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95-609: The poem "Li Sao" is in the Chuci collection and is traditionally attributed to Qu Yuan of the Kingdom of Chu , who died about 278 BCE. Qu Yuan manifests himself in a poetic character, in the tradition of Classical Chinese poetry , contrasting with the anonymous poetic voices encountered in the Shijing and the other early poems which exist as preserved in the form of incidental incorporations into various documents of ancient miscellany. The rest of

190-580: A national public holiday in 2008. It has, however, come at the expense of more the critical scholarly appraisals of Qu Yuan's historicity and alleged body of work that had developed during the late Qing and early Republic . Popular legend has it that villagers carried their dumplings and boats to the middle of the river and desperately tried to save Qu Yuan after he immersed himself in the Miluo but were too late to do so. However, in order to keep fish and evil spirits away from his body, they beat drums and splashed

285-616: A ritual , and practices divination and healing . The word "shaman" probably originates from the Tungusic Evenki language of North Asia . According to Juha Janhunen, "the word is attested in all of the Tungusic idioms" such as Negidal , Lamut , Udehe / Orochi , Nanai , Ilcha, Orok , Manchu and Ulcha , and "nothing seems to contradict the assumption that the meaning 'shaman' also derives from Proto-Tungusic " and may have roots that extend back in time at least two millennia. The term

380-457: A spirit journey visiting with spirits and deities. The poem's main themes include Qu Yuan's falling victim to intrigues in the court of Chu, and subsequent exile; his desire to remain pure and untainted by the corruption that was rife in the court; and also his lamentation at the gradual decline of the once-powerful state of Chu. The poet decides to leave and join Peng Xian ( Chinese : 彭咸 ),

475-578: A water god , including by Taiwanese Taoists , who number him among the Kings of the Water Immortals . Qu Yuan began to be treated in a nationalist way as "China's first patriotic poet" during World War II . Wen Yiduo —a socialist poet and scholar later executed by the Chinese Nationalist Party —wrote in his Mythology & Poetry that, "although Qu Yuan did not write about the life of

570-413: A comprehensive view in their mind which gives them certainty of knowledge . According to this view, the shaman uses (and the audience understands) multiple codes, expressing meanings in many ways: verbally, musically, artistically, and in dance. Meanings may be manifested in objects such as amulets . If the shaman knows the culture of their community well, and acts accordingly, their audience will know

665-661: A corrupt world. The poet alludes to being slandered by enemies and being rejected by the king he served ( King Huai of Chu ). Those men of faction had ill-gotten pleasures, Their paths went in shadow, narrow, unsafe. Not for myself came this dread of doom— I feared my king's chariot soon would be tipped. In haste I went dashing in front and behind, Till I came to the tracks of our kings before. Lord Iris did not fathom my nature within, He believed ill words, he glowered in rage. I knew well my bluntness had brought me these woes, Yet I bore through them, I could not forswear. I pointed to Heaven to serve as my warrant, It

760-413: A different term other than the one translated "shaman" is usually applied to a religious official leading sacrificial rites ("priest"), or to a raconteur ("sage") of traditional lore; there may be more of an overlap in functions (with that of a shaman), however, in the case of an interpreter of omens or of dreams. There are distinct types of shamans who perform more specialized functions. For example, among

855-592: A figure that many believe to be the God of Sun. Wang Yi , the Han dynasty commentator to the Chuci , believed Peng Xian to have been a Shang dynasty official who, legend says, drowned himself after his wise advice was rejected by the king (but this legend may have been of later make, influenced by the circumstances of Qu Yuan drowning himself). Peng Xian may also have been an ancient shaman who later came to symbolize hermit seclusion. It

950-461: A merchant from Lübeck , published in 1698 his account of a Russian embassy to China; a translation of his book, published the same year, introduced the word shaman to English speakers. Anthropologist and archeologist Silvia Tomaskova argued that by the mid-1600s, many Europeans applied the Arabic term shaitan (meaning "devil") to the non-Christian practices and beliefs of Indigenous peoples beyond

1045-490: A number of contradictory details. The only surviving source of information on Qu Yuan's life is Sima Qian 's biography of him in Shiji , although the biography is circumstantial and probably influenced greatly by Sima's own identification with Qu. Sima wrote that Qu was a member of the Chu royal clan and served as an official under King Huai of Chu (reigned 328–299 BC). During

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1140-551: A person who was very familiar with Qu, his suicide was an ultimate way to protect his innocence and life principles. According to Li Yinhe , Qu Yuan is said to have expressed his love for the ruling monarch, King Huai of Chu , through several of this works, including " The Lament " and "Longing for Beauty". Qu Yuan is regarded as the first author of verse in China to have his name associated to his work, since prior to that time, poetic works were not attributed to any specific authors. He

