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169-760: The more than half-century struggle between the Plains tribes and the Texans became particularly intense after the Spanish, and then Mexicans, left power in Texas. The Republic of Texas , which was largely settled by Anglo-Americans, was a threat to the indigenous people of the region. The wars between the Plains Indians and Texas settlers and later the United States Army was characterized by deep animosity, slaughter on both sides, and, in

338-574: A Mexican force of over 500 men, led by Ráfael Vásquez , invaded Texas for the first time since the revolution. They soon headed back to the Rio Grande after briefly occupying San Antonio . About 1,400 Mexican troops, led by the French mercenary general Adrián Woll , launched a second attack and captured San Antonio on September 11, 1842. A Texas militia retaliated at the Battle of Salado Creek while simultaneously,

507-476: A charter in 1844 for the Herman University for medicine but classes never started due to lack of funds. The University of San Augustine was chartered June 5, 1837, but did not open until 1842 when Marcus A. Montrose became president. There were as many as 150 students enrolled. However, attendance declined to 50 in 1845, and further situations including animosity and embittered factions in the community closed

676-663: A clear boundary between Texas and Louisiana. Starting in 1810 with the outbreak of the Mexican War of Independence , New Spain sought a different relationship with the Spanish crown. Some Anglo Americans fought on the side of Mexico against Spain in filibustering expeditions. One of these, the Gutiérrez–Magee Expedition (also known as the Republican Army of the North), consisted of a group of about 130 Anglo Americans under

845-572: A confederacy of tribes indigenous to central Texas. Tribes indigenous to east Texas include the Caddo , including the Adai , Eyeish , Hainai , Kadohadacho , Nacono , and Kitsai . The Akokisa , Atakapa , Karankawa , and Tamique lived along the Gulf coast. The Plains Apache and Kiowa migrated from the west into present-day Texas prior to European contact. In the 1740s, Tonkawa, Yojuanes , and others settled along

1014-531: A defensive bulwark to Comanche raids further south. Although most of these early Americans were ultimately killed, executed or driven from Texas by Spanish authorities during the Green Flag Republic , the Comanche's subsequent raids deep into Mexico showed the practicality of Americans in holding the frontier. Consequently, the new regime quickly recruited Americans, the first of which was Stephen F. Austin , who

1183-744: A failed battle to retake Ciudad Mier . The Naval Battle of Campeche took place on April 30, 1843, and May 16, 1843. The battle featured the most advanced warships of its day, including the Mexican steamer Guadalupe and the equally formidable Montezuma which engaged a squadron of vessels from the Republic of Yucatan and the Republic of Texas. The latter force consisted of the Texas Navy flagship sloop-of-war Austin , commanded by Commodore Edwin Ward Moore ,

1352-665: A full-scale war against the Plains Indians. Houston had spent much of his childhood with the Cherokee Indians in Tennessee, among them Cherokee Chief Bowles . Bowles later led a group of Cherokee who migrated into Texas, trying to escape from Indian Removal out of the Southeastern United States . Houston supported the "Solemn Declaration", which gave the Cherokee rights to the land in Texas on which they lived. He negotiated

1521-617: A gift to, the native tribes. Native tribes were able to trade freely, and some accumulated French guns, while others traded or stole Spanish horses. Tribes without access to either resource were left at a disadvantage. The Lipan Apache , who had been seasonal farmers, were soon pressed by the Comanche , who had horses, and the Wichita , who had guns. The Apaches were bitter enemies of the Hasinai tribes of East Texas and had transferred their enmity to

1690-496: A great deal of supplies, including ammunition and blankets. He then finished his speech with the comment, "how do you like that answer?" The Texian militia entered the courtroom and positioned themselves at intervals on the walls. When the Comanches would not, or could not, promise to return all captives immediately, the Texas officials said that chiefs would be held hostage until the white captives were released. The interpreter warned

1859-431: A group that had been forewarned and were well-prepared. The Spanish and Apache attacked, resulting in 52 of their group killed, wounded, or deserted. Ortiz ordered a retreat, and the group reached San Sabá on October 29. The incident proved that the French had made great inroads with the Comanche and other northern tribes, and those tribes had learned European-style fighting tactics. Many Spanish officials believed that

