124-497: The Tibet Frontier Commission headed the British expedition to Tibet in 1903–04. The Commission comprised seven diplomats and army officers, led by Colonel Francis Younghusband . Despatched on the orders of Lord Curzon , Viceroy of India , the commission was intended to establish diplomatic relations with the government of Tibet and, in particular, to resolve the dispute over the border between Tibet and Sikkim . The commission
248-534: A Himalayan state, Kumaon do have a huge Tourism industry. The major tourism hubs include- Basmati rice, Red rice, wheat, Ragi(Madua in Kumaoni), soybeans, groundnuts, coarse cereals, pulses, and oil seeds are the most widely grown crops. Fruits like apples, oranges, pears, peaches, lychees, and plums are widely grown and are important to the large food processing industry. Ramgarh, in Nainital District, specially,
372-614: A Hindu pilgrim Kailash Manasarovar . he also built the Golu Devata Temple, at Ghorakhal, near Bhimtal , after Lord Golu, a general in his army, who died valiantly in battle. He also built the famous Bhimeshwara Mahadev Temple at Bhimtal. Towards the end of the 17th century, Chand kings again attacked the Garhwal kingdom, and in 1688, Udyot Chand erected several temples at Almora, including Tripur Sundari, Udyot Chandeshwar, and Parbateshwar. To mark his victory over Garhwal and Doti,
496-506: A breach, which would be stormed immediately by his main force. The ancient monastic complex at Tsechen, dating from the fourteenth century, was torched, to prevent its re-occupation by the Tibetans. The eventual assault on 6 July did not happen as planned, as the Tibetan walls were stronger than expected. General Macdonald's plan was for the infantry to advance in three columns, from the south-west,
620-626: A cultural link between different ethnic communities of Kumaon, therefore has significant importance. Many classical dance forms and folk art are practised in the Kumaon. Some well-known dances include Hurkiya Baul, Jhora-Chanchri and Chholiya . Music is an integral part of the Kumaoni culture. Popular types of folk songs include Mangal and Nyoli. These folk songs are played on instruments including dhol , damau, turri, ransingha , dholki , daur, thali , bhankora , mandan and mashakbaja . A famous Kumaoni folk
744-485: A district under the Kumaon division. Three new districts viz. Pithoragarh from Almora , Chamoli from Garhwal and Uttarkashi from Tehri Garhwal were created in 1960. A new revenue division, named Uttarakhand division was carved out from these 3 districts of Kumaon division. The year 1969 saw major administrative reforms in these hilly regions of Uttar Pradesh, and a new Garhwal division , with its headquarter in Pauri ,
868-533: A fee from the Qing court, also agreed "not to annex Tibetan territory or to interfere in the administration of Tibet", while China engaged "not to permit any other foreign state to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet". The British mission departed in late September 1904, after a ceremonial presentation of gifts. Britain had "won" and had received the agreements it desired, but without actually receiving any tangible results. The Tibetans had lost
992-527: A free hand to be "guided by circumstances in this matter". Younghusband raised the indemnity demanded from 5,900,000 to 7,500,000 rupees, and further demanded the right for a British trade agent, based at Gyantse, to visit Lhasa "for consultations". It seems that he was still following Lord Curzon's geo-political agenda to extend British influence in Tibet by securing the Chumbi Valley for Britain. Younghusband wanted
1116-691: A furious blizzard, which stopped all communications with the Gurkha force. Some hours later, exploratory probes down the pass encountered shooting and a desultory exchange continued till the storm ended around noon, which showed that the Gurkhas had by chance found their way to a position above the Tibetan troops. Thus faced with shooting from both sides as Sikh soldiers pushed up the hill, the Tibetans moved back, again coming under severe fire from British artillery and retreated in good order, leaving behind 200 dead. British losses were again negligible. Following this fight at
1240-638: A handful of their most devoted units, comprising monks armed usually with swords and jingals , proved to be effective, but they were in such small numbers as to be unable to reverse the tide of battle. This problem was exacerbated by their generals, who seemed in awe of the British and refused to make any aggressive moves against the small and often dispersed column. They also failed conspicuously to properly defend their natural barriers, frequently offering battle in relatively open ground, where Maxim guns and rifle volleys caused great numbers of casualties. By contrast,
1364-513: A high level British political officer noted. The expeditionary force fought its way to Gyantse and eventually reached Lhasa , the capital of Tibet, in August 1904. The Dalai Lama , Thubten Gyatso, had fled to safety, first to Mongolia and then to China proper . The poorly-trained and equipped Tibetans proved no match for the modern equipment and training of the British Indian forces. At Lhasa,
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#17328511933741488-736: A high wall, and none were killed. The Tibetans were mown down by the Maxim guns as they fled. "I got so sick of the slaughter that I ceased fire, though the general’s order was to make as big a bag as possible", wrote Lieutenant Arthur Hadow, commander of the Maxim guns detachment. "I hope I shall never again have to shoot down men walking away." Half a mile from the battlefield, the Tibetan forces reached shelter and were allowed to withdraw by Brigadier-General Macdonald. Behind them, they left between 600 and 700 dead and 168 wounded, 148 of whom survived in British field hospitals as prisoners. British casualties were 12 wounded. During this battle and some to follow,
1612-470: A rise, especially in Kumaoni diaspora in other states and countries. Kumaoni men do wear a Kumaoni cap, which is of black colour. However, during festivals, especially during Kumauni Holi the cap becomes white in colour. Aipan is the most famous folk art of Kumaon. In recent times its popularity has grown. Aipan is not only an important folk art of Kumaoni community but other ethnic groups of Kumaon, like Shaukas and Rungs, as well. Hence it also acts as
1736-590: A tiny Tibetan village north of Sikkim to establish trade agreements. The Chinese were willing, and ordered the thirteenth Dalai Lama to attend. However, the Dalai Lama refused, and also refused to provide transport to enable the Amban , Yu Tai, to attend. Governor-General Curzon gained approval from London to send a Tibet Frontier Commission , led by Colonel Francis Younghusband with John Claude White and E.C. Wilson as Deputy Commissioners, to Khampa Dzong. However, it