1235-469: A poem written in 174 BC by Jia Yi , an official from Luoyang who was slandered by jealous officials and banished to Changsha by Emperor Wen of Han . While traveling, he wrote a poem describing the similar fate of a previous "Qu Yuan." Eighty years later, the first known biography of Qu Yuan's life appeared in Han dynasty historian Sima Qian 's Records of the Grand Historian , though it contains

1330-576: A rock. The reason why he took his life remained controversial and was argued by Chinese scholars for centuries. Typical explanations including martyrdom for his deeply beloved but falling motherland, which was suggested by the philosopher Zhu Xi of the Song dynasty, or feeling extreme despair to the situation of the politics in Chu while his lifelong political dream would never be realized. But according to " Yu Fu ," widely considered to be written by Qu himself or at least,

1425-472: A shaman (and by extension the earliest undisputed evidence of shamans and shamanic practices) dates back to the early Upper Paleolithic era (c. 30,000 BP) in what is now the Czech Republic. Sanskrit scholar and comparative mythologist Michael Witzel proposes that all of the world's mythologies, and also the concepts and practices of shamans, can be traced to the migrations of two prehistoric populations:

1520-448: A shaman is exposed to significant personal risk as shamanic plant materials can be toxic or fatal if misused. Spells are commonly used in an attempt to protect against these dangers, and the use of more dangerous plants is often very highly ritualized. Generally, shamans traverse the axis mundi and enter the "spirit world" by effecting a transition of consciousness, entering into an ecstatic trance, either autohypnotically or through

1615-447: A shaman may include either guiding to their proper abode the souls of the dead (which may be guided either one-at-a-time or in a group, depending on the culture), and the curing of ailments. The ailments may be either purely physical afflictions—such as disease, which are claimed to be cured by gifting, flattering, threatening, or wrestling the disease-spirit (sometimes trying all these, sequentially), and which may be completed by displaying

1710-546: A single concept. Billy-Ray Belcourt, an author and award-winning scholar from the Driftpile Cree Nation in Canada, argues that using language with the intention of simplifying culture that is diverse, such as Shamanism, as it is prevalent in communities around the world and is made up of many complex components, works to conceal the complexities of the social and political violence that Indigenous communities have experienced at

1805-487: A specialist can influence important but uncontrollable outcomes. Citing work on the psychology of magic and superstition , Singh argues that humans search for ways of influencing uncertain events, such as healing illness, controlling rain, or attracting animals. As specialists compete to help their clients control these outcomes, they drive the evolution of psychologically compelling magic, producing traditions adapted to people's cognitive biases. Shamanism, Singh argues,

1900-403: A spirit can be summoned it must teach the shaman its song. The use of totemic items such as rocks with special powers and an animating spirit is common. Such practices are presumably very ancient. Plato wrote in his Phaedrus that the "first prophecies were the words of an oak", and that those who lived at that time found it rewarding enough to "listen to an oak or a stone, so long as it

1995-408: A supposedly extracted token of the disease-spirit (displaying this, even if "fraudulent", is supposed to impress the disease-spirit that it has been, or is in the process of being, defeated so that it will retreat and stay out of the patient's body), or else mental (including psychosomatic) afflictions—such as persistent terror, which is likewise believed to be cured by similar methods. In most languages

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2090-475: A world-view behind them. Analogously to the way grammar arranges words to express meanings and convey a world, also this formed a cognitive map). Shaman's lore is rooted in the folklore of the community, which provides a "mythological mental map." Juha Pentikäinen uses the concept "grammar of mind." Armin Geertz coined and introduced the hermeneutics , or "ethnohermeneutics", interpretation. Hoppál extended

2185-470: Is a well that is considered to be the original well from the time of Qu Yuan. In 278 BC, learning of the capture of his country's capital, Ying , by General Bai Qi of the state of Qin , Qu Yuan is said to have collected folktales and written the lengthy poem of lamentation called " Lament for Ying ". Eventually, he committed suicide by wading into the Miluo River in today's Hunan Province while holding

2280-506: Is considered to have initiated the so-called sao style of verse, which is named after his work " Li Sao ," in which he abandoned the classic four-character verses used in poems of Shi Jing and adopted verses with varying lengths. This resulted in poems with more rhythm and latitude in expression. Qu Yuan is also regarded as one of the most prominent figures of Romanticism in Chinese classical literature, and his masterpieces influenced some of