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2028-502: A mile and a half away, Mexican soldiers massacred a militia of fifty-three Texas volunteers who had surrendered after a skirmish. That night, upon their defeat, the Mexican Army retreated from San Antonio, back to Mexico, while being pursued by Texas soldiers. The Texas Army took the city of Laredo, at which point they were given official orders from Sam Houston to return to San Antonio. Several soldiers ignored this order, and launched

2197-657: A mission to the Apaches. The commander of the garrison, Colonel Ortiz Parrilla did not approve of Terreros's appointment and also questioned the motives of the Apache. He delayed the journey several times. The missionaries, soldiers and their families left San Antonio for the San Saba River in April 1757. They brought with them 1,400 cattle and 700 sheep. There were no Apache waiting at the mission site, and after five days of searching Ortiz

2366-474: A mission. Galván recommended that a mission be founded along the San Saba, and that a presidio be established nearby to protect the mission against the Comanche. The viceroy ordered a second expedition of the area in 1754. Former governor of Texas Pedro de Rábago y Terán explored the same area and concurred with Galván's recommendation. The people of San Antonio were enthusiastic about the proposal, hoping that

2535-474: A mixed-race woman of Cherokee descent. He had lived in Indian Territory for years and learned about their cultures. He was willing to meet with the Comanche on their terms and believed, as a matter of policy, that it was worth it to buy a few thousand dollars worth of presents. The republic could not support the huge cost of a standing army for defense, and it might not be able to defeat the assembled might of

2704-417: A new constitution formalized under President Antonio Santa Anna, called Siete Leyes , and began to strengthen the central government. American immigrants described it as restoring pre-enlightened forms of governance, depriving them of their rights and liberties. They objected to mandatory Catholicism and when Santa Anna began enforcing anti-slavery laws, many feared religious coercion could be next. In 1835,

2873-508: A new northern settlement would protect their town from raids. The governor still hesitated, and in 1756 asked Lieutenant Governor Bernardo de Miranda to again explore the area. While exploring, Miranda heard rumors from the Apache of silver deposits near San Sabá and again recommended the area. In 1757, authorities finally approved the mission. For three years, the mission would be funded by local mine owner Pedro Romero de Terreros , whose cousin, Father Alonso Giraldo de Terreros, would run

3042-593: A renegade Mexican). Seven Texians died, including a judge, a sheriff, and an army lieutenant, with 10 more wounded. As revenge for the killing of 33 Comanche chiefs at the Council House Fight, all but three of the remaining captives held by the Indians were executed slowly by torture; the three who were spared had been previously adopted into the tribe. Potsʉnakwahipʉ (" Buffalo Hump ") wished to exact further revenge and gathered his own warriors and sent messengers to all

3211-724: A second expedition. Fifty men attempted to join him from the United States, but they were arrested by American authorities as they tried to cross into Texas. The men who had joined Long were disappointed they were paid in scrip, and they gradually began to desert. By December 1820, Long commanded only 50 men. With the aid of Ben Milam and others, Long revitalized the Supreme Council. He later broke with Milam. The expedition led an uncertain existence until September 19, 1821, when Long and 52 men marched inland to capture Presidio La Bahía. The town fell easily on October 4, but four days later Long

3380-601: A site for a possible mission. The following year a small group, led by Juan Galván and including Father Miguel de Aranda, who worked at Mission Concepción , travelled northwest of San Antonio, exploring the Pedernales River , the Llano River , and the San Saba River . The San Saba River area appeared most promising as the soil was fertile, there seemed to be mineral deposits in the area, and local Apache promised to come to

3549-563: A skirmish along the Brazos River , taking 149 natives captives. Several days later they repulsed a native attack and followed the attackers to the Red River . There, the Spanish encountered the Comanche and other tribes at a fortified village of the Taovayas , a Wichita people. The town had been surrounded by a stockade and a moat and flew a French flag. Ortiz's men were inexperienced and faced