1860-475: Is Bedu Pako Baro Masa . Music is also used as a medium through which the gods are invoked. Jagar is a form of spirit worship in which the singer, or Jagariya , sings a ballad of the gods, with allusions to great epics, like Mahabharat and Ramayana , that describe the adventures and exploits of the god being invoked. Kumaoni Ram Leela is the oldest in the world. It is 150-year-old, due to which UNESCO has declared it world's longest-running opera. In addition,
1984-419: Is Hindi , which according to the 2011 census is the first language of well over a million of the region's inhabitants (mostly concentrated in the south). The major native language, however, is Kumaoni , spoken by about 2 million people. In the southern districts there are also sizeable numbers of speakers of Punjabi , Urdu and Bengali , while the two related languages of Buksa and Rana Tharu are found in
2108-511: Is a revenue and administrative division in the Indian State of Uttarakhand . It spans over the eastern half of the state and is bounded on the north by Tibet , on the east by Nepal , on the south by the state of Uttar Pradesh , and on the west by Garhwal . Kumaon comprises six districts of the state: Almora , Bageshwar , Champawat , Nainital , Pithoragarh and Udham Singh Nagar . Historically known as Manaskhand and then Kurmanchal ,
2232-455: Is a traditional attire worn by married Kumaoni women generally for religious occasions, marriage, and other rituals. Traditionally handmade using vegetable dyes, Pichhauras are available in red and saffron. Local designs made in Almora, Haldwani and other parts of Kumaon use silk fabric and accessories made of pearl. It is also contemporarily made using machines. In recent years its popularity has seen
2356-638: Is an amalgamation of the cultural traditions of North India and the local traditions of Kumaon. The uniqueness of the Kumaoni Holi lies in its being a musical affair, whatever its form, be it the Baithki Holi, the Khari Holi and the Mahila Holi all of which start from Basant Panchmi . This results in the festivities of Holi lasting for almost two months in Kumaon. The Baithki Holi and Khari Holi are unique in that
2480-746: Is famous for its fruits. It is often referred to as the 'Fruit Bowl of Kumaon'. Tea is also cultivated in Berinag, Bhowali, Champawat and Lohaghat. Berinag tea being specially famous for its taste. Champawat's tea is sold by the name "Kumaon Black Tea". Munisyari is very famous for its 'White Rajma' which has also got GI Tag. Additionally Kumaon is also famous for Chyura oil (Kumaoni: Chyūrek tēl). Chuyra Oil has also got GI Certification. Apart from these two Copper work 'tamra' which are speciality of Almora have also got GI Tag. Languages of Kumaon(2011)(Many Kumaoni speakers have listed Hindi as their Mother tongue) The main language used in administration and education
2604-493: Is first struck by the monsoon, is double that of the central hills, in the average proportion of 2000 mm to 1000 mm. No winter passes without snow on the higher ridges, and in some years, it is universal throughout the mountain tract. Frosts, especially in the valleys, are often severe. Prehistoric dwellings and Stone Age implements have been discovered in Almora and Nainital districts. Initially settled by Kol tribals,
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#17328511933742728-533: Is not known whether the Balfour government was fully aware of the difficulty of the operation, or of the Tibetan opinion of the idea. On 19 July 1903, Younghusband arrived at Gangtok , the capital city of the British Indian princely state of Sikkim , where John Claude White was Political Officer , to prepare for his mission. White was unhappy with his secondment to the expeditionary force and, to Younghusband's displeasure, had done everything in his power to have
2852-501: Is what Palestine is to the Christians". Kumaon is home to the financial capital of the state, I.e., Haldwani. Kumaon has the state's most commercial, economic and industrial activities specially in Bhabar and Terai regions. Along with Industries there is a huge tourism sector. Agriculture also plays a huge role in Kumaoni economy. It employs a large percentage of Kumaoni population. Being
2976-548: The Potala Palace . He wrote to his wife that he had been able to "ram the whole treaty down their throats". The salient points of the Convention of Lhasa of 1904 were as follows: The size of the indemnity had been the hardest factor to accept for the Tibetan negotiators. The Secretary of State for India, St John Brodrick, had in fact expressed the need for it to be "within the power of the Tibetans to pay" and given Younghusband
3100-585: The Royal Fusiliers , as well as mountain artillery, engineers, Maxim machine gun detachments from four regiments and thousands of porters recruited from Nepal and Sikkim. The British authorities, anticipating the problems of high altitude conflict, included many Gurkha and Pathan troops from mountainous regions such as Nepal; six companies of the 23rd Sikh Pioneers, four companies of the 8th Gurkhas in reserve at Gnatong in Sikkim, and two Gurkha companies guarding
3224-578: The Tsar of Russia through Dorzhiev. In 1900, he sent an appeal for Russian protection through Dorzhiev, who met the Tsar at the imperial summer residence in Livadia on 30 September, 1900. Gifts were exchanged and the possibility of a Russian consulate in Tibet was discussed. In 1901 Dorzhiev and other representatives met with the Tsar at Peterhof . A Russo-Tibetan treaty was drafted but not adopted due to fears of conflict with
3348-408: The chir pine , Himalayan cypress , pindrow fir , alder , sal and saindan. Limestone , sandstone , slate , gneiss and granite constitute the principal geological formations. Mines of iron , copper , gypsum , lead and asbestos exist, but they are not thoroughly worked. Except in the submontane strips and deep valleys, the climate is mild. The rainfall of the outer Himalayan range, which
3472-453: The "Red Idol Gorge", as the British later called it, the British military pressed on to Gyantse, reaching it on 11 April. The town's gates were opened before Macdonald's forces, the garrison having already departed. Francis Younghusband wrote to his father; "As I have always said, the Tibetans are nothing but sheep." The townspeople continued with their business and the Westerners took a look at
3596-767: The 3 positions: the Manor, the Gurka House, and Palla Manor; he also reopened the line of communication with New Chumbi. By now the Commander-in-Chief in India, Lord Kitchener , was determined to see that Brigadier-General Macdonald should henceforth be in charge of the Mission at all times. The feeling in Simla was that Younghusband was unduly eager to head straight for Lhasa. Younghusband set out for New Chumbi on 6 June and telegraphed Louis Dane,
3720-706: The Baleshwar and Nagnath temples. One of the most powerful rulers of Chand dynasty was Baz Bahadur (1638–78) AD, who met Shahjahan in Delhi , and in 1655 joined forces with him to attack Garhwal , which was then under the King Pirthi Sah. Baz Bahadur subsequently captured the Terai region including Dehradun , which was thus separated from the Garhwal kingdom. Baz Bahadur extended his territory east to Karnali river , later Baz Bahadur invaded Tibet and captured several forts including