2375-581: Is in the fu style. The precise date of composition is unknown, it would seem to have been written by Qu Yuan after his exile by King Huai; however, it seems to have been before Huai's captivity in the state of Qin began, in 299 BCE. The poem was reissued in the 19th century by Pan Zuyin (1830–90), a linguist who was a member of the Qing Dynasty staff. It was reissued as four volumes with two prefaces, with one by Xiao Yuncong . Qu Yuan Qu Yuan ( c.  340 BC  – 278 BC)

2470-518: Is known as the "neurotheological theory". According to Winkelman, shamanism develops reliably in human societies because it provides valuable benefits to the practitioner, their group, and individual clients. In particular, the trance states induced by dancing, hallucinogens, and other triggers are hypothesized to have an "integrative" effect on cognition, allowing communication among mental systems that specialize in theory of mind , social intelligence, and natural history. With this cognitive integration,

2565-407: Is no record of pure shamanistic societies (although their existence is not impossible). Norwegian social anthropologist Hakan Rydving has likewise argued for the abandonment of the terms "shaman" and "shamanism" as "scientific illusions." Dulam Bumochir has affirmed the above critiques of "shamanism" as a Western construct created for comparative purposes and, in an extensive article, has documented

2660-445: Is no single agreed-upon definition for the word "shamanism" among anthropologists. Thomas Downson suggests three shared elements of shamanism: practitioners consistently alter consciousness, the community regards altering consciousness as an important ritual practice, and the knowledge about the practice is controlled. The English historian Ronald Hutton noted that by the dawn of the 21st century, there were four separate definitions of

2755-421: Is now done forever! In all the kingdom there is no man, no man who knows me, Then why should I care for that city, my home? Since no one will join me in making good rule, I will go off to seek where Peng and Xian dwell. 已矣哉， 國無人莫我知兮， 又何懷乎故都？ 既莫足與為美政兮， 吾將從彭咸之所居。 The poem has a total of 373 lines and close to 2500 characters, which makes it one of the longest poems dating from Ancient China . It

2850-729: Is the culmination of this cultural evolutionary process—a psychologically appealing method for controlling uncertainty. For example, some shamanic practices exploit our intuitions about humanness: Practitioners use trance and dramatic initiations to seemingly become entities distinct from normal humans and thus more apparently capable of interacting with the invisible forces believed to oversee important outcomes. Influential cognitive and anthropological scientists, such as Pascal Boyer and Nicholas Humphrey , have endorsed Singh's approach, although other researchers have criticized Singh's dismissal of individual- and group-level benefits. Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff relates these concepts to developments in

2945-450: The Records of the Grand Historian ). Inference must be made that 'meeting with sorrow' must have been meant. However, the 1st century CE scholar Ban Gu explicitly glossed the title as "encountering sorrow". The Li Sao begins with the poet's introduction of himself, his ancestry, and his former shamanic glory. Of the god-king Gao-yang I am the far offspring, My late honored sire bore

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3040-530: The Chu Ci is one of the two greatest collections of ancient Chinese verse. He is also remembered in connection to the supposed origin of the Dragon Boat Festival . Historical details about Qu Yuan's life are few, and his authorship of many Chu Ci poems has been questioned at length. However, he is widely accepted to have written " The Lament ," a Chu Ci poem. The first known reference to Qu Yuan appears in

3135-408: The Chuci anthology is centered on the " Li Sao ", the purported biography of its author Qu Yuan. In " Li Sao ", the poet despairs that he has been plotted against by evil factions at court with his resulting rejection by his lord and then recounts a series of shamanistic spirit journeys to various mythological realms, engaging or attempting to engage with a variety of divine or spiritual beings, with

3230-520: The Inuit the angakkuq (shamans) fetch the souls of game from remote places, or soul travel to ask for game from mythological beings like the Sea Woman . The way shamans get sustenance and take part in everyday life varies across cultures. In many Inuit groups, they provide services for the community and get a "due payment", and believe the payment is given to the helping spirits. An account states that

3325-496: The Nanai people , a distinct kind of shaman acts as a psychopomp. Other specialized shamans may be distinguished according to the type of spirits, or realms of the spirit world, with which the shaman most commonly interacts. These roles vary among the Nenets , Enets , and Selkup shamans. The assistant of an Oroqen shaman (called jardalanin , or "second spirit") knows many things about

3420-533: The People's Republic of China after the 1949 Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War . For example, one high-school Chinese textbook from 1957 began with the sentence "Qu Yuan was the first great patriotic poet in the history of our country's literature". This cult status increased Qu Yuan's position within China's literary canon, seeing him placed on postage stamps and the Dragon Boat Festival elevated to

