused by resonant vibration in the idler gear. This problem had not occurred on actual launches, but only static firing tests. This was considered to be a critical item to fix. Aerojet developed a totally redesigned gearbox, and all of Gemini launch vehicles except for the uncrewed Gemini 1 used it. There was also a potentially serious problem with

5800-423: The laboratory module. The purpose-built laboratory module was divided into two sections, but there was no partition between the two, and the crew could move freely between them. It was 5.8 meters (19 ft) long and 3.05 meters (10.0 ft) in diameter. Both were octagonal in shape, with eight bays. In the "upper" half (as it would have been on the launch pad), Bays 1 and 8 contained storage compartments; Bay 2,

5900-588: The laboratory module. After about one month of space station operations, the crew would return to the Gemini B capsule, power it up, separate it from the station, and perform reentry . Gemini B had an endurance of about 14 hours once detached from MOL. Like the NASA Gemini, the Gemini B spacecraft would splash down in the Atlantic or Pacific Oceans and be recovered by the same DoD spacecraft recovery forces used by NASA's Project Gemini and Project Apollo . NASA had

6000-452: The launch/reentry suit was followed by a second competition in September 1967 for a suit for extravehicular activity (EVA). This too was won by Hamilton Standard. The design was complicated by USAF concerns that a crew member might slip their tethers and float away. As a result, an astronaut maneuvering unit (AMU) was developed and integrated with the life support system as an integrated maneuvering and life support system (IMLSS). The design

6100-542: The more advanced Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), complete with operational supporting infrastructure by the 1990s. Japan launched its first satellite, Ohsumi , in 1970, using ISAS' L-4S rocket. Prior to the merger, ISAS used small Mu rocket family of solid-fueled launch vehicles, while NASDA developed larger liquid-fueled launchers. In the beginning, NASDA used licensed American models. The first model of liquid-fueled launch vehicle developed domestically in Japan

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6200-783: The most famous of them being the R-7 , commonly known as the Soyuz rocket that is capable of launching about 7.5 tons into low Earth orbit (LEO). The Proton rocket (or UR-500K) has a lift capacity of over 20 tons to LEO. Smaller rockets include Rokot and other Stations. Several governmental agencies of the United States purchase ELV launches. NASA is a major customer with the Commercial Resupply Services and Commercial Crew Development programs, also launching scientific spacecraft. The vast majority of launch vehicles for its missions, from

6300-443: The offer. The MOL laboratory module was intended to be used for a single mission only, with no provision for a later mission to dock and reuse it. Instead, its orbit would decay and it would be dumped in the ocean after 30 days. Externally Gemini B was quite similar to its NASA twin, but there were many differences. The most noticeable was that it featured a rear hatch for the crew to enter the MOL space station. Notches were cut into

6400-415: The original design, and also to attempt to improve manufacturing procedures. Film footage of Gemini 10 's launch revealed that the first stage oxidizer tank ruptured shortly after staging and released a cloud of N 2 O 4 . As first stage telemetry had been terminated at staging, there was no data other than photographic/visual evidence to go by, however the conclusion was that either loose debris struck

6500-405: The original design. Four Gemini B spacecraft were ordered from McDonnell, along with a boilerplate aerodynamically similar test article, at a cost of US$ 168.2 million (equivalent to $ 1173 million in 2023). In November 1965, NASA agreed to hand over Gemini spacecraft No. 2 and Static Test Article No. 4 to the MOL program. Gemini spacecraft No. 2, which had flown in the 1965 Gemini 2 mission,

6600-424: The oxidizer tank dome or else exhaust from the second stage engine had burned through it. Gemini 12 's launch vehicle also experienced a tank rupture after staging and film review of Titan II ICBM launches found several occurrences of this phenomenon. Since this did not appear to pose any safety risks to the astronauts, NASA decided that it was not a concern. During Titan II ICBM development, it had been found that

6700-593: The plan was a "manned orbital laboratory". The USAF Air Research and Development Command (ARDC) issued a request to the Aeronautical Systems Division (ASD) at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base on 1 September 1959 for a formal study to be conducted of a military test space station (MTSS). The ASD asked components of the ARDC for suggestions as to what sort of experiments would be suitable for an MTSS, and 125 proposals were received. A request for proposal (RFP)