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3718-497: A slaveholding country and Mexico's claim on the territory caused significant problems in the foreign relations of Texas with other nations. Although it was supported by the vast majority of Texians at the time of independence, annexation by the United States was prevented by the leadership of both major U.S. political parties, the Democrats and the Whigs , who opposed the introduction of

3887-450: A tract of land within what were defined as Cherokee treaty lands. The treaty was declared "null and void" on December 26, 1837. Throughout his presidency, Houston tried to restore the provisions of the treaty and asked General Thomas J. Rusk, commander of the Texas militia, to delineate the boundary. He was unsuccessful in this effort, and Houston could take no more action on the matter before his presidency ended. During Houston's presidency,

4056-570: A treaty with the Cherokee and other tribes on February 23, 1836, in Chief Bowles' village. It was the first treaty made by the Republic of Texas, signed by allied tribes including Shawnee, Delaware, Kickapoo , Quapaw , Biloxi , Ioni , Alabama , Coushatta , Caddo , Tahocullake, and Mataquo. The areas granted in the treaty included present-day Smith and Cherokee counties and parts of Van Zandt , Rusk and Gregg counties. The treaty stated that these lands could not be sold or leased to anyone who

4225-766: A truce with the Penatucka Comanche, the band closest to the settlements in East and Central Texas. Following that truce, he was able to complete a treaty of peace and friendship, which was signed in Mexico City in December 1821. But, within twelve months the Mexican government failed to pay the presents promised to the Pentucka, who resumed raiding at once. For the same reason, the peace treaties signed for New Mexico broke down. By 1823 war raged

4394-488: A vast slave-holding region into a country already divided into pro- and anti-slavery sections and wished to avoid a war with Mexico. On March 3, 1837, U.S. President Andrew Jackson appointed Alcée La Branche as chargé d'affaires to the Republic of Texas, thus officially recognizing Texas as an independent republic. France granted official recognition of Texas on September 25, 1839, appointing Alphonse Dubois de Saligny to serve as chargé d'affaires . The French Legation

4563-533: A vast trading network. The republic had a militia but no standing army, and its tiny navy had been greatly decreased during Houston's presidency. Lamar had neither the manpower nor the money to pursue his policy after the Cherokee War but was not deterred. Lamar's term was marked by escalating violence between the Comanche and colonists. There were not enough Rangers to battle the Comanche at Palo Duro Canyon , for instance, where they could catch them during winter. At

4732-493: Is engraved on the cylinder of every Colt 1851 Navy , 1860 Army, and 1861 Navy revolver. Mexico's attacks on Texas intensified conflicts between political factions, including an incident known as the Texas Archive War . To "protect" the Texas national archives, President Sam Houston ordered them removed from Austin. The archives were eventually returned to Austin, albeit at gunpoint. The Texas Congress admonished Houston for

4901-600: The College of Santa Cruz de Querétaro and the College of San Fernando de México . Authorities had also authorized the building of a fort to protect the mission and its occupants. Missionaries were afraid that the Spanish soldiers might corrupt their converts and insisted that the fort be built 3 miles (4.8 km) away and on the other side of the river. The missionaries had divided loyalties; some supported Father Terreros, while others were angry that Terreros had been given responsibility over other priests who had long advocated for

5070-628: The Convention of 1836 came to order, and the next day declared independence from Mexico, establishing the Republic of Texas. Sam Houston was elected as the new President of the Republic of Texas on September 5, 1836. The second Congress of the Republic of Texas convened a month later, in October 1836, at Columbia (now West Columbia) . Stephen F. Austin , known as the Father of Texas , died December 27, 1836, after serving two months as Secretary of State for

5239-652: The Indian Wars . During the American Civil War , the Comanche and Kiowa pushed white settlements back more than 100 miles along the Texas frontier. Texas developed in the region between two major cultural centers of pre-Columbian North America. The Southwestern tribes occupied the areas to the west, and the Plains tribes occupied areas to the east. Archaeologists have found that three major indigenous cultures lived in this region and reached their developmental peak before