3515-517: The Shang dynasty and the Zhou dynasty empires. However, the Chu culture also retained certain characteristics of local traditions such as shamanism , the influence of which can be seen in the Chu Ci . The Chu Ci was compiled and annotated by Wang Yi (died AD 158), which is the source of transmission of these poems and any reliable information about them to subsequent times; thus, the role which Qu Yuan had in

3610-492: The Tucano people , a sophisticated system exists for environmental resources management and for avoiding resource depletion through overhunting. This system is conceptualized mythologically and symbolically by the belief that breaking hunting restrictions may cause illness. The shaman is able to "release" game animals, or their souls, from their hidden abodes. The Piaroa people have ecological concerns related to shamanism. Among

3705-565: The Ural Mountains . She suggests that shaman may have entered the various Tungus dialects as a corruption of this term, and then been told to Christian missionaries , explorers, soldiers and colonial administrators with whom the people had increasing contact for centuries. A female shaman is sometimes called a shamanka , which is not an actual Tungus term but simply shaman plus the Russian suffix -ka (for feminine nouns). There

3800-426: The spiritual world or dimension. Most shamans have dreams or visions that convey certain messages. Shamans may claim to have or have acquired many spirit guides , who they believe guide and direct them in their travels in the spirit world. These spirit guides are always thought to be present within the shaman, although others are said to encounter them only when the shaman is in a trance . The spirit guide energizes

3895-543: The " Gondwana " type (of circa 65,000 years ago) and the " Laurasian " type (of circa 40,000 years ago). In November 2008, researchers from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem announced the discovery of a 12,000-year-old site in Israel that is perceived as one of the earliest-known shaman burials. The elderly woman had been arranged on her side, with her legs apart and folded inward at the knee. Ten large stones were placed on

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3990-477: The 18th-century writings of Tibetan Buddhist monks in Mongolia and later "probably influenced the formation of European discourse on Shamanism". Shamanism is a system of religious practice. Historically, it is often associated with Indigenous and tribal societies , and involves belief that shamans, with a connection to the otherworld , have the power to heal the sick, communicate with spirits, and escort souls of

4085-502: The Gardens of Air. I wished to bide a while by the windows of gods, But swift was the sun and it soon would be dusk. I bade sun-driver Xi-he, to pause in her pace, To stand off from Yan-zi and not to draw night. On and on stretched my road, long it was and far, I would go high and go low in this search that I made. I watered my horses in the Pools of Xian, And twisted the reins on

4180-404: The associated beliefs. He or she accompanies the rituals and interprets the behaviors of the shaman. Despite these functions, the jardalanin is not a shaman. For this interpretative assistant, it would be unwelcome to fall into a trance. As the primary teacher of tribal symbolism, the shaman may have a leading role in this ecological management, actively restricting hunting and fishing. Among

4275-722: The assumed derivational relationship is phonologically irregular (note especially the vowel quantities)." Mircea Eliade noted that the Sanskrit word श्रमण , śramaṇa , designating a wandering monastic or holy figure, has spread to many Central Asian languages along with Buddhism and could be the ultimate origin of the word shaman. The word has been reported in Gandhari as ṣamana , in Tocharian A as ṣāmaṃ , in Tocharian B as ṣamāne and in Chinese as 沙門 , shāmén . The term

4370-403: The authoring, editing, or retouching of these works remains unclear. The Chu Ci poems are important as being direct precursors of the fu style of Han dynasty literature. The Chu Ci , as a preservation of early literature, has provided invaluable data for linguistic research into the history of the Chinese language, from Chen Di on. Following his suicide, Qu Yuan was sometimes revered as

4465-672: The calling of a shaman can be found in the case history of Chuonnasuan , who was one of the last shamans among the Tungus peoples in Northeast China . The wounded healer is an archetype for a shamanic trial and journey. This process is important to young shamans. They undergo a type of sickness that pushes them to the brink of death. This is said to happen for two reasons: Shamans may employ varying materials in spiritual practice in different cultures. Shamans have been conceptualized as those who are able to gain knowledge and power to heal in

4560-514: The community, including the spirits of the deceased. Shamans believe they can communicate with both living and dead to alleviate unrest, unsettled issues, and to deliver gifts to the spirits. Shamans perform a variety of functions depending upon their respective cultures; healing, leading a sacrifice , preserving traditions by storytelling and songs, fortune-telling , and acting as a psychopomp ("guide of souls"). A single shaman may fulfill several of these functions. The responsibilities of