6800-426: The pogo problem could be fixed fairly easily, and also the Air Force began to develop more of an interest in man-rating the Titan II due to the proposed Manned Orbiting Laboratory program. The primary changes made to resolve pogo were adding oxidizer standpipes , increasing the pressure in the propellant tanks, and adding a mechanical accumulator to the fuel suction side. Another nuisance problem that occurred during

6900-553: The question of whether the improved performance compared to the automated KH-8 Gambit 3 satellite then under development justified the cost. The Director of Central Intelligence , Admiral William Raborn agreed that it might. McNamara took the proposal to President Lyndon Johnson on 24 August 1965, who approved it, and issued an official announcement at a press conference the following day. In January 1965, Schriever had appointed Brigadier General Harry L. Evans as his deputy for MOL. Evans had previously worked with Schriever in

7000-463: The rocket has flown six times with one launch failure. In January 2017, JAXA attempted and failed to put a miniature satellite into orbit atop one of its SS520 series rockets. A second attempt on 2 February 2018 was successful, putting a four kilogram CubeSat into Earth orbit. The rocket, known as the SS-520-5, is the world's smallest orbital launcher. Roscosmos uses a family of several launch rockets,

7100-521: The same time, automated systems rapidly improved, narrowing the benefits of a crewed space platform over an automated one. A single uncrewed test flight of the Gemini B spacecraft was conducted on 3 November 1966, but the MOL was canceled in June 1969 without any crewed missions being flown. Seven of the astronauts transferred to NASA in August 1969 as NASA Astronaut Group 7 , all of whom eventually flew in space on

7200-469: The secret Corona spy satellite program. On 16 December 1963, USAF Headquarters ordered Schriever to submit a development plan for the MOL. About US$ 6 million (equivalent to $ 45 million in 2023) was spent on preliminary studies, most of which were completed by September 1964. McDonnell prepared a study of the Gemini B spacecraft, Martin Marietta of the Titan III booster, and Eastman Kodak of camera optics,

7300-467: The selection of astronauts for the MOL to ARPS graduates. The program did not accept applications; 15 candidates were selected and sent to Brooks Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas , for a week of medical evaluation in October 1964. The evaluations were similar to those conducted for NASA astronaut groups. For the first three NASA astronaut groups in 1959 , 1962 and 1963 , the USAF had established

7400-414: The third group of MOL astronauts on 30 June 1967: Lawrence was the first African-American to be chosen as an astronaut. Many MOL astronauts had hoped since childhood to travel into space. They only knew of the cover story that the program would be a space laboratory for military experiments, and did not learn of the reconnaissance role until after selection; they were advised to resign if they disliked

7500-434: The turbopump bearings which led to more design changes, however the odds of failing on a Gemini launch were slim to nil since GLV boosters used specially selected and tested bearings, in addition the turbopumps would be "hot fired" as part of prelaunch checks Combustion instability in the second stage engine was also a concern although that too had only been witnessed in static firing runs. A new injector with improved baffling

7600-479: The utility of putting people in space for military missions; its reconnaissance satellite mission was a secret black project . Seventeen astronauts were selected for the program, including Major Robert H. Lawrence Jr. , the first African-American astronaut. The prime contractor for the spacecraft was McDonnell Aircraft Corporation ; the laboratory was built by the Douglas Aircraft Company . The Gemini B

7700-599: The wake of Johnson's announcement of the program, MOL was given the designation Program 632A. The USAF announced the appointment of Schriever as MOL director and Evans as vice director, in charge of the MOL staff at the Pentagon , with Brigadier General Russell A. Berg as deputy director, in charge of the MOL staff at the Los Angeles Air Force Station in El Segundo, California . The MOL System Program Office (SPO)

7800-410: The world's first commercial launch service provider . It operates two launch vehicles : Vega C , a small-lift rocket , and Ariane 6 , a medium -to- heavy-lift rocket. Arianespace is a subsidiary of ArianeGroup , a joint venture between Airbus and Safran . European space launches are carried out as a collaborative effort between private companies and government agencies. The role of Arianespace

7900-449: Was a two-month introduction to the MOL program in the form of a series of briefings from NASA and the contractors. Phase II lasted for five months, and was conducted at the ARPS, where the astronauts were given technical training on the MOL vehicles and their operation procedures. This training was conducted in classrooms, training flights, and sessions on the T-27 space flight simulator. Phase III