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5408-517: The Marqués de Rubí on his tour of inspection of presidios visited San Saba. Rubí and his engineer, Nicolas de Lafora, concluded that the presidio was "of no advantage whatever," In 1769, the presidio was moved to San Fernando de Austria (present day Zaragoza ), near the Rio Grande 250 miles (400 km) south. For the next several decades, there was little attempt by the Spanish to investigate or settle in

5577-580: The Nueces River was the boundary. In practice, much of the disputed territory was occupied by the Comanche people and outside the control of either state. Texian claims included the eastern portions of New Mexico , which was administered by Mexico throughout this period. During the late Spanish colonial era , Texas had been one of the Provincias Internas , and the region is known in the historiography as Spanish Texas . Though claimed by Spain, it

5746-724: The Pacific Ocean , but ultimately decided to claim the Rio Grande as boundary, including much of New Mexico , which the Republic never controlled. They also hoped, after peace was made with Mexico, to run a railroad to the Gulf of California to give "access to the East Indian, Peruvian and Chilean trade". When negotiating for the possibility of annexation to the U.S. in late 1836, the Texian government instructed its minister Wharton in Washington that if

5915-795: The Plan of Iguala , which created Mexico as a constitutional monarchy under its first Emperor Agustín de Iturbide . During the transition from a Spanish territory to a part of the independent country of Mexico, Stephen F. Austin led a group of American immigrants known as the Old Three Hundred , who negotiated the right to establish colonies in Texas with the Spanish Royal governor of the territory, and to bring their slaves with them. These colonies were limited in quotas and to specific locations. Since Mexican independence had been ratified by Spain shortly thereafter, Austin later traveled to Mexico City to secure

6084-699: The San Gabriel River . The Tonkawa allied with the Bidais , Caddos, Wichitas, Comanche and Yojuanes in 1758 and attacked and decimated the Lipan Apache and the Mission Santa Cruz de San Sabá . The Tonkawa continued their southern migration into Texas and northern Mexico where they then allied with the Lipan Apache. Spanish settlers sometimes captured American Indian children. Often it was common practice to have

6253-629: The Texas Revolution in 1835–1836, when the Centralist Republic of Mexico abolished autonomy from states of the Mexican federal republic . Major fighting ended on April 21, 1836, but the Mexican Congress refused to recognize the independence of the Republic of Texas, as the Treaties of Velasco was signed by Mexican President General Antonio López de Santa Anna under duress as prisoner of

6422-616: The Trinity River and the Brazos River . Long's Republic of Texas also established the first English-language newspaper ever published in Texas, named the Texas Republican . It operated only for the month of August 1819. Long contacted Jean Lafitte , a French pirate who ran a large smuggling operation on Galveston Island . His letter suggested that the new government establish an admiralty court at Galveston, and offered to appoint Lafitte governor of Galveston. Unbeknownst to Long, Lafitte

6591-567: The United States Declaration of Independence . The document cited several grievances, including "Spanish rapacity" and "odious tyranny" and promised religious freedom, freedom of the press, and free trade. The council allocated 10 square miles of land to each member of the expedition, and authorized the sale of additional land to raise cash for the fledgling government. Within a month, the expedition had grown to 300 members. The new government established trading outposts near Anahuac along

6760-471: The brig Wharton , and several schooners and five gunboats from the Republic of Yucatán, commanded by former Texas Navy Captain James D. Boylan. Texas had declared its independence in 1836, but by 1843, Mexico had refused to recognize it. In Yucatán, a similar rebellion had begun and was fought off-and-on from 1836 to 1846. The battle ended in a combined Yucatecan and Texian victory. A scene from this battle

6929-521: The one at Fort Bird . (That this included Potsʉnakwahipʉ "Buffalo Hump", after the events at the Council House, showed extraordinary Comanche belief in Houston) In early 1844, Buffalo Hump and other Comanche leaders, including Santa Anna and Old Owl , signed a treaty at Tehuacana Creek in which they agreed to surrender white captives in total and to cease raiding Texan settlements. In exchange for this,