4655-503: The dead to the afterlife . The origins of Shamanism stem from indigenous peoples of far northern Europe and Siberia. Despite structural implications of colonialism and imperialism that have limited the ability of Indigenous peoples to practice traditional spiritualities, many communities are undergoing resurgence through self-determination and the reclamation of dynamic traditions. Other groups have been able to avoid some of these structural impediments by virtue of their isolation, such as

4750-417: The dragon. These packages became a traditional food known as zongzi , although the lumps of rice are now wrapped in leaves instead of silk. The act of racing to search for his body in boats gradually became the cultural tradition of dragon boat racing, held on the anniversary of his death every year. Today, people still eat zongzi and participate in dragon boat races to commemorate Qu Yuan's sacrifice on

4845-506: The early days of King Huai's reign, Qu Yuan was serving the State of Chu as its Left Minister. However, King Huai exiled Qu Yuan to the region north of the Han River , because corrupt ministers slandered him and influenced the king. Eventually, Qu Yuan was reinstated and sent on a diplomatic mission to the State of Qi. He tried to resume relations between Chu and Qi, which King Huai had broken under

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4940-459: The fact that they exist outside of what is defined as shamanism and even play similar roles in nonshamanic cultures, for example chanting in the Abrahamic religions . She argues that these expression are unique to each culture that uses them and that such practices cannot be generalized easily, accurately, or usefully into a global religion of shamanism. Because of this, Kehoe is also highly critical of

5035-485: The false pretense of King Hui of Qin to cede territory near Shangyu. During King Qingxiang 's reign, Prime Minister Zilan slandered Qu Yuan. This caused Qu Yuan's exile to the regions south of the Yangtze River . It is said that Qu Yuan returned first to his home town. In his exile , he spent much of this time collecting legends and rearranging folk odes while traveling the countryside. Furthermore, he wrote some of

5130-479: The fifth day of the fifth month of the traditional lunisolar Chinese calendar . The countries around China, such as Vietnam and Korea, also celebrate variations of this Dragon Boat Festival as part of their shared cultural heritage . China's interplanetary exploration program , Tianwen (Heavenly Questions) is named after a poem by Qu Yuan. The first mission to Mars, Tianwen-1 , was launched on July 23, 2020, and reached Mars on February 10, 2021. On Mar 14, 2021,

5225-410: The following: Shamanism is based on the premise that the visible world is pervaded by invisible forces or spirits which affect the lives of the living. Although the causes of disease lie in the spiritual realm, inspired by malicious spirits, both spiritual and physical methods are used to heal. Commonly, a shaman "enters the body" of the patient to confront the spiritual infirmity and heals by banishing

5320-401: The gifts and payments that a shaman receives are given by his partner spirit. Since it obliges the shaman to use his gift and to work regularly in this capacity, the spirit rewards him with the goods that it receives. These goods, however, are only "welcome addenda". They are not enough to enable a full-time shaman. Shamans live like any other member of the group, as a hunter or housewife. Due to

5415-519: The great Romanticist poets in the Tang dynasty. During the Han dynasty , Qu Yuan became established as a heroic example of how a scholar and official who was denied public recognition suitable to their worth should behave. Chu was located in what is now the Yangzi River area of central China . At this time, Chu represented the southern fringe of the Chinese cultural area, having for a time been part of both

5510-548: The greatest poetry in Chinese literature and expressed deep concerns about his state. According to legend, his anxiety brought him to an increasingly troubled state of health. During his depression, he would often take walks near a certain well to look upon his thin and gaunt reflection in the water. This well became known as the "Face Reflection Well." On a hillside in Xiangluping (at present-day Zigui County , Hubei Province), there

5605-407: The hands of settlers. Belcourt argues that language used to imply “simplicity” in regards to Indigenous culture, is a tool used to belittle Indigenous cultures, as it views Indigenous communities solely as a result of a history embroiled in violence, that leaves Indigenous communities only capable of simplicity and plainness. Anthropologist Mihály Hoppál  [ de ] also discusses whether

5700-408: The head, pelvis, and arms. Among her unusual grave goods were 50 complete tortoise shells, a human foot, and certain body parts from animals such as a cow tail and eagle wings. Other animal remains came from a boar, leopard, and two martens. "It seems that the woman … was perceived as being in a close relationship with these animal spirits", researchers noted. The grave was one of at least 28 graves at

5795-476: The human soul caused by foreign elements. Shamans operate primarily within the spiritual world, which, they believe, in turn affects the human world. The restoration of balance is said to result in the elimination of the ailment. The anthropologist Alice Kehoe criticizes the term "shaman" in her book Shamans and Religion: An Anthropological Exploration in Critical Thinking . Part of this criticism involves