3844-420: The British and Chinese commissioners were removed by the Tibetans. The British trade commissioner was told that Tibet did not recognise the concessions made by China. British efforts to directly negotiate with the Tibetans were also rebuffed. The Chinese inability to implement the concessions exposed their "impotence" in Tibet. The British Governor-General came to the conclusion that Chinese suzerainty over Tibet
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3968-630: The British and Indian Governments to renewed efforts, and reinforcements were duly despatched. British troops stationed at Lebong , the 1st battalion of the Royal Fusiliers , the nearest British infantry available, were sent, as well as six companies of Indian troops from the 40th Pathans, a party from the 1st Battalion, the Royal Irish Rifles with two Maxim guns, a British Army Mountain Battery with four ten-pounder guns, and Murree Mountain Battery, as well as two Field Hospitals. Setting out on 24 May 1904,
4092-505: The British and Indian troops were experienced veterans of mountainous border warfare on the North-West Frontier , as was their commanding officer. The British force, which consisted mostly of British Indian troops , numbered over 3,000 fighting men complemented by 7,000 sherpas, porters, and camp followers. This force consisted of elements of the 8th Gurkhas , 40th Pathans , 23rd and 32nd Sikh Pioneers , 19th Punjab Infantry and
4216-504: The British and Qing empires. Russia sent back arms and ammunition, as well as a set of Russian Episcopal robes, to the Dalai Lama. These events reinforced the Governor-General Lord Curzon's belief that the Dalai Lama intended to place Tibet firmly within a sphere of Russian influence and end its neutrality. In 1903, Curzon sent a request to the governments of China and Tibet for negotiations, to be held at Khampa Dzong ,
4340-516: The British camp at Khamba Dzong were involved. The Tibetans were aware of the expedition, and a Tibetan general at Yatung wondered about British intentions. Colonel Younghusband replied, on 6 December 1903, that "we are not at war with Tibet, and unless we are ourselves attacked, we shall not attack the Tibetans". When no Tibetan or Chinese officials met the British at Khampa Dzong, Younghusband advanced with some 1,150 soldiers, porters, labourers, and thousands of pack animals, to Tuna, 50 miles beyond
4464-610: The British during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 under the leadership of the members like Kalu Singh Mahara . In 1891 the division was composed of the three districts of Kumaon, Garhwal and the Tarai ; but the two districts of Kumaon and the Tarai were subsequently redistributed and renamed after their headquarters, Nainital and Almora. The area received international attention after the publication of Man-Eaters of Kumaon , by Jim Corbett ,
4588-415: The British to assume that China possessed authority over Tibet and they began to negotiate with China regarding relations with Tibet. However, the Tibetans rejected the results of these negotiations, including the border settlement and the trade agreement. Tibetan troops erected a stone fortress across the trade route on Sikkimese territory. Protests to China obtained no relief. Boundary pillars erected by
4712-618: The Chang Lo garrison. The Tibetan war gave the Mission staff time to form ranks and repulse the assailants, who lost 160 dead; three men of the Mission garrison were killed. An exaggerated account of the attack, written by Lieutenant Leonard Bethell while faraway at New Chumbi, extolled Younghusband's heroism; in fact, Younghusband's own account revealed that he had fled to the Redoubt, where he remained under cover. The Gurkhas' light mountain guns and Maxims which would have been extremely useful in defending
4836-695: The Commission forced remaining Tibetan officials to sign the Convention of Lhasa , before withdrawing to Sikkim in September, with the understanding the Chinese government would not permit any other country to interfere with the administration of Tibet. The mission was recognized as a military expedition by the British Indian government, which issued a campaign medal, the Tibet Medal , to all those who took part. The British Empire in India came in contact with Tibet after
4960-482: The Dzong in 36 hours. Younghusband made no effort to negotiate, though why talks could not take place while the Tibetans held the Dzong was not clear. The more patient General Macdonald, meanwhile, was subject to a campaign that sought to undermine his authority; Captain O'Connor wrote to Helen Younghusband on 3 July that "He should be removed & another & better man-a fighting general- substituted". The Gyantse Dzong
5084-510: The Edwardian period, colonial wars had become increasingly unpopular, and public and political opinion were unhappy about waging war for such minor reasons as those provided by Curzon, and about the beginning battle, which was described in Britain as a deliberate massacre of unarmed men. It was only because of support from King Edward VII that Younghusband, Macdonald, Grant and others were praised for
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5208-482: The Gurkha House. On 21 May Brander's fighters set out for the village of Naini, where the monastery and a small fort were occupied by the Tibetans; they were involved in significant fighting but were required to break off to return to defend the Mission which was under concerted attack from the Dzong – an attack stifled by Ottley's Mounted Infantry. It was the last serious attempt by Dapon Tailing (the Tibetan commander of
5332-472: The Gurkhas and 40th Pathan soldiers. Further, Tibetan forces in two forts in the village were caught "between two fires" as the garrison at Changlo Manor joined the fight. On 28 June a final obstacle to assaulting Gyantse Dzong was overcome when the Tsechen monastery , to the north-west, and the fortress that guarded its rear were cleared by two companies of Gurkhas, the 40th Pathans and two waves of infantry. Since
5456-580: The Kumaon region has been ruled by several dynasties over the course of history; most notably the Katyuris and the Chands . The Kumaon division was established in 1816, when the British reclaimed this region from the Gorkhas , who had annexed the erstwhile Kingdom of Kumaon in 1790. It was formed into a division of what was then called Ceded and Conquered Provinces , later known as United Provinces . In independent India
5580-499: The Kumaon region was joined with the eastern half of the Garhwal region as a chief-commissionership on the non-regulation system , also known as the Kumaon Province . It was governed for seventy years by three administrators, Mr. Traill, Mr. J. H. Batten and Sir Henry Ramsay . There was widespread opposition against British rule in various parts of Kumaon. The Kumaoni people especially Champawat District rose in rebellion against
