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80-708: After the condemnation of Nestorianism at the First Council of Ephesus in 431, the use of theotokia during the course of the Divine Services gradually increased. The inclusion of Theotokia in every service is sometimes accredited to Peter the Fuller , Patriarch of Antioch (471 - 488), a non-Chalcedonian and ardent opponent of Nestorianism. Theotokia are almost part of every service in the Orthodox Church, but there are more specific forms among them. Theotokia often occur at

160-493: A distinct sect following the Nestorian Schism , beginning in the 430s. Nestorius had come under fire from Western theologians, most notably Cyril of Alexandria . Cyril had both theological and political reasons for attacking Nestorius; on top of feeling that Nestorianism was an error against true belief, he also wanted to denigrate the head of a competing patriarchate. Cyril and Nestorius asked Pope Celestine I to weigh in on

240-454: A hypostatic union, 'Jesus Christ', Jesus thus being both fully man and God, of two ousia ( Ancient Greek : οὐσία ) (essences) but of one prosopon (person). Both Nestorianism and Monophysitism were condemned as heretical at the Council of Chalcedon . Nestorius developed his Christological views as an attempt to understand and explain rationally the incarnation of the divine Logos ,

320-582: A letter addressed to Persian Christians reaffirming their condemnation of the Nestorianism as heresy. Following the exodus to Persia , scholars expanded on the teachings of Nestorius and his mentors, particularly after the relocation of the School of Edessa to the (then) Persian city of Nisibis (modern-day Nusaybin in Turkey ) in 489, where it became known as the School of Nisibis . Nestorian monasteries propagating

400-560: A rational soul, which the Word of God united to himself according to the hypostasis, was born from her, the Word is said to be born according to the flesh. The competing view, advocated by Patriarch Nestorius of Constantinople, was that Mary should be called Christotokos , meaning "Birth-giver of Christ," to restrict her role to the mother of Christ's humanity only and not his divine nature. Nestorius' opponents, led by Cyril of Alexandria , viewed this as dividing Jesus into two distinct persons,

480-399: A set of later theological teachings, that were traditionally labeled as Nestorian, but differ from the teachings of Nestorius in origin, scope and terminology. The Oxford English Dictionary defines Nestorianism as: "The doctrine of Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople (appointed in 428), by which Christ is asserted to have had distinct human and divine persons." Original Nestorianism

560-499: A single nature, his human nature being absorbed into his divinity. A brief definition of Nestorian Christology can be given as: " Jesus Christ, who is not identical with the Son but personally united with the Son, who lives in him, is one hypostasis and one nature: human." This contrasts with Nestorius' own teaching that the Word , which is eternal, and the Flesh, which is not, came together in

640-613: A strong presence of Nestorian Christianity in Sri Lanka during the 6th century AD according to Humphrey Codrington , who based his claim on a 6th-century manuscript, Christian Topography , that mentions of a community of Persian Christians who were known to reside in Taprobanê (the Ancient Greek name for Sri Lanka). Nestorian missionaries were firmly established in China during the early part of

720-449: A unity of dignity and authority... nor do we name separately Christ the Word from God, and in similar fashion, separately, another Christ from the woman, but we know only one Christ, the Word from God the Father with his own flesh... But we do not say that the Word from God dwelt as in an ordinary human born of the holy virgin... we understand that, when he became flesh, not in the same way as he

800-595: Is Bogoroditsa (Russian/Serbian/Bulgarian Богородица ). The full title of Mary in Slavic Orthodox tradition is Прест҃а́ѧ влⷣчица на́ша бцⷣа и҆ прⷭ҇нод҃ва мр҃і́а (Russian Пресвятая Владычица наша Богородица и Приснодева Мария ), from Greek Ὑπεραγία δέσποινα ἡμῶν Θεοτόκος καὶ ἀειπάρθενος Μαρία "Our Most Holy Lady Theotokos and Ever-Virgin Mary". German has the translation Gottesgebärerin (lit. "bearer of God"). In Arabic , there are two main terms which are widely used at