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5890-485: The human world and the spirit worlds. Shamans are said to treat ailments and illnesses by mending the soul. Alleviating traumas affecting the soul or spirit are believed to restore the physical body of the individual to balance and wholeness. Shamans also claim to enter supernatural realms or dimensions to obtain solutions to problems afflicting the community. Shamans claim to visit other worlds or dimensions to bring guidance to misguided souls and to ameliorate illnesses of

5985-490: The hunt; or entertainment ( Inuit throat singing ). Shamans often claim to have been called through dreams or signs. However, some say their powers are inherited. In traditional societies shamanic training varies in length, but generally takes years. Turner and colleagues mention a phenomenon called "shamanistic initiatory crisis", a rite of passage for shamans-to-be, commonly involving physical illness or psychological crisis. The significant role of initiatory illnesses in

6080-498: The hypothesis that shamanism is an ancient, unchanged, and surviving religion from the Paleolithic period. The term has been criticized for its perceived colonial roots, and as a tool to perpetuate perceived contemporary linguistic colonialism. By Western scholars, the term "shamanism" is used to refer to a variety of different cultures and practices around the world, which can vary dramatically and may not be accurately represented by

6175-499: The infectious spirit. Many shamans have expert knowledge of medicinal plants native to their area, and an herbal treatment is often prescribed. In many places shamans learn directly from the plants, harnessing their effects and healing properties, after obtaining permission from the indwelling or patron spirits. In the Peruvian Amazon Basin, shamans and curanderos use medicine songs called icaros to evoke spirits. Before

6270-490: The interest of scholars from a variety of disciplines, including anthropologists, archeologists, historians, religious studies scholars, philosophers and psychologists. Hundreds of books and academic papers on the subject have been produced, with a peer-reviewed academic journal being devoted to the study of shamanism. The Modern English word shamanism derives from the Russian word шаман , šamán , which itself comes from

6365-512: The lander and rover successfully landed on the surface of Mars. Shamanism Shamanism is a spiritual practice that involves a practitioner ( shaman ) interacting with the spirit world through altered states of consciousness , such as trance . The goal of this is usually to direct spirits or spiritual energies into the physical world for the purpose of healing, divination , or to aid human beings in some other way. Beliefs and practices categorized as "shamanic" have attracted

6460-485: The landscapes of ancient China, real and mythological. " Li Sao " is a seminal work in the large Chinese tradition of landscape and travel literature. I knelt with robes open, thus stated my case, Having grasped so clearly what is central and right. I teamed jade white dragons, rode the Bird that Hides Sky, Waiting on winds to fleetly fare upward. At dawn I loosed wheel-block there by Cang-wu, And by twilight I reached

6555-435: The local variations and emphasizes that shamanism is not a religion of sacred dogmas , but linked to the everyday life in a practical way. Following similar thoughts, he also conjectures a contemporary paradigm shift. Piers Vitebsky also mentions that, despite really astonishing similarities, there is no unity in shamanism. The various, fragmented shamanistic practices and beliefs coexist with other beliefs everywhere. There

6650-733: The name of Bo-yong. The she-ti stars aimed to the year's first month; Geng-yin was the day that I came down. He scanned and delved into my first measure, From the portents my sire gave these noble names: The name that he gave me was Upright Standard; And my title of honor was Godly Poise. Such bounty I had of beauty within, And to this was added fair countenance. I wore mantles of river rush and remote angelica, Strung autumn orchids to hang from my sash. 帝高陽之苗裔兮， 朕皇考曰伯庸。 攝提貞于孟陬兮， 惟庚寅吾以降。 皇覽揆余初度兮， 肇錫余以嘉名。 名余曰正則兮， 字余曰靈均。 紛吾既有此內美兮， 又重之以脩能。 扈江離與辟芷兮， 紐秋蘭以為佩。 He references his current situation, and then recounts his fantastical physical and spiritual trip across

6745-537: The nomadic Tuvan (with an estimated population of 3000 people surviving from this tribe). Tuva is one of the most isolated Asiatic tribes in Russia where the art of shamanism has been preserved until today due to its isolated existence, allowing it to be free from the influences of other major religions. There are many variations of shamanism throughout the world, but several common beliefs are shared by all forms of shamanism. Common beliefs identified by Eliade (1972) are

6840-602: The notion of cultural appropriation . This includes criticism of New Age and modern Western forms of shamanism, which, according to Kehoe, misrepresent or dilute Indigenous practices. Kehoe also believes that the term reinforces racist ideas such as the noble savage . Kehoe is highly critical of Mircea Eliade 's work on shamanism as an invention synthesized from various sources unsupported by more direct research. To Kehoe, citing practices such as drumming , trance, chanting , entheogen and hallucinogen use, spirit communication , and healing as definitive of shamanism ignores