5704-585: The Kumaoni Ram Leela is now a part of the World Cultural Heritage List. With the passage of time, people have experimented with the show, yet the oral traditional has stayed as it always was. This is to say that the Ram Leela in Kumaon is not a staged performance; rather, it is a musical fest, which is made special by the beats of instruments like harmonium, dholak and table. In Kumaon's Ram Leela,
5828-506: The Lhasa general: he fired a pistol hitting a Sikh in the jaw. British accounts insist that the Tibetan general became angry at the sight of the brawl developing and shot the Sikh soldier in the face, prompting a violent response from the soldier's comrades, which rapidly escalated the situation. Henry Newman, a reporter for Reuters , who described himself as an eye-witness, said that following this shot,
5952-496: The Massacre of Chumik Shenko. Facing the vanguard of Macdonald's army and blocking the road was a Tibetan force of 3,000 armed with antiquated matchlock muskets, ensconced behind a 5-foot-high (1.5 m) rock wall. On the slope above, the Tibetans had placed seven or eight sangars . The Commissioner, Younghusband, was asked to stop but replied that the advance must continue, and that he could not allow any Tibetan troops to remain on
6076-480: The Mission Escort at Changlo Manor, decided to strike against the Tibetan force assembling at Karo La without consulting Brigadier-General Macdonald, who was two days' riding away. Brander consulted Younghusband instead, who declared himself in favour of the action. Perceval Landon , correspondent of The Times who had sat in on the discussions, observed that it was "injudicious" to attack the Tibetans, and that it
6200-520: The Mission Headquarters where Younghusband could hold his durbars and meet representatives of the Dalai Lama. In the words of historian Charles Allen, they now entered 'a halcyon period', even planting a vegetable garden at the Manor while officers explored the town unescorted, or went fishing and shooting. The commission's medical officer, the philanthropic Captain Herbert Walton , attended to
6324-568: The Parbateshwar temple was renamed twice, to become the present Nanda Devi temple. Later, Jagat Chand (1708–20), defeated the Raja of Garhwal and pushed him away from Srinagar (in Uttarakhand, not to be confused with the capital of present-day Indian Kashmir), and his kingdom was given to a Brahmin . In the latter half of the 18th century, the power of Kumaon was on decline, as the king Mahendra Chand
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#17328511933746448-514: The Royal Fusiliers joined up with Macdonald at New Chumbi, the base depot of the Tibet Mission, in the first days of June. Significant alarms and actions during this period included fighting on 18–19 May when attempts were made to take a building away from the Tibetans between the Dzong and the Mission post, which were successful. About 50 Tibetans were gunned down and the building was renamed
6572-717: The Saalam Satyagraha due to police brutality. Gandhi named it the Bardoli of Kumaon an allusion to the Bardoli Satyagrah . Many Kumaonis also joined the Indian National Army led by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose . After India became independent in 1947, United Provinces were converted into the newly formed Indian state of Uttar Pradesh . The princely state of Tehri Garhwal joined the Indian Union in 1949, and became
6696-474: The Tibet Field Force marched out of New Chumbi. Once the obstacle of Gyantse Dzong was cleared, the road to Lhasa would be open. Gyantse Dzong was, however, too strong for a small raiding force to capture, and as it overlooked British supply routes, it became the primary target of Macdonald's army. On 26 June, a fortified monastery at Naini which covered the approach was taken in house-to-house fighting by
6820-435: The Tibetan side have asserted both that the British tricked the Tibetans into extinguishing the fuses for their matchlocks, and that the British opened fire without warning. However, no evidence exists to show such trickery took place and the likelihood is that the unwieldy weapons were of very limited use in the circumstances. Furthermore, the British, Sikh, and Gurkha soldiers closest to the Tibetans were nearly all protected by
6944-458: The Tibetans had not made any sallies against British positions. This attitude was born of a mix of justifiable fear of the Maxim Guns, and faith in the solid rock of their defences, yet in every battle they were disappointed, primarily by their poor weaponry and inexperienced officers. On 3 July, a formal durbar was held at the Mission and the Tibetan delegation told by Younghusband to clear out of
7068-413: The Tibetans wore amulets which their lamas had promised would magically protect them from any harm. After one battle, surviving Tibetans showed profound confusion over the ineffectiveness of these amulets. In a telegraph to his superior in India a day later, Younghusband stated: "I trust the tremendous punishment they have received will prevent further fighting, and induce them at last to negotiate." Past
7192-433: The annexation of Kumaon and Garhwal in 1815, and it expanded further with their reach into Punjab and Kashmir . However, the British were unable to carry out any negotiations or trade with Tibet. After Sikkim came under British protection in 1861, its border with Tibet needed to be defined. Sikkim also appeared to the British as an ideal route to conduct trade with Tibet. The presence of Chinese ambans in Tibet led
7316-407: The appointment cancelled. He failed, and Younghusband had his revenge for White's insubordination when he later left him in the leech-infested jungles of Sikkim to arrange for mules and coolies to transport supplies to the expedition. Meanwhile, a letter from the under-secretary to the government of India to Younghusband on 26 July 1903 stated that "In the event of your meeting the Dalai Lama,
7440-483: The banks of river Euphrates , and settled in the northern part of India . During this time of the British control of the region, between 1815 and 1857, it was also known as Kemaon . The Kumaon region consists of a large Himalayan tract, together with two submontane strips called the Terai and the Bhabar . The submontane strips were up to 1850 an almost impenetrable forest, given up to wild animals; but after 1850
7564-455: The border. After waiting more months there, hoping in vain to be met by negotiators, the expedition received orders (in 1904) to continue toward Lhasa. The Tibet government, guided by the thirteenth Dalai Lama , alarmed by a foreign power dispatching a military mission to its capital, began marshalling its armed forces. The British army that departed Gnathong in Sikkim on 11 December 1903
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#17328511933747688-470: The capital of Outer Mongolia. The Amban escorted the British into the city with his personal guard, but informed them that he had no authority to negotiate with them. The Tibetans told them that only the absent Dalai Lama had authority to sign any accord. The Amban advised the Chinese emperor to depose the Dalai Lama. The Tibetan Council of Ministers and the General Assembly began to submit to pressure on