880-528: Is a title of Mary, mother of Jesus , used especially in Eastern Christianity . The usual Latin translations are Dei Genitrix or Deipara (approximately "parent (fem.) of God "). Familiar English translations are "Mother of God" or "God-bearer" – but these both have different literal equivalents in Ancient Greek : Μήτηρ Θεοῦ , and Θεοφόρος respectively. The title has been in use since

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960-582: Is a medieval Polish hymn, possibly composed by Adalbert of Prague (d. 997). The Solemnity of Mary, Mother of God is a Roman Catholic feast day introduced in 1969, based on older traditions associating 1 January with the motherhood of Mary. One of the two earliest known depictions of the Virgin Mary is found in the Catacomb of Priscilla (3rd century) showing the adoration of the Magi. Recent conservation work at

1040-478: Is a term used in Christian theology and Church history to refer to several mutually related but doctrinarily distinct sets of teachings. The first meaning of the term is related to the original teachings of Christian theologian Nestorius ( d.   c.  AD 450 ), who promoted specific doctrines in the fields of Christology and Mariology . The second meaning of the term is much wider, and relates to

1120-472: Is acknowledged as indispensable. For this reason, it is formally defined as official dogma . The only other Mariological teaching so defined is that of her virginity. Both of these teachings have a bearing on the identity of Jesus Christ. By contrast, certain other Marian beliefs which do not bear directly on the doctrine concerning the person of Jesus (for example, her sinlessness, the circumstances surrounding her conception and birth , her Presentation in

1200-745: Is also now recognized as yet another Roman matron with accompanying figure and not the Virgin Mary. Recently another third-century image of the Virgin Mary was identified at the eastern Syrian site of Dura Europos in the baptistry room of the earliest known Christian Church. The scene shows the Annunciation to the Virgin. The tradition of Marian veneration was greatly expanded only with the affirmation of her status as Theotokos in 431. The mosaics in Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome, dating from 432 to 40, just after

1280-571: Is attested primarily by works of Nestorius, and also by other theological and historical sources that are related to his teachings in the fields of Mariology and Christology . His theology was influenced by teachings of Theodore of Mopsuestia ( d.  428 ), the most prominent theologian of the Antiochian School . Nestorian Mariology prefers the title Christotokos, which encompasses the term Theotokos ('God-bearer') for Mary , thus emphasizing distinction between divine and human aspects of

1360-567: Is evidently the Christotokos (bearer of Christ), it could be misleading to describe her as the "bearer of God". At issue is the interpretation of the Incarnation , and the nature of the hypostatic union of Christ's human and divine natures between Christ's conception and birth . Within the Orthodox doctrinal teaching on the economy of salvation, Mary's identity, role, and status as Theotokos

1440-459: Is found on Eastern icons, where it is used to identify Mary. The Russian term is Матерь Божия (also Богома́терь ). Variant forms are the compounds The theological dispute over the term concerned the term Θεός "God" vs. Χριστός " Christ ", and not τόκος ( genitrix , "bearer") vs. μήτηρ ( mater , "mother"), and the two terms have been used as synonyms throughout Christian tradition. Both terms are known to have existed alongside one another since

1520-516: Is gradually being reduced to its primary meaning, focused on the original teachings of Nestorius, and not to the far older originating Assyrian Church of the East or it's offshoot, the Chaldean Catholic Church . Nestorianism was condemned as heresy at the Council of Ephesus (431). The Armenian Church rejected the Council of Chalcedon (451) because they believed Chalcedonian Definition

1600-679: Is most often used in English , largely due to the lack of a satisfactory equivalent of the Greek τόκος. For the same reason, the title is often left untranslated, as "Theotokos", in Eastern liturgical usage of other languages. Theotokos is also used as the term for an Eastern icon , or type of icon, of the Mother with Child (typically called a Madonna in western tradition), as in "the Theotokos of Vladimir " both for