6935-475: The people or voice their sufferings, he may truthfully be said to have acted as the leader of a people's revolution and to have struck a blow to avenge them. Qu Yuan is the only person in the whole of Chinese history who is fully entitled to be called 'the people's poet'." Guo Moruo 's 1942 play Qu Yuan gave him similar treatment, drawing parallels to Hamlet and King Lear . Their view of Qu's social idealism and unbending patriotism became canonical under

7030-491: The popularity of ayahuasca tourism in South America, there are practitioners in areas frequented by backpackers who make a living from leading ceremonies. Furthermore, due to the predominant number of female shamans over males, shamanism was and continues to be an integral part of women’s economic liberation. Shamanism often serves as an economic resource due to the requirement of payment for service. This economic revenue

7125-434: The role of Mongols themselves, particularly "the partnership of scholars and shamans in the reconstruction of shamanism" in post-1990/post-communist Mongolia. This process has also been documented by Swiss anthropologist Judith Hangartner in her landmark study of Darhad shamans in Mongolia. Historian Karena Kollmar-Polenz argues that the social construction and reification of shamanism as a religious "other" actually began with

7220-407: The shaman can better predict the movement of animals, resolve group conflicts, plan migrations, and provide other useful services. The neurotheological theory contrasts with the "by-product" or "subjective" model of shamanism developed by Harvard anthropologist Manvir Singh. According to Singh, shamanism is a cultural technology that adapts to (or hacks) our psychological biases to convince us that

7315-415: The shamans, enabling them to enter the spiritual dimension. Shamans claim to heal within the communities and the spiritual dimension by returning lost parts of the human soul from wherever they have gone. Shamans also claim to cleanse excess negative energies, which are said to confuse or pollute the soul. Shamans act as mediators in their cultures. Shamans claim to communicate with the spirits on behalf of

7410-534: The site, located in a cave in lower Galilee and belonging to the Natufian culture , but is said to be unlike any other among the Epipaleolithic Natufians or in the Paleolithic period. A debated etymology of the word "shaman" is "one who knows", implying, among other things, that the shaman is an expert in keeping together the multiple codes of the society, and that to be effective, shamans must maintain

7505-427: The term "shamanism" is appropriate. He notes that for many readers, "-ism" implies a particular dogma, like Buddhism, Catholicism or Judaism. He recommends using the term "shamanhood" or "shamanship" (a term used in old Russian and German ethnographic reports at the beginning of the 20th century) for stressing the diversity and the specific features of the discussed cultures. He believes that this places more stress on

7600-451: The term in a very broad sense. The term was used to describe unrelated magicoreligious practices found within the ethnic religions of other parts of Asia, Africa, Australasia and even completely unrelated parts of the Americas, as they believed these practices to be similar to one another. While the term has been incorrectly applied by cultural outsiders to many Indigenous spiritual practices,

7695-466: The term which appeared to be in use: According to the Oxford English Dictionary , a shaman ( / ˈ ʃ ɑː m ə n / SHAH -mən , / ˈ ʃ æ m ə n / SHAM -ən or / ˈ ʃ eɪ m ə n / SHAY -mən ) is someone who is regarded as having access to, and influence in, the world of benevolent and malevolent spirits , who typically enters into a trance state during

7790-439: The theme of the righteous minister unfairly rejected sometimes becoming exaggerated in the long history of later literary criticism and allegorical interpretation. It dates from the time of King Huai of Chu , in the third century BCE. The meaning of the title " Li Sao " is not straightforward. In the biography of Qu Yuan, li sao is explained as being as equivalent to li you 'leaving with sorrow' ( Sima Qian , Shiji or

7885-509: The tree Fu-sang, I snapped a branch of the Ruo Tree to block out the sun, I roamed freely the while and lingered there. 跪敷衽以陳辭兮， 耿吾既得此中正。 駟玉虯以乘鷖兮， 溘埃風余上徵。 朝發軔於蒼梧兮， 夕余至乎縣圃。 欲少留此靈瑣兮， 日忽忽其將暮。 吾令羲和弭節兮， 望崦嵫而勿迫。 路曼曼其脩遠兮， 吾將上下而求索。 飲余馬於咸池兮， 總余轡乎扶桑。 折若木以拂日兮， 聊逍遙以相羊。 " Li Sao " is also a political allegory in which the poet laments that his own righteousness, purity, and honor are unappreciated and go unused in