7812-560: The chain of quasi-autonomous buffer-states which separated the Raj from the Russian Empire to the north. These rumours were supported by the Russian exploration of Tibet and the presence of a Siberian-born courtier and Mongolian Buddhist lama named Agvan Dorzhiev , who knew and tutored the 13th Dalai Lama . While the Dalai Lama declined to have dealings with the British, he established contact with
7936-585: The commission, and was able to make a comprehensive study of the flora and fauna of the southern and central areas of Tibet during the expedition's slow progress to the capital, Lhasa . British expedition to Tibet British victory [REDACTED] United Kingdom [REDACTED] Qing dynasty The British expedition to Tibet , also known as the Younghusband expedition , began in December 1903 and lasted until September 1904. The expedition
8060-404: The division to 6. Udham singh nagar from Nainital in 1995, and Bageshwar from Almora and Champawat from Pithoragarh in 1997. Two new districts, Ranikhet from Almora and Didihat from Pithoragarh were announced in 2011 by the then Chief minister of Uttarakhand, Ramesh Pokhriyal , but the districts never came into existence because no official notification was ever released. Pichaura (पिछोङा)
8184-464: The downfall of this powerful dynasty began. Birdeo used to collect heavy taxes and forced his people to work as his slaves, King Birdeo teased his subjects by his tyranny to the extent that he forcibly married his own maternal aunt Tila. It is said that the Kumaoni folk song Mami tile dharo bola became popular from that very day. after death of Birdeo the kingdom was divided between his eight sons and they were able to form their different small kingdoms in
8308-484: The ensuing battle Mahendra Chand's uncle was killed. Hearing about his uncle's death, Mahendra Chandra became frightened and fled to the plains, and Kumaon was annexed to the Gorkha Kingdom . The Gorkha rule over Kumaon lasted for 24 years. The only architectural advancements during the period was a road connecting kali river to Srinagar via Almora . The Gorkha rule over Kumaon is said to have been cruel and barbaric. The Gorkha's only thought of Kumaon and Garwhal ( which
8432-474: The events of Chumik Shenko had been one of "shock [and] growing disquiet". The Spectator and Punch magazines had expressed views critical of a spectacle that included "half-armed men" being wiped out "with the irresistible weapons of science". In Whitehall , the Cabinet "kept its collective head down". Meanwhile, intelligence reached Younghusband that Tibetan troops had gathered at Karo La, 45 miles east of Gyantse. Lt. Colonel Herbert Brander, Commander of
8556-474: The excesses of British Raj became defiant of it and played an active part in the Indian Struggle for Independence. While staying in Kumaon for 12 days, recovering from the rigors of imprisonment, Gandhi wrote Anashakti Yoga , his commentary on the Gita . In these hills, nature's hospitality eclipses all men can do. The enchanting beauty of Himalayas, their bracing climate and the soothing green that envelopes you leaves nothing more to be desired. I wonder whether
8680-497: The expedition, whilst Havildar Kabir Pun received the Indian Order of Merit first class (equivalent to the VC as Indian soldiers were not eligible for VCs until the First World War ). Major Wimberley, one of the Medical Officers to the Mission, wrote that though he had seen the Gordons at Dargai he considered "the storming of the breach at Gyantse Dzong by the Gurkhas a far finer performance." Pillaging by soldiers took place at Palkor Chode, Dongtse and other monasteries after
8804-471: The fall of Gyantse Dzong. Whatever General Orders and the Hague Convention of 1899 may have dictated, looting seemed acceptable if the army felt it had been opposed in any way. According to Major William Beynon, in a letter to his wife on 7 July, some of the pillaging was officially approved – in contrast to claims by Dr Waddell, Brigadier-General Macdonald and his chief of staff, Major Iggulden that monastic sites were "most religiously respected". On 12 July
8928-400: The first barrier and with increasing momentum, Macdonald's force crossed abandoned defences at Kangma a week later, and on 9 April attempted to pass through Red Idol Gorge, which had been fortified to prevent passage. Macdonald ordered his Gurkha troops to scale the steep hillsides of the gorge and drive out the Tibetan forces ensconced high on their cliffs. This they began, but soon were lost in
9052-588: The focus is more on singing than acting. Kumaoni holi is the historical and cultural celebration of the Hindu festival of Holi . It is one of the most important festivals for the Kumauni people as it signifies not only the victory of good over evil but also end of the winter season and the start of the new sowing season which holds great importance for this agricultural community of the North Indian Himalayas . It
9176-642: The fort, now back in Tibetan hands, had been requisitioned by Brander's Karo La party. Younghusband sent a message to Brander telling him to complete his attack on Karo, and only then to return to relieve the garrison. The unprovoked attack on the Mission and the Tibetans' reoccupation of the Gyantse Dzong, though a shock, did in fact serve Younghusband's purpose. He wrote privately to Lord Curzon: "The Tibetans as usual have played into our hands." To Lord Ampthill in Simla he wrote that "His Majesty's Government must see that
9300-622: The garrison at Gyantse Dzong) to take Changlo Manor. On 24 May a company of the 32nd Sikh pioneers arrived and Captain Seymour Shepard, DSO , 'a legend in the Indian Army' reached Gyantse, commanding a group of sappers, which lifted British morale. On 28 May he was involved in an attack on Palla Manor, 1,000 yards east of Changlo Manor. 400 Tibetans were killed or wounded. No more assaults were contemplated at this point until Macdonald returned with more troops and Brander concentrated on strengthening
9424-419: The government of India authorizes you to give him the assurance which you suggest in your letter." From August 1903, Younghusband and his escort commander at Khampa Dzong, Lt-Col Herbert Brander, tried to provoke the Tibetans into a confrontation. The British took a few months to prepare for the expedition which pressed into Tibetan territories in early December 1903 following an act of "Tibetan hostility", which
9548-455: The head of Curzon's Foreign Department, telling him that "we are now fighting the Russians, not the Tibetans. Since Karo La we are dealing with Russia." He further sent off a stream of letters and telegrams claiming there was overwhelming evidence of the Tibetans relying on Russian support and that they were receiving a very substantial amount of it. These were claims with no foundation. Younghusband