1680-781: Is often chanted in a solemn manner, and while the choir is singing it the Deacon or Priest will cense the icon of the Theotokos on the Iconostasis . A Little Entrance is also made during the Divine Liturgy while the choir chants the theotokion that ends the Beatitudes . Theotokia of all types are found in the Horologion , Octoechos , Triodion , Pentecostarion and other liturgical books . The longest and most popular devotion involving Theotokia

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1760-422: Is often cited as the earliest author to use theotokos for Mary (Socrates, Ecclesiastical History 7.32 ( PG 67, 812 B) citing Origen's Commentary on Romans ), but the surviving texts do not contain it. It is also claimed that the term was used c. 250 by Dionysius of Alexandria , in an epistle to Paul of Samosata , but the epistle is a forgery of the 6th century. The oldest preserved extant hymn dedicated to

1840-583: Is often used in hymns to Mary in the Eastern Orthodox , Eastern Catholic and Oriental Orthodox churches. The most common is Axion Estin ( It is truly meet ), which is used in nearly every service. Other examples include Sub tuum praesidium , the Hail Mary in its Eastern form, and All creation rejoices , which replaces Axion Estin at the Divine Liturgy on the Sundays of Great Lent . Bogurodzica

1920-446: Is said to dwell among the saints do we distinguish the manner of the indwelling; but he was united by nature and not turned into flesh... There is, then, one Christ and Son and Lord, not with the sort of conjunction that a human being might have with God as in a unity of dignity or authority; for equality of honor does not unite natures. For Peter and John were equal to each other in honor, both of them being apostles and holy disciples, but

2000-425: Is said to have been begotten according to the flesh" (Cyril's second letter to Nestorius). Explaining his rejection of Nestorius' preferred title for Mary ( Christotokos ), Cyril wrote: Confessing the Word to be united with the flesh according to the hypostasis, we worship one Son and Lord, Jesus Christ. We do not divide him into parts and separate man and God as though they were united with each other [only] through

2080-546: Is the Akathist to the Theotokos. This is solemnly chanted on the Fifth Saturday of Great Lent , and many other times during the year as both public and private devotions. Theotokarion ( Ancient Greek : θεοτοκάριον , Russian : богородичны праздников , Serbian : Богородичник/Bogorodičnik , Latin : Theotocium ) is a book or collection of Eastern Orthodox hymns to Mary ( theotokion ). Nestorianism Nestorianism

2160-487: Is viewed by the West as radical dyophysitism , and differs from eastern orthodox dyophysitism , that was reaffirmed at the Council of Chalcedon (451). Such teachings brought Nestorius into conflict with other prominent church leaders, most notably Cyril of Alexandria , who issued 12 anathemas against him (430). Nestorius and his teachings were eventually condemned as heretical at the Council of Ephesus in 431, and again at

2240-551: Is well developed by the early medieval period . The tradition of Luke the Evangelist being the first to have painted Mary is established by the 8th century. An early icon of the Virgin as queen is in the church of Santa Maria in Trastevere in Rome, datable to 705-707 by the kneeling figure of Pope John VII , a notable promoter of the cult of the Virgin, to whom the infant Christ reaches his hand. The earliest surviving image in

2320-677: The Albanian and Iberian bishops met in Vagharshapat and issued a condemnation of the Chalcedonian Definition. Nestorians held that the Council of Chalcedon proved the orthodoxy of their faith and had started persecuting non-Chalcedonian or Miaphysite Syriac Christians during the reign of Peroz I . In response to pleas for assistance from the Syriac Church , Armenian prelates issued

2400-633: The Assyrian Church of the East Mar Dinkha IV signed an ecumenical declaration, mutually recognizing the legitimacy of the titles "Mother of God" and "Mother of Christ." The declaration reiterates the Christological formulations of the Council of Chalcedon as a theological expression of the faith shared by both Churches, at the same time respecting the preference of each Church in using these titles in their liturgical life and piety. Theotokos

2480-546: The Council of Chalcedon in 451. His teachings were considered as heretical not only in Chalcedonian Christianity , but even more in Oriental Orthodoxy . The already long extant Assyrian Church of the East , would affirm the orthodoxy of Nestorius, lining up the tradition of the fathers which preceded him. After the condemnation, some supporters of Nestorius, who were followers of the Antiochian School and