8000-419: Was a two-stage liquid-fuel rocket , using a hypergolic propellant combination of Aerozine 50 fuel and nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer. The first stage was powered by an LR87 engine (with two combustion chambers and nozzles, fed by separate sets of turbomachinery), and the second stage was propelled by an LR-91 engine. In addition to greater payload capability, the Titan II promised greater reliability than

8100-754: Was approved by Flax in December 1965 and signed by Leonard Marks Jr. , the Assistant Secretary of the Air Force (Financial Management & Comptroller) . This provided for a more regular channel, with funds going through the AFSC to its Space Systems Division (SSD) and thence to the MOL SPO. Thus far no definition contracts had been let, except for the Titan III expendable launch vehicle . On 30 September 1965, Brown released US$ 12 million (equivalent to $ 90 million in 2023) in fiscal year 1965 funds and US$ 50 million (equivalent to $ 376 million in 2023) in fiscal year 1966 funds for

8200-530: Was carried over to its successor, the H-IIA and H-IIB and became the basic configuration of Japan's liquid fuel launch vehicles for 30 years, from 1994 to 2024. In 2003, JAXA was formed by merging Japan's three space agencies to streamline Japan's space program, and JAXA took over operations of the H-IIA liquid-fueled launch vehicle, the M-V solid-fuel launch vehicle, and several observation rockets from each agency. The H-IIA

8300-422: Was chosen in recognition of its two-man crew. The NASA Gemini spacecraft was redesigned for the MOL and named Gemini B, although the NASA Gemini spacecraft was never referred to as Gemini A. The astronauts would fly into space in the Gemini B capsule, which would be launched together with the MOL modules atop a Titan IIIM launch vehicle . Once in orbit, the crew would power down the capsule and activate and enter

8400-794: Was conducted at the USAF Sea Survival School at Homestead Air Force Base in Florida, and jungle survival training at the Tropical Survival School at Howard Air Force Base in the Panama Canal Zone . In July 1967, the pilots underwent training at the National Photographic Interpretation Center (NPIC) in Washington, D.C. From the MOL's regular 280- kilometer (150  nmi ) orbit, the main camera had

8500-459: Was continuous training on the MOL systems and providing crew input to them. The pilots spent most of their time in this phase. Phase IV was training for specific missions. Simulators were developed for each of the different MOL systems: Laboratory Module Simulator, Mission Payload Simulator, and Gemini B Procedures Simulator. Zero-G training was conducted in a Boeing C-135 Stratolifter reduced-gravity aircraft . A Flotation-Egress trainer allowed

8600-550: Was created in March 1964 under Brigadier General Joseph S. Bleymaier , the Deputy Commander of the AFSC Space Systems Division (SSD). By August 1965, the MOL had a staff of 42 military and 23 civilian personnel. Schriever retired from the Air Force in August 1966, and was succeeded as head of the AFSC and MOL Program Director by Major General James Ferguson . Evans retired from the Air Force on 27 March 1968, and

8700-470: Was created under Colonel William Brady. Some 400 experiments proposed by several agencies were examined. These were consolidated and reduced to 59, and twelve primary and eighteen secondary ones were selected. A 499-page report on the experiments was issued on 1 April 1964. Although reconnaissance was its main purpose, "manned orbiting laboratory" was still an accurate description; the program hoped to prove that astronauts could perform militarily useful tasks in

8800-514: Was developed for the engine and flight-tested on a Titan IIIC launch; all GLVs from Gemini 8 onwards incorporated it. After a Titan II propellant feed line was found to have some damage during factory inspections, NASA put out the requirement that all GLV propellant lines had to be X-rayed in order to prevent a potentially disastrous fuel leak during launch. X-ray tests later found several more damaged propellant lines, most likely due to careless handling. The most significant issue in man-rating

8900-591: Was done at Martin-Marietta's plant in Baltimore, Maryland , so not to interfere with missile work at the one in Denver, Colorado , although this also saved the former plant from a planned shutdown. As with the Mercury-Atlas launch vehicles, a high degree of workmanship was stressed as well as more thorough testing of components and improved handling procedures compared with Titans designed for uncrewed flights. The Titan II had