9672-400: The head of the British Indian government. Curzon had long held deep concerns over Russia's advances in central Asia and now feared a Russian invasion of British India . In April 1903, the British government received clear assurances from Russia that it had no interest in Tibet. "In spite, however, of the Russian assurances, Lord Curzon continued to press for the dispatch of a mission to Tibet",
9796-526: The major cities of the region like Haldwani , Rudrapur , Kashipur , Ramnagar and Tanakpur are concentrated in the southern plain areas of Bhabar and Terai . Kumaon is believed to have been derived from Kurmanchal , meaning the land of Kurma (the tortoise avatar of Vishnu , the preserver deity in Hinduism). According to another theory, the word Kumaon can be traced back to the 5th century BC. The Kassite Assyrians left their homeland Kummah, on
9920-499: The mass of Tibetans surged forward and their attack fell next on a correspondent for the Daily Mail , Edmund Candler , and that very soon after this, fire was directed from three sides on the Tibetans crowded behind the wall. In Doctor Austine Waddell's account, "they poured a withering fire into the enemy, which, with the quick firing Maxims , mowed down the Tibetans in a few minutes with a terrific slaughter." Second-hand accounts from
10044-429: The monastery had offered resistance it was considered fit to loot – several old and valuable thankas duly surfaced at Christie's later in the summer and were sold for high prices. Tibetan responses to the invasion so far had comprised almost entirely static defences and sniping from the mountains at the passing column, neither tactic proving effective. Apart from the failed assault on Chang Lo two months previously,
10168-621: The monastic complex, the Palkor Chode . The central feature was the Temple of One Hundred Thousand Deities, a nine-storey stupa , modelled on the Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya , the spot where Gautama Buddha first achieved enlightenment. Statuettes and scrolls were shared out between officers. Younghusband's Mission Staff and Escort were billeted in the country mansion and farmyard of a Tibetan noble family named Changlo, and 'Changlo Manor' became
10292-454: The name of a god or goddess, ranging from those associated with the Shaiva , Shakta and Vaishnava traditions, to local gods like Bambai Nath Swami, Haim, Saim, Golu, Nanda, Sunanda, Chhurmal, Kail Bisht, Bholanath, Gangnath, Airi and Chaumu. Referring to the rich religious myths and lores associated with Kumaon, E. T. Atkinson has said, "To the beliefs of the great majority of Hindus , the Kumaon
10416-405: The necessity for going to Lhasa has now been proved beyond all doubt." Following the 5 May attack, the Mission and its garrison remained under constant fire from the Dzong. The Tibetans' weapons may have been inefficient and primitive but they kept up a constant pressure and fatalities were an irregular but nagging reality; a fatality on 6 May was followed by another eleven in the seven weeks after
10540-457: The needs of the local populace, notably performing operations to correct cleft palates , a particularly common affliction in Tibet. Five days after he arrived at Gyantse, and deeming the defences of Changlo Manor secure, Macdonald ordered the main force to begin the march back to New Chumbi to protect the supply line. Younghusband wanted to move the Mission to Lhasa and telegraphed London for an opinion but got no reply. Reaction in Britain to
10664-590: The noted hunter and conservationist, describing the author's trials seeking out and killing man-eating tigers. Animals like the Champawat Tiger and the Chowgarh Tigers plagued the area for many years, with the former estimated to have killed over four hundred humans by herself, in Nepal and then Kumaon, in the years 1920–28. Mahatma Gandhi 's advent sounded a death knell for the British in Kumaon. People now aware of
10788-534: The numerous clearings attracted a large population from the hills, who cultivated the rich soil during the hot and cold seasons, returning to the hills in the rains. The rest of Kumaon is a maze of mountains, part of the Himalaya range, some of which are among the loftiest known. In a tract not more than 225 km in length and 65 km in breadth there are over thirty peaks rising to elevations exceeding 5500 m. Rivers such as Gori , Dhauli, and Kali rise chiefly in
10912-475: The payment to be met by yearly instalments; it would have taken about 75 years for the Tibetans to clear their debt, and since British occupation of the Chumbi valley was surety until payment was completed, the valley would remain in British hands. Younghusband wrote to his wife immediately after the signing; "I have got Chumbi for 75 years. I have got Russia out for ever". The regent commented that "When one has known
11036-507: The principle Gurkha chiefs, sent a flag of truce, requesting to end hostilities in the region. A negotiation was brought up the following day, under which the Gurkhas agreed to leave the Country, and all its fortified places. The war ended with Nepal signing the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816, under which, Kumaon officially became a British territory. Later, the region was annexed by the British . In 1815
11160-571: The region for a short period of time until Chands emerged in the region defeating most of katyuri principalities and united Kurmanchal again as Kumaon. The Rajwar dynasty of Askot in Pithoragarh , was set up in 1279 AD, by a branch of the Katyuri kings, headed by Abhay Pal Deo, who was the grandson of Katyuri king Brahma Deo. The dynasty ruled the region until it became part of the British Raj through
11284-527: The region witnessed successive waves of Kiratas, Khasas and Indo-Scythians . Kunindas were the first rulers of the region. They were followed by the Katyuri kings of Khasha origin who controlled the region from 700 to 1200 AD. Around 1100–1200 AD, after Katyuri kingdom disintegration, Kurmanchal was divided into eight different principalities: Baijnath-Katyur , Dwarhat , Doti , Baramandal , Askot , Sira , Sora , Sui . Around 1581 AD, under Rudra Chand,
11408-488: The road. The Tibetans would not fight, but nor would they vacate their positions. Younghusband and Macdonald agreed that "the only thing to do was to disarm them and let them go". British writer Charles Allen has also suggested that a dummy attack was played out in an effort to provoke the Tibetans into opening fire. It seems then that scuffles between the Sikhs and Tibetan guards grouped around Tibetan generals sparked an action of
11532-449: The rock directly under the upper ramparts, scaling the rock face as rocks rained down on them and misdirected fire from one of the Maxims hit more of these Gurkhas than Tibetan defenders above them. After several failed attempts to gain the walls, two soldiers broke through a bottleneck under fire despite both being wounded. They gained a foothold which the following troops exploited, enabling