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2560-485: The Council of Ephesus in 431, leading to the Nestorian Schism , when churches supportive of Nestorius and the rest of the Christian Church separated. However, this formulation was never adopted by all churches termed 'Nestorian'. Indeed, the modern Assyrian Church of the East, which reveres Nestorius, does not fully subscribe to Nestorian doctrine, though it does not employ the title Theotokos . Nestorianism became

2640-581: The Formula of Concord (1577), accepted by the Lutheran World Federation . Whilst Calvin believed that Mary was theologically speaking rightly qualified as "the mother of God", he rejected common use of this as a title , saying, "I cannot think such language either right, or becoming, or suitable. ... To call the Virgin Mary the mother of God can only serve to confirm the ignorant in their superstitions." In 1994, Pope John Paul II and Patriarch of

2720-483: The Incarnation . Nestorian Christology promotes the concept of a prosopic union of two concrete realities (divine and human) in Jesus Christ , thus trying to avoid and replace the concept of a hypostatic union of two natures. The distinction is between 'two hypostasis in one person' and 'two natures in one person'. Hypostasis is not seen as subject, but rather a nature existing in reality. This Christological position

2800-435: The Nestorian Schism . Cyril of Alexandria wrote, "I am amazed that there are some who are entirely in doubt as to whether the holy Virgin should be called Theotokos or not. For if our Lord Jesus Christ is God, how is the holy Virgin who gave [Him] birth, not [ Theotokos ]?" (Epistle 1, to the monks of Egypt; PG 77:13B). But the argument of Nestorius was that divine and human natures of Christ were distinct, and while Mary

2880-591: The Passion . Stavrotheotokia occur most commonly on Wednesdays and Fridays, days which are dedicated to the commemoration of the Cross. The theotokion that occurs at the end of "Lord, I Have Cried" at Vespers on Saturdays is called a Dogmaticon , because its text deals with the mystery of the Incarnation of Christ. The Little Entrance during Vespers is accompanied by the Dogmaticon as a processional troparion . The Dogmaticon

2960-615: The School of Edessa , relocated to the Sasanian Empire , where they were affiliated with the local Assyrian community, many who were followers of the Assyrian Church, known as the Church of the East , while others were Syriac Orthodox . During the period from 484 to 612, gradual development led to the creation of specific doctrinal views within the Church of the East. Evolution of those views

3040-662: The School of Edessa , supported Nestorius – though not necessarily his doctrine – and broke with the churches of the West. Many of Nestorius' supporters relocated to the Sasanian Empire of Iran, home to a vibrant but persecuted Christian minority. In Upper Egypt, Nestorius wrote his Book of Heraclides , responding to the two councils at Ephesus (431, 449). The western provinces of the Persian Empire had been home to Christian communities, headed by metropolitans, and later patriarchs of Seleucia-Ctesiphon . The Christian minority in Persia

3120-664: The Tang dynasty (618–907); the Chinese source known as the Nestorian Stele records a mission under a Persian proselyte named Alopen as introducing Nestorian Christianity to China in 635. The Jingjiao Documents (also described by the Japanese scholar P. Y. Saeki as "Nestorian Documents") or Jesus Sutras are said to be connected with Alopen. Following the Arab conquest of Persia , completed in 644,

3200-802: The 3rd century, in the Syriac tradition (as Classical Syriac : ܝܠܕܬ ܐܠܗܐ , romanized:  Yāldath Alāhā/Yoldath Aloho ) in the Liturgy of Mari and Addai (3rd century) and the Liturgy of St James (4th century). The Council of Ephesus in AD 431 decreed that Mary is the Theotokos because Her Son Jesus is both God and man : one divine person from two natures (divine and human) intimately and hypostatically united . The title of Mother of God (Greek: Μήτηρ (τοῦ) Θεοῦ ) or Mother of Incarnate God , abbreviated ΜΡ ΘΥ (the first and last letter of main two words in Greek),