7980-459: The use of entheogens or ritual performances. The methods employed are diverse, and are often used together. Just like shamanism itself, music and songs related to it in various cultures are diverse. In several instances, songs related to shamanism are intended to imitate natural sounds , via onomatopoeia . Sound mimesis in various cultures may serve other functions not necessarily related to shamanism: practical goals such as luring game in

8075-419: The used symbols and meanings and therefore trust the shamanic worker. There are also semiotic , theoretical approaches to shamanism, and examples of "mutually opposing symbols" in academic studies of Siberian lore, distinguishing a "white" shaman who contacts sky spirits for good aims by day, from a "black" shaman who contacts evil spirits for bad aims by night. (Series of such opposing symbols referred to

8170-430: The water with their paddles, and they also threw rice into the water both as a food offering to Qu Yuan's spirit and also to distract the fish away from his body. However, the legend continues, that late one night, the spirit of Qu Yuan appeared before his friends and told them that he died because he had taken himself under the river. Then, he asked his friends to wrap their rice into three-cornered silk packages to ward off

8265-516: The ways that modern science (systems theory, ecology, new approaches in anthropology and archeology) treats causality in a less linear fashion. He also suggests a cooperation of modern science and Indigenous lore. Shamanic practices may originate as early as the Paleolithic , predating all organized religions, and certainly as early as the Neolithic period. The earliest known undisputed burial of

8360-625: The word samān from a Tungusic language – possibly from the southwestern dialect of the Evenki spoken by the Sym Evenki peoples, or from the Manchu language . The etymology of the word is sometimes connected to the Tungus root sā- , meaning "to know". However, Finnish ethnolinguist Juha Janhunen questions this connection on linguistic grounds: "The possibility cannot be completely rejected, but neither should it be accepted without reservation since

8455-462: The words “shaman” and “shamanism” do not accurately describe the variety and complexity that is Indigenous spirituality. Each nation and tribe has its own way of life, and uses terms in their own languages. Mircea Eliade writes, "A first definition of this complex phenomenon, and perhaps the least hazardous, will be: shamanism = 'technique of religious ecstasy '." Shamanism encompasses the premise that shamans are intermediaries or messengers between

8550-655: Was a Chinese poet and aristocrat in the State of Chu during the Warring States period . He is known for his patriotism and contributions to classical poetry and verses , especially through the poems of the Chu Ci anthology (also known as The Songs of the South or Songs of Chu ): a volume of poems attributed to or considered to be inspired by his verse writing. Together with the Shi Jing ,

8645-562: Was adopted by Russians interacting with the indigenous peoples in Siberia . It is found in the memoirs of the exiled Russian churchman Avvakum . It was brought to Western Europe twenty years later by the Dutch statesman Nicolaes Witsen , who reported his stay and journeys among the Tungusic- and Samoyedic -speaking Indigenous peoples of Siberia in his book Noord en Oost Tataryen (1692). Adam Brand ,

8740-454: Was all for the cause of the Holy One. 惟黨人之偷樂兮， 路幽昧以險隘。 豈余身之憚殃兮， 恐皇輿之敗績。 忽奔走以先後兮， 及前王之踵武。 荃不察余之忠情兮， 反信讒而齌怒。 余固知謇謇之為患兮， 忍而不能舍也。 指九天以為正兮， 夫唯靈脩之故也。 As a representative work of Chu poetry it makes use of a wide range of metaphors derived from the culture of Chu, which was strongly associated with a Chinese form of shamanism , and the poet spends much of " Li Sao " on

8835-482: Was introduced to the west after Russian forces conquered the shamanistic Khanate of Kazan in 1552. The term "shamanism" was first applied by Western anthropologists as outside observers of the ancient religion of the Turks and Mongols , as well as those of the neighbouring Tungusic- and Samoyedic -speaking peoples. Upon observing more religious traditions around the world, some Western anthropologists began to also use

8930-461: Was telling the truth". Belief in witchcraft and sorcery, known as brujería in Latin America, exists in many societies. Other societies assert all shamans have the power to both cure and kill. Those with shamanic knowledge usually enjoy great power and prestige in the community, but they may also be regarded suspiciously or fearfully as potentially harmful to others. By engaging in their work,

9025-577: Was vital for female shamans, especially those living during the Chosun Dynasty in Korea (A.D. 1392–1910). In a culture that disapproved of female economic autonomy, the practice of shamanism allowed women to advance themselves financially and independently, in a way that had not been possible for them before. There are two major frameworks among cognitive and evolutionary scientists for explaining shamanism. The first, proposed by anthropologist Michael Winkelman,

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