11656-580: The sappers pulled down the Tsechen monastery and fort and on 14 July Macdonald's force marched east on the Lhasa road. At the Karo La, the Wide-Mouthed Pass that had been the scene of fighting two and a half months earlier, the Gurkhas skirmished with a determined group of Tibetan fighters on the heights to the left and right. Essentially however resistance faded before the advance and a policy of scorched earth
11780-456: The scenery of these hills and the climate are surpassed, if equalled, by any of the beauty spots anywhere of the world. After having been nearly three weeks in Almora hills, I am more than ever amazed why our people need go to Europe in search of health. Gandhi was revered in these parts and on his call the struggle of Salam Saliya Satyagraha led by Ram Singh Dhoni was started which shook the very roots of British rule in Kumaon. Many people died in
11904-494: The scorpion [meaning China] the frog [meaning Britain] is divine". The Amban later publicly repudiated the treaty, while Britain announced that it still accepted Chinese claims of authority over Tibet. Acting Viceroy Lord Ampthill reduced the indemnity by two-thirds and considerably eased the terms in other ways. The provisions of this 1904 treaty were revised in the Anglo-Chinese Convention of 1906 . The British, for
12028-417: The songs on which they are based have a combination of melody, fun, and spiritualism. These songs are essentially based on classical ragas. Baithki Holi is also known as Nirvan Ki Holi or Holi of Salvation. Kumaon's culture has also got recognition. Many of its cultural heritage like Aipan Art, has got GI Tag. In Kumaon, every peak, lake or mountain range is somehow or the other connected with some myth or
12152-438: The south, and south-east. Yet at the opening of the attack there was a near disaster when two columns blundered into each other in the dark. It took eleven hours to break through. The breach was not completed until 4:00 pm, by which time the assault had little time to succeed before nightfall. As Gurkhas and Royal Fusiliers charged the broken wall, they came under heavy fire and suffered some casualties. Gurkha troops climbed
12276-712: The southern slope of the Tibetan watershed north of the loftiest peaks, amongst which they make their way down valleys of rapid declivity and extraordinary depth. The principal is the Sharda (Kali Ganga), the Pindari and Kailganga, whose waters join the Alaknanda . The river Sharda (Kali Ganga) forms the international boundary between India and Nepal. The pilgrim route currently used to visit Kailash-Mansarovar goes along this river and crosses into Tibet at Lipu Lekh pass . The chief trees are
12400-619: The state was called Uttar Pradesh . In 2000, the new state of Uttarakhand was carved out of Uttar Pradesh, including Kumaon. The people of Kumaon are known as Kumaonis and speak the Kumaoni language . Kumaon is home to a famous Indian Army regiment, the Kumaon Regiment . The hill town Nainital is its administrative centre and this is where the Uttarakhand high court is located. Other notable hill towns of Kumaon are Almora , Ranikhet , Pithoragarh , Champawat and Bageshwar . However, all
12524-462: The surprise attack on Changlo Manor. The garrison responded with its own attacks; some of the Mounted Infantry returned from Karo La, armed with new standard-issue Lee–Enfield rifles, and pursued Tibetan horsemen, and one of the Maxims was stationed on the roof and short bursts of machine-gun fire met targets as they appeared on the walls of the Dzong. The attack on Changlo Manor seemed to spur
12648-466: The terms as August progressed, except on the matter of the indemnity which they believed impossibly high for a poor country. Eventually however Younghusband intimidated the regent, Ganden Tri Rinpoche, and the Tsongdu (Tibetan National Assembly), into signing a treaty on 7 September 1904, drafted by himself, known subsequently as the Convention of Lhasa . It was signed, again at Younghusband's insistence, at
12772-562: The territories of Oudh , the Nawab of Oudh , who was then a suzerain of the British Empire , asked for their help, thus paving way for the Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814. The British forces under Colonel Nicholas, consisting of about forty five hundred men and six pounder guns, entered Kumaon through Kashipur and conquered Almora on 26 April 1815. On the same day, Chandra Bahadur Shah, one of
12896-603: The treaty of Sighauli in 1816. The Chand dynasty was established by Som Chand in the 10th century, by displacing the Katyuri Kings, who had been ruling the area from the 7th century AD. He continued to call his state Kurmanchal and established its capital in Champawat in Kali Kumaon called so, due to its vicinity to river Kali. Many temples built in this former capital city, during the 11th and 12th century exist today, this includes
13020-526: The troops camped under the wall of another fortress, Peté Dzong, deserted and in ruins, while Mounted Infantry pushed on ahead to seize the crossing at Chushul Chakzam , the Iron Bridge. On 25 July, the army began to cross the Tsangpo in the wake of the Mounted Infantry, a feat that took four days to achieve. The force arrived in Lhasa on 3 August 1904 to discover that the thirteenth Dalai Lama had fled to Urga ,
13144-431: The walls to be taken. The Tibetans retreated in good order, allowing the British control of the road to Lhasa, but denying Macdonald a route and thus remaining a constant threat (although never a serious problem) in the British rear for the remainder of the campaign. The two soldiers who broke the wall at Gyantse Dzong were both well rewarded. Lieutenant John Duncan Grant was given the only Victoria Cross awarded during
13268-451: The war but had seen China humbled by its failure to defend its client state from foreign incursion, and had pacified the British by signing an unenforceable and largely irrelevant treaty. Captured Tibetan troops were released without condition upon the war's conclusion, many after receiving medical treatment. It was in fact the reaction in London which was fiercest in condemnation of the war. By
13392-502: The war. The British lost just 202 men killed in action and 411 to other causes, such as disease. Tibetan casualties have been estimated at between 2,000 and 3,000 killed or fatally wounded. Though Younghusband, through Curzon's patronage, ascended to the Residency of Kashmir following the campaign, his judgment was no longer trusted, and political decisions on Kashmir and the princely states were made without him. Once Curzon's protection
13516-483: The whole region was brought together again as Kumaon. The Katyuri dynasty was a ruling Hindu dynasty of Khasha origin and was founded by Vashudev Katyuri. they established their kingdom and called it Kurmanchal kingdom, they dominated lands of varying extent from the 'Katyur' (modern day Baijnath) valley in Kumaon, between 7th and 11th centuries AD, and established their capital at Baijnath in Bageshwar district , which