3280-469: The Catacombs of Priscilla revealed that what had been identified for decades as the earliest image of the Virgin and Child was actually a traditional funerary image of a Roman matron; the pointing figure with her, formerly identified as a prophet, was shown to have had its arm position adjusted and the star he was supposedly pointing to was painted in at a later date. The putative Annunciation scene at Priscilla

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3360-573: The Councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451). The Persian Church became increasingly opposed to doctrines promoted by those councils, thus furthering the divide between Chalcedonian and Persian currents. In 486, the Metropolitan Barsauma of Nisibis publicly accepted Nestorius' mentor Theodore of Mopsuestia as a spiritual authority. In 489, when the School of Edessa in Mesopotamia

3440-486: The East signed by Pope John Paul II and Mar Dinkha IV underlines the Chalcedonian Christological formulation as the expression of the common faith of these Churches and recognizes the legitimacy of the title Theotokos ." In a 2017 paper, Mar Awa Royel , Bishop of the Assyrian Church , stated the position of that church: "After the Council of Ephesus (431), when Nestorius the patriarch of Constantinople

3520-519: The Father — but only with reference to the birth of Jesus , that is, the Incarnation . To make it explicit, it is sometimes translated Mother of God Incarnate . (cf. the topic of Christology , and the titles of God the Son and Son of man ). The Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed of 381 affirmed the Christian faith on "one Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of God, begotten of the Father before all worlds (æons)", that "came down from heaven, and

3600-605: The John Rylands Library , Fellow of the British Academy Sebastian Brock wrote: "the term 'Nestorian Church' has become the standard designation for the ancient oriental church which in the past called itself 'The Church of the East', but which today prefers the fuller title 'The Assyrian Church of the East '. The Common Christological Declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of

3680-573: The Persian Church became a dhimmi community under the Rashidun Caliphate . The church and its communities abroad grew larger under the caliphate. By the 10th century it had 15 metropolitan sees within the caliphate's territories, and another five elsewhere, including in China and India. After that time, however, Nestorianism went into decline. In a 1996 article published in the Bulletin of

3760-585: The Persian Church began to branch out beyond the Sasanian Empire. However, through the sixth century, the church was frequently beset with internal strife and persecution by Zoroastrians. The infighting led to a schism, which lasted from 521 until around 539 when the issues were resolved. However, immediately afterward Roman-Persian conflict led to the persecution of the church by the Sassanid emperor Khosrow I ; this ended in 545. The church survived these trials under

3840-500: The Second Person of the Holy Trinity as the man Jesus. He had studied at the School of Antioch where his mentor had been Theodore of Mopsuestia ; Theodore and other Antioch theologians had long taught a literalist interpretation of the Bible and stressed the distinctiveness of the human and divine natures of Jesus. Nestorius took his Antiochene leanings with him when he was appointed Patriarch of Constantinople by Byzantine emperor Theodosius II in 428. Nestorius's teachings became

3920-453: The Temple , her continuing virginity following the birth of Jesus, and her death ), which are taught and believed by the Orthodox Church (being expressed in the Church's liturgy and patristic writings), are not formally defined by the Church. The term was certainly in use by the 4th century. Athanasius of Alexandria in 330, Gregory the Theologian in 370, John Chrysostom in 400, and Augustine all used theotokos . Origen (d. 254)

4000-399: The Virgin Mary, Ὑπὸ τὴν σὴν εὐσπλαγχνίαν (English: "Beneath thy Compassion," Latin: Sub tuum praesidium ,) has been continually prayed and sung for at least sixteen centuries, in the original Koine Greek vocative, as ΘΕΟΤΟΚΕ. The oldest record of this hymn is a papyrus found in Egypt, mostly dated to after 450, but according to a suggestion by de Villiers (2011) possibly older, dating to