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7098-529: The 1838 Killough massacre ). The Cherokee War and subsequent removal of the Cherokee from Texas began shortly after Lamar took office. Lamar demanded that the Cherokee, who had been promised title to their land if they remained neutral during the Texas War of Independence, voluntarily relinquish their lands and all their property and move to the Indian Territory of the United States. Houston, who had promised

7267-451: The 1840s after a cotton price crash, in a failed attempt to coerce Texas to give up slavery (replacing slave-produced cotton from southern U.S. states) and to stop expansion of the United States to the southwest. The cotton price crash of the 1840s bankrupted the Republic, increasing the urgency of finding foreign allies who could help prevent a reconquest by Mexico. Mission Santa Cruz de San Sab%C3%A1 Mission Santa Cruz de San Sabá

7436-432: The Apaches, the Comanches were stricken by a smallpox epidemic from 1780 to 1781 . As the epidemic was very severe, the Comanche temporarily suspended raids, and some Comanche divisions were disbanded. A second smallpox epidemic struck during the winter of 1816–1817. The best estimates are that more than half the total population of the Comanche were killed by these epidemics. In response to this devastating loss of numbers,

7605-719: The British in North America and Europe, in 1762 Bourbon France ceded to Bourbon Spain most of its claims to the interior of North America, including its claim to Texas, as well as the vast interior west of the Mississippi River, which became Spanish Louisiana . During the years 1799 to 1803, the height of the Napoleonic Empire in France, Spain returned Louisiana to France. Following the loss of numerous troops and failure to suppress

7774-499: The Cherokee during the Córdova Rebellion that they would be given their promised titles, protested in vain. In May 1839, Lamar's administration learned of a letter in the possession of Manuel Flores, an agent of the Mexican Government, exposing plans by officials to enlist the Indians against the Texas settlers. Supported by popular opinion in the Republic, Lamar decided to expel the Cherokee Indians from East Texas. When they refused, he used force to compel their removal. On July 12, 1839,

7943-400: The Cherokee were involved and refused to order them arrested. He used them to neutralize the anti-Texans among the group, identifying the Mexican network and having its members killed. The Cordova Rebellion was an example of Houston's ability to quash it without much bloodshed or wide unrest When Houston left office, the Texans were at peace with the Indians, but many captives were still held by

8112-408: The Cherokee, a neutral tribe, from Texas emboldened him to do the same with the Plains tribes. Lamar needed an army to carry out his Indian policies, and he set out to build one, at great cost. But at independence, the best estimates were that the republic had 30,000 Anglo-Americans and Hispanic residents. The Cherokee had less than 2,000 tribesmen in Texas, so removal of them was not a terrible drain on

8281-596: The Comanche became a separate tribe from the Shoshone. Their original migration took them to the southern Great Plains , into a span of territory extending from the Arkansas River to Central Texas . Their population increased dramatically because of the abundance of buffalo , the use of the horse for hunting and fighting, the adoption of other migrating Shoshone, and women and children taken captive during raids and warfare. The Comanche based their warfare on speed and calculated violence, developing superb light cavalry skill. Ultimately, their warriors made such effective use of

8450-417: The Comanche effectively allied with the Kiowa and Kiowa Apache after one Kiowa warrior spent a fall season with the Comanche in 1790. Fehrenbach believes the union came from the necessity to protect their hunting grounds from settler incursions. First, the Kiowa and the Comanche agreed to share hunting grounds and unite in war. The Kiowa Apache, as allies of the Kiowa, ultimately joined this alliance. Eventually,

8619-402: The Comanche territory. In 1762, Pedro Romero de Terreros commissioned a painting to honor his cousin who had died in the attack. The resulting The Destruction of Mission San Sabá in the Province of Texas and the Martyrdom of the Fathers Alonso Giraldo de Terreros, Joseph Santiesteban is the earliest painting known to depict a historical event in Texas. According to the Handbook of Texas ,

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8788-415: The Comanche, who still wanted permanent war. In March 1843, Houston reached agreement with the Delaware, Wichitas, and other tribes. At that point, Buffalo Hump, who trusted Houston, began to talk. In August 1843, a temporary treaty accord led to a ceasefire between the Comanches and their allies, and the Texians. In October 1843, the Comanches agreed to meet with Houston to try to negotiate a treaty similar to