13640-533: Was "quite out of keeping with the studious way in which we have hitherto kept ourselves in the right." Brander's telegram setting out his plans reached Macdonald at New Chumbi on 3 May and he sought to reverse the action, but it was too late. The battle at Karo La on 5–6 May is possibly the highest altitude action in history, won by Gurkha riflemen of the 8th Gurkhas and sepoys of the 32nd Sikh Pioneers who had climbed and then fought at an altitude in excess of 5,700 m. Meanwhile, an estimated 800 Tibetans attacked
13764-488: Was a "constitutional fiction", which was maintained only for mutual convenience and had no effect in practice. On top of this, there were rumours and suspicions in the British government that the Chinese government had reached a secret understanding with the Russians over Tibet, and that Russia was providing arms and fighting forces to Tibet. Russian influence in Tibet would afford them a direct route to British India, breaking
13888-468: Was a massively protected fortress; defended by the best Tibetan troops and the country's only artillery, it commanded a forbidding position high over the valley below. Macdonald engaged in a 'demonstration', a feint directed mainly against the western edges of Gyantse Dzong which would draw Tibetan soldiers away from the southern side of the Dzong which was to be the main object of the attack to come. An artillery bombardment with mountain guns would then create
14012-497: Was adopted – the Tibetans removed what food and fodder they could and emptied villages. Nevertheless, troops could fish in the lakes, where there were also plenty of gulls and redshanks . They passed along the shores of the Yamdok Tso , and reached the fortress of Nakartse, unoccupied except for a party of delegates from Lhasa. Macdonald urged Younghusband to settle the business but Younghusband would negotiate only at Lhasa. By 22 July,
14136-873: Was afterwards established by the British resident in Nepal to have been the herding of some trespassing Nepalese yaks and their drovers back across the border. When Younghusband telegrammed the Viceroy, in an attempt to strengthen the British Cabinet's support of the invasion, that intelligence indicated Russian arms had entered Tibet, Curzon privately silenced him. "Remember that in the eyes of HMG we are advancing not because of Dorzhiev, or Russian rifles in Lhasa, but because of our Convention shamelessly violated, our frontier trespassed upon, our subjects arrested, our mission flouted, our representations ignored." The Tibetan soldiers were almost all rapidly impressed peasants, who lacked organisation, discipline, training and motivation. Only
14260-465: Was conquered some years after the invasion of Kumaon ) as frontier states and so proper administration was not practiced. Many Kumaoni people were sold to slavery by Gorkha administrators in Kumaon, who were often left unsupervised by the primary Gorkha leadership. Almora was the largest town of Kumaon during the gorkha period, and is estimated to have about 1000 houses. After the Gorkhas started meddling in
14384-560: Was effectively a temporary invasion by British Indian Armed Forces under the auspices of the Tibet Frontier Commission , whose purported mission was to establish diplomatic relations and resolve the dispute over the border between Tibet and Sikkim . In the nineteenth century, the British had conquered Burma and Sikkim, with the whole southern flank of Tibet coming under the control of the British Indian Empire . Tibet
14508-514: Was escorted by a large military force led by Brigadier-General J. R. L. Macdonald . However, the expedition was met with hostility by a Tibetan government uninterested in negotiation, and conflicts erupted, with the antiquated Tibetan army which was mostly armed with matchlocks and scythes proving no match for a professional army equipped with Maxim machine guns . Captain Herbert James Walton served as Medical Officer and Naturalist to
14632-402: Was formed with the districts of Tehri Garhwal and Garhwal from Kumaon division, and Uttarkashi and Chamoli from Uttarakhand division. The Uttarakhand division too was disestablished the same year, and the remaining district of Pithoragarh was brought back to Kumaon division, hence giving it its present size. Three new districts were created in the 90's, taking the total number of districts in
14756-539: Was gone, Younghusband had no future in the Indian political service. In 1908, the position he wanted, that of Chief Commissioner of the North-West Frontier Province , was handed to George Roos-Keppel , and Younghusband retired from India at the age of 46. Kumaon division Kumaon ( / ˈ k ɛ m ɔː ʊ / ; Kumaoni : Kumāū ; pronounced [kuːmɔːʊ] ; historically romanised as Kemāon )
14880-539: Was ordered by Lord Ampthill, as acting Viceroy, to re-open negotiations and try again to communicate with the Dalai Lama. Reluctantly Younghusband did deliver an ultimatum in two letters, one addressed to the Dalai Lama and one to the Chinese amban, Manchu Resident in Lhasa, Yu-t'ai, though, as he wrote to his sister, he was against this course of action for he saw it as "giving them another chance of negotiating". On 10 June Younghusband arrived at New Chumbi. Macdonald and Younghusband discussed their differences, and on 12 June
15004-628: Was ruled by the 13th Dalai Lama under the Ganden Phodrang government as a Himalayan state under the protectorate (or suzerainty) of the Chinese Qing dynasty until the 1911 Revolution , after which a period of de facto Tibetan independence (1912–1951) followed. The invasion was intended to counter the Russian Empire 's perceived ambitions in the East and was initiated largely by Lord Curzon ,
15128-495: Was then known as Kartikeyapura and lies in the centre of 'Katyur' valley. Brahmadev mandi in Kanchanpur District of far western Nepal was established by Katyuri king Brahma Deo, At their peak, the kurmanchal kingdom of Katyuri kings was extended from Sikkim in the east to Kabul , Afghanistan in the west, before fragmenting into numerous principalities by the 12th century. It is believed that from king Dham Deo and Bir Deo
15252-463: Was unable to properly administer the country. After the fall of Doti, the Gorkhas decided to invade over Kumaon. The Gorkha forces, under the leadership of Amar Singh Thapa crossed the kali river, and reached the outskirts of Almora via Sor and Gangoli . After facing tough resistance by King Mahendra Chand's uncle who was leading the army, and retreating temporarily, the Gorkha's returned again and in
15376-697: Was well prepared for battle, having had long experience of Indian border wars. Its commander, Brigadier-General James Ronald Leslie Macdonald , wintered in the border country, using the time to train his troops near regular supplies of food and shelter before advancing in earnest in March 1904, travelling over 50 miles (80 km) before encountering his first major obstacle at the pass of Guru ( 28°05′22″N 89°16′40″E / 28.0895°N 89.2778°E / 28.0895; 89.2778 ( Guru ) ), near Lake Bam Tso (or Dochen Tso) on 31 March. A military confrontation on 31 March 1904 became known as
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