4080-421: The Virgin Mary, conceiving and bearing this divine person, is truly called the Mother of God ( Theotokos ). The council accused Nestorius of heresy , and deposed him as patriarch. Upon returning to his monastery in 436, he was banished to Upper Egypt. Nestorianism was officially anathematized, a ruling reiterated at the Council of Chalcedon in 451. However, a number of churches, particularly those associated with

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4160-400: The council documents, Cyril explained his doctrine. He noted that "the holy fathers... have ventured to call the holy Virgin Theotokos , not as though the nature of the Word or his divinity received the beginning of their existence from the holy Virgin, but because from her was born his holy body, rationally endowed with a soul, with which the Word was united according to the hypostasis , and

4240-499: The council, does not yet show her with a halo . The iconographic tradition of the Theotokos or Madonna (Our Lady) , showing the Virgin enthroned carrying the infant Christ, is established by the following century, as attested by a very small number of surviving icons, including one at Saint Catherine's Monastery in Sinai , and Salus Populi Romani , a 5th or 6th-century Byzantine icon preserved in Rome. This type of depiction, with subtly changing differences of emphasis, has remained

4320-457: The early church, but it has been argued, even in modern times, that the term "Mother of God" is unduly suggestive of Godhead having its origin in Mary, imparting to Mary the role of a Mother Goddess . But this is an exact reiteration of the objection by Nestorius , resolved in the 5th century, to the effect that the term "Mother" expresses exactly the relation of Mary to the incarnate Son ascribed to Mary in Christian theology. Theologically,

4400-405: The end of a series of troparia or stichera, usually after the verse: "(Glory to the Father, and to the Son, and to the Holy Spirit,) Both now and ever, and unto the ages of ages. Amen." A Stavrotheotokion is a hymn to the Theotokos that refers to the Crucifixion of Christ. The correlation between the Theotokos and the Cross is natural because of the Virgin Mary's standing by the Cross throughout

4480-553: The general level, first one is: " Walidatu-liilahi" ( Arabic : وَالِدَةُ ٱلْإِلَـٰهِ , lit.   'Birther of God') and "Ùmmu-'llahi" or "Ùmmu-l'iilahi" ( Arabic : أُمُّ ٱللهِ or أُمُّ ٱلْإِلَـٰهِ, lit. 'Mother of God'). "Mother of God" is the literal translation of a distinct title in Greek, Μήτηρ τοῦ Θεοῦ (translit. Mētēr tou Theou ), a term which has an established usage of its own in traditional Orthodox and Catholic theological writing, hymnography, and iconography. In an abbreviated form, ΜΡ ΘΥ ( М҃Р Ѳ҃Ѵ ), it often

4560-556: The guidance of Patriarch Aba I , who had converted to Christianity from Zoroastrianism. The church emerged stronger after this period of ordeal, and increased missionary efforts farther afield. Missionaries established dioceses in the Arabian Peninsula and India (the Saint Thomas Christians ). They made some advances in Egypt , despite the strong Miaphysite presence there. Missionaries entered Central Asia and had significant success converting local Turkic tribes. The Anuradhapura Cross discovered in Sri Lanka strongly suggests

4640-399: The holy virgin is Theotokos (for she bore in a fleshly manner the Word from God become flesh), let him be anathema. (Cyril's third letter to Nestorius) The Nestorian Church, known as the Church of the East within the Syrian tradition, rejected the decision of the Council of Ephesus and its confirmation at the Council of Chalcedon in 451. This was the church of the Sasanian Empire during

4720-475: The human who was Son of Mary, and the divine who was not. To them, this was unacceptable since by destroying the perfect union of the divine and human natures in Christ, it sabotaged the fullness of the Incarnation and, by extension, the salvation of humanity. The council accepted Cyril's reasoning, affirmed the title Theotokos for Mary, and anathematized Nestorius' view as heresy . (See Nestorianism ) In letters to Nestorius which were afterwards included among

4800-412: The image of Jesus as a warrior-king and rescuer of Israel over the traditional image of the Christus dolens . Nestorius' opponents found his teaching too close to the heresy of adoptionism – the idea that Christ had been born a man who had later been "adopted" as God's son. Nestorius was especially criticized by Cyril , Patriarch of Alexandria , who argued that Nestorius's teachings undermined