8957-416: The Comanche. The Mexican government negotiated additional treaties, signed in 1826 and 1834, but in each case failed to meet the terms of the agreements. Although such events would have proven catastrophic in early years as the Comanche raided towards Mexico City, the presence of American militias obstructed such attacks, thereby encouraging the Mexicans to become dilatory in payments. Because Comanche raiding

9126-426: The Comanche. Colonel Diego Ortiz Parrilla led over 500 Spanish soldiers and Apache braves into Comanche territory. Along the Red River , Spanish soldiers encountered a Wichita village which had been heavily fortified, complete with a moat and wooden stockade. The Indians lured Ortiz into an ambush and after a four-hour battle in which the Spanish suffered 19 dead, he and his troops retreated, leaving two cannon in

9295-450: The Comanche. According to Anderson, such "confusion" between Native American men and women was convenient to the Texians, who used it as an excuse to kill women and children. According to the report by Col. Hugh McLeod, written March 20, 1840, of the 65 members of the Comanches' party, 35 were killed (30 adult males, 3 women, and 2 children), 29 were taken prisoner (27 women and children, and 2 old men), and one departed unobserved (described as

9464-420: The Comanches abandon Central Texas, cease interfering with Texan settlements, cease conspiring with Mexicans, and avoid all white settlements. The prominent Penateka chief and medicine man Mukwooru ("Spirit Talker") was in charge of the delegation. The Comanche chiefs at the meeting had brought along one white captive (Matilda Lockhart), and several Mexican children who had been captured. The talks were held at

9633-411: The Comanches attacked Texas in a series of raids. After peace talks in 1840 ended with the massacre of 34 Comanche leaders in San Antonio , the Comanches launched a major attack deep into Texas, known as the Great Raid of 1840 . Under command of Potsanaquahip ( Buffalo Hump ), 500 to 700 Comanche cavalry warriors swept down the Guadalupe River valley, killing and plundering all the way to the shore of

9802-464: The Comanches gathered thousands of horses and mules and a fortune in goods from the Linnville warehouses The population of Linnville prudently fled to the waters of the gulf, where they watched helplessly while the Comanche looted the town and burned it. At Plum Creek near Lockhart , the Rangers and militia caught up to the Comanche. Several hundred militia under Mathew Caldwell and Ed Burleson, plus all Ranger companies and their Tonkawa allies, engaged

9971-412: The Comanches. However, the Spanish believed that if the effort was successful in converting Apaches and convincing them to remain peaceful, the missionary activity could be expanded northward. If a large enough area could become peaceful, the Spanish might be able to establish an overland route to Santa Fe . In 1752, Spanish authorities approved an expedition to explore the Apache territory and locate

10140-402: The French had instigated the attack on the mission and had helped the Comanche to prepare the village, but historian David Weber said the evidence for this charge is inconclusive. Given the superiority of Comanche numbers and the fact that the Comanche now had similar firepower to Spanish officials, many Spanish soldiers began to fear for their own safety. Several of the soldiers garrisoned at

10309-525: The General Provisions of the Constitution stated that all persons who resided in Texas on the day of the Declaration of Independence were considered citizens of the Republic, excepting "Africans, the descendants of Africans, and Indians." For white immigrants, Section 6 established to become citizens, they needed to reside in Texas for at least six months and take an oath of loyalty to the Republic; in contrast, under Section 9, African slaves brought to Texas were to remain slaves and could not be emancipated without

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10478-464: The Gulf of Mexico, where they sacked the towns of Victoria and Linnville . The Comanches retreated after being pursued by 186 rangers and were caught at the Battle of Plum Creek , in which they lost the plunder they had taken. Houston became president again in 1841 and, with both Texians and Comanches exhausted by war, a new peace was established. Although Texas achieved self-government, Mexico refused to recognize its independence. On March 5, 1842,