9000-804: Was expected to provide a shirt-sleeve environment for a crew of four for up to 30 days. On 25 August 1962, Zuckert informed General Bernard Adolph Schriever , the commander of the AFSC, that he was to proceed with studies of the Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) as the director of the program. The name was chosen because NASA did not want the Department of Defense (DoD) to use the term "space station". On 9 November 1962, Zuckert submitted his proposals to McNamara. For fiscal year 1964, he requested US$ 75 million (equivalent to $ 579 million in 2023) in funding for MODS and US$ 102 million (equivalent to $ 796 million in 2023) for Blue Gemini. Since Project Gemini

9100-537: Was externally similar to NASA's Gemini spacecraft, although it underwent several modifications, including the addition of a circular hatch through the heat shield, which allowed passage between the spacecraft and the laboratory. Vandenberg Space Launch Complex 6 (SLC-6) was developed to permit launches into polar orbit . As the 1960s progressed, the Vietnam War competed with the MOL for funds, and resultant budget cuts repeatedly postponed its first operational flight. At

9200-413: Was handled by the forward reentry control system thrusters, and the laboratory module had its own reaction control system for orientation. The Gemini B systems were designed for long-term orbital storage (40 days), but equipment for long duration flights was removed since the Gemini B capsule itself was intended to be used only for launch and reentry. It had a different cockpit layout and instruments. As

9300-428: Was now associated with national security, McNamara considered taking over the entire project from NASA, but after some negotiation with NASA, McNamara and NASA Administrator James E. Webb reached an agreement on collaboration on the project in January 1963. McNamara called for a review of whether Dyna-Soar had military capabilities that could not be met by Gemini, on 18 January 1963. In his 14 November 1963 response,

9400-433: Was refurbished as a prototype Gemini B spacecraft. The hatch in the Gemini B spacecraft's heat shield connected to a transfer tunnel that ran through the adaptor module. This contained the cryogenic hydrogen , helium and oxygen storage tanks, and housed the environmental control system , fuel cells , and four quad reaction control system thrusters and their propellant tanks. The transfer tunnel gave access to

9500-530: Was refurbished, but plans to have military Space Shuttle launches from there were abandoned in the wake of the January 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster . At the height of the Cold War in the mid-1950s, the United States Air Force (USAF) was particularly interested in the Soviet Union 's military and industrial capabilities. Starting in 1956, the United States conducted covert U-2 spy plane overflights of

9600-560: Was replaced by Major General James T. Stewart . Schriever and the Director of the NRO, Alexander H. Flax , signed a formal agreement covering MOL Black Financial Procedures on 4 November 1965. Under this agreement, the Deputy Director MOL would forward black budget cost estimates to the NRO Controller, who had the authority to obligate NRO funds. This was followed by a corresponding MOL White Financial Procedures Agreement, which

9700-675: Was signed with Douglas on 17 October 1965. Contract negotiations with General Electric were also completed around this time, and the company was given US$ 4.922 million (equivalent to $ 35 million in 2023), all but US$ 0.975 million (equivalent to $ 7 million in 2023) of it in black budget funds. The Aerospace Corporation was given responsibility for general systems engineering and technical direction. Douglas selected five major subcontractors: Hamilton-Standard for environmental control and life support; Collins Radio for communications; Honeywell for attitude control; Pratt & Whitney for electrical power; and IBM for data management. Aerospace and

9800-607: Was the H-II , introduced in 1994. NASDA developed the H-II with two goals in mind: to be able to launch satellites using only its own technology, such as the ISAS, and to dramatically improve its launch capability over previous licensed models. To achieve these two goals, a staged combustion cycle was adopted for the first stage engine, the LE-7 . The combination of the liquid hydrogen two-stage combustion cycle first stage engine and solid rocket boosters

9900-563: Was the first graduate of the United States Air Force Academy to be selected as an astronaut. Eight other finalists for the second class had not yet completed ARPS. One was already attending; the other seven were sent to Edwards Air Force Base to join Class 66-B. The MOL Astronaut Selection Board met again on 11 May 1967, and recommended that four of the eight be appointed. The MOL Program Office announced names of those selected for

10000-535: Was then issued on 19 February 1960, and twelve firms responded. On 15 August 1960, General Electric , Lockheed Aircraft , Glenn L. Martin Company , McDonnell Aircraft Corporation , and General Dynamics shared US$ 574,999 (equivalent to $ 4.49 million in 2023) for a study of the MTSS. Their preliminary reports were submitted in January 1961, and final reports were received by July 1961. With these in hand, on 16 August 1961,

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