4880-405: The label of "Nestorian" continued to be applied even though it was technically no longer correct. Modern research suggests that also the Church of the East in China did not teach a doctrine of two distinct natures of Christ." Lutheran tradition retained the title of "Mother of God" (German Mutter Gottes , Gottesmutter ), a term already embraced by Martin Luther ; and officially confessed in

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4960-406: The late 5th and early 6th centuries. The schism ended in 544, when patriarch Aba I ratified the decision of Chalcedon. After this, there was no longer technically any "Nestorian Church", i.e. a church following the doctrine of Nestorianism , although legends persisted that still further to the east such a church was still in existence (associated in particular with the figure of Prester John ), and

5040-437: The mainstay of depictions of Mary to the present day. The roughly half-dozen varied icons of the Virgin and Child in Rome from the 6th to 8th centuries form the majority of the representations surviving from this period, as most early Byzantine icons were destroyed in the Byzantine Iconoclasm of the 8th and 9th century, notable exceptions being the 7th-century Blachernitissa and Agiosoritissa . The iconographic tradition

5120-499: The matter. Celestine found that the title Theotokos was orthodox, and authorized Cyril to ask Nestorius to recant. Cyril, however, used the opportunity to further attack Nestorius, who pleaded with Emperor Theodosius II to call a council so that all grievances could be aired. In 431 Theodosius called the Council of Ephesus. However, the council ultimately sided with Cyril, who held that the Christ contained two natures in one divine person ( hypostasis , unity of subsistence), and that

5200-408: The mid-3rd century. The use of Theotokos was formally affirmed at the Third Ecumenical Council held at Ephesus in 431. It proclaimed that Mary truly became the Mother of God by the human conception of the Son of God in her womb: Mother of God, not that the nature of the Word or his divinity received the beginning of its existence from the holy Virgin, but that, since the holy body, animated by

5280-451: The original 12th-century icon and for icons that are copies or imitate its composition. Theotokos is an adjectival compound of two Greek words Θεός "God" and τόκος "childbirth, parturition; offspring". A close paraphrase would be "[she] whose offspring is God" or "[she] who gave birth to one who was God". The usual English translation is simply "Mother of God"; Latin uses Deipara or Dei Genitrix . The Church Slavonic translation

5360-437: The practice of misnaming the Church of the East as Nestorian. For a long time, such labeling seemed appropriate, since Nestorius is officially venerated as a saint in the Assyrian Church of the East. In modern religious studies , this label has been criticized as wholly improper and misleading. As a consequence, the use of Nestorian label in scholarly literature, and also in the field of inter-denominational relations,

5440-411: The root of controversy when he publicly challenged the long-used title Theotokos ('God-Bearer') for Mary. He suggested that the title denied Christ's full humanity, arguing instead that Jesus had two persons (dyoprosopism), the divine Logos and the human Jesus. As a result of this prosopic duality, he proposed Christotokos (' Christ -Bearer') as a more suitable title for Mary. He also advanced

5520-480: The teachings of the Nisibis school flourished in 6th century Persarmenia. Despite this initial Eastern expansion, the Nestorians' missionary success was eventually deterred. David J. Bosch observes, "By the end of the fourteenth century, however, the Nestorian and other churches—which at one time had dotted the landscape of all of Central and even parts of East Asia—were all but wiped out. Isolated pockets of Christianity survived only in India. The religious victors on

5600-428: The terms "Mother of God", "Mother of Incarnate God" (and its variants) should not be taken to imply that Mary is the source of the divine nature of Jesus, who Christians believe existed with the Father from all eternity. Within the Orthodox and Catholic tradition, Mother of God has not been understood, nor been intended to be understood, as referring to Mary as Mother of God from eternity — that is, as Mother of God

5680-454: The two were not one. Nor do we understand the manner of conjunction to be one of juxtaposition, for this is insufficient in regard to natural union.... Rather we reject the term 'conjunction' as being inadequate to express the union... [T]he holy virgin gave birth in the flesh to God united with the flesh according to hypostasis, for that reason we call her Theotokos ... If anyone does not confess that Emmanuel is, in truth, God, and therefore that

5760-462: The unity of Christ's divine and human natures at the Incarnation . Some of Nestorius's opponents argued that he put too much emphasis on the human nature of Christ, and others debated that the difference that Nestorius implied between the human nature and the divine nature created a fracture in the singularity of Christ, thus creating two Christ figures. Nestorius himself always insisted that his views were orthodox, though they were deemed heretical at

5840-535: The vast Central Asian mission field of the Nestorians were Islam and Buddhism ". Nestorianism is a radical form of dyophysitism , differing from orthodox dyophysitism on several points, mainly by opposition to the concept of hypostatic union . It can be seen as the antithesis to Eutychian Monophysitism , which emerged in reaction to Nestorianism. Where Nestorianism holds that Christ had two loosely united natures, divine and human, Monophysitism holds that he had but

5920-440: Was a topic of theological dispute in the 4th and 5th centuries and was the subject of the decree of the Council of Ephesus of 431 to the effect that, in opposition to those who denied Mary the title Theotokos ("the one who gives birth to God") but called her Christotokos ("the one who gives birth to Christ"), Mary is Theotokos because her son Jesus is one person who is both God and man, divine and human. This decree created

6000-528: Was closed by Byzantine Emperor Zeno for its pro-Nestorian teachings, the school relocated to its original home of Nisibis, becoming again the School of Nisibis , leading to the migration of a wave of Christian dissidents into Persia. The Persian patriarch Babai (497–502) reiterated and expanded upon the church's esteem for Theodore of Mopsuestia . Now firmly established in Persia, with centers in Nisibis, Ctesiphon , and Gundeshapur , and several metropoleis ,

6080-748: Was condemned for his views on the unity of the Godhead and the humanity in Christ, the Church of the East was branded as 'Nestorian' on account of its refusal to anathematize the patriarch." Several historical records suggest that the Assyrian Church of the East may have been in Sri Lanka between the mid-5th and 6th centuries. Theotokos Autocephaly recognized by some autocephalous Churches de jure : Autocephaly and canonicity recognized by Constantinople and 3 other autocephalous Churches: Spiritual independence recognized by Georgian Orthodox Church: Semi-Autonomous: Theotokos ( Greek : Θεοτόκος )

6160-478: Was finalized by prominent East Syriac theologian Babai the Great ( d.  628 ) who was using the specific Syriac term qnoma ( ܩܢܘܡܐ ) as a designation for dual (divine and human) substances within one prosopon (person or hypostasis) of Christ. Such views were officially adopted by the Church of the East at a council held in 612. Opponents of such views in the West labeled them as "Nestorian" thus creating

6240-543: Was frequently persecuted by the Zoroastrian majority, which accused local Christians of political leanings towards the Roman Empire . In 424, the Church in Persia declared itself independent, in order to ward off allegations of any foreign allegiance. By the end of the 5th century, the Persian Church increasingly aligned itself with the teachings of Theodore of Mopsuestia and his followers, many of whom became dissidents after

6320-556: Was incarnate by the Holy Ghost and of the Virgin Mary, and was made man". Since that time, the expression "Mother of God" referred to the Dyophysite doctrine of the hypostatic union , about the uniqueness with the twofold nature of Jesus Christ God, which is both human and divine (nature distincted, but not separable nor mixed). Since that time, Jesus was affirmed as true Man and true God from all eternity. The status of Mary as Theotokos

6400-573: Was too similar to Nestorianism. The Persian Nestorian Church , on the other hand, supported the spread of Nestorianism in Persarmenia . The Armenian Church and other eastern churches saw the rise of Nestorianism as a threat to the independence of their Church. Peter the Iberian , a Georgian prince, also strongly opposed the Chalcedonian Creed. Thus, in 491, Catholicos Babken I of Armenia, along with

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