10647-409: The Indians had wanted to see how high a price they could get for her and that they then planned to bring in the remaining captives one at a time. The Texians demanded to know where the other captives were. Mukwooru responded that the other prisoners were held by differing bands of Comanche. He assured the Texians that he felt the other captives would be able to be ransomed, but it would be in exchange for

10816-427: The Indians, but they were never to initiate such conflict. When depredations occurred to either side, the troops were ordered to find and punish the actual perpetrators, rather than retaliating against innocent Indians simply because they were Indians. Houston set out to negotiate with the Indians. The Caddos were the first to respond, and in August 1842 a treaty was reached. Houston then expanded it to all tribes except

10985-435: The Lone Star Flag. Internal politics of the Republic were focused on two factions. The nationalist faction, led by Lamar, advocated the continued independence of Texas, the expulsion of the native Americans , and the expansion of Texas to the Pacific Ocean . Their opponents, led by Houston, advocated the annexation of Texas to the United States and peaceful coexistence with the native Americans where possible. The Congress of

11154-553: The Neches . The Indians attempted to resist at the village, and when that failed they tried to re-form, which also failed. Approximately 100 Indians were killed, including Chief Bowles, to only three militia. When killed, Chief Bowles was carrying the sword given to him by Houston. After the battle, the Cherokee fled to the Choctaw Nation and northern Mexico, meaning East Texas was virtually free of organized communities of Indians, and their lands guaranteed by treaty were given to American settlers. Lamar's success in ethnically cleansing

11323-520: The Republic awaited only the United States legislature's ratification for statehood. The remaining period of the Republic of Texas under President Anson Jones , had the government follow Houston's policies, with the exception that Jones, like most Texas politicians, did not wish to put a boundary on the Comancheria, thus he supported those in the Legislature who derailed that provision of the treaty. Republic of Texas The Republic of Texas ( Spanish : República de Tejas ), or simply Texas ,

11492-470: The Republic of Texas even passed a resolution over Houston's veto , claiming The Californias for Texas. The 1844 Republic of Texas presidential election split the electorate dramatically, with the newer western regions of the Republic preferring the nationalist candidate Edward Burleson , while the cotton country, particularly east of the Trinity River , went for Anson Jones . The Comanche Indians, whose territory included northwest Texas, furnished

11661-427: The San Gabriel River and Bushy Creek in January 1746 to serve the Deadose, Mayeye, and Coco Indians. In 1748 alone, the Apaches raided the mission four times, killing three soldiers and four of the Indian residents. Many of the resident Indians fled the mission due to the threat of attacks. This did not deter the missionaries, who founded two more missions, San Ildefonso and Nuestra Señora de la Candelaria, in

11830-503: The San Sabá presidio asked for transfers, and the commander of the garrison at Presidio La Bahía wrote that "The enemy [is] so superior ... in firearms as well as in numbers, that our destruction seems probable." Spanish officials refused to close the San Sabá presidio, ordering it rebuilt in limestone surrounded by a moat and augmented its complement of soldiers to 100. For the next decade, Comanche forces remained nearby, killing soldiers who ventured out in small groups. In July 1767,

11999-546: The Spanish Army crushed the Republican Army of the North. The harsh reprisals against the Texas rebels created a deep distrust of the Royal Spanish authorities. Veterans of the Battle of Medina became leaders of the Texas Revolution and signatories of the Texas Declaration of Independence from Mexico 20 years later. After the failure of the expedition, there would be no serious push for a "Republic of Texas" for another six years, until 1819. That year Virginian filibuster James Long invaded Spanish Texas in an attempt to liberate

12168-464: The Spanish as friends of those tribes. Over the next several decades, the Apache frequently raided Spanish settlements. The Apache also raided other tribes, including the Deadose and Tonkawa . In the 1740s, these weaker tribes requested missions along the San Gabriel River in the hopes that the Spanish could protect them from attack. Mission San Francisco Xavier was established at the confluence of

12337-405: The Spanish had allied with the Comanche's mortal enemy. In 1758 the mission was destroyed by an estimated 2,000 warriors from the Comanche, Tonkawa , Yojuane , Bidai and Hasinai tribes. It was the only mission in Texas to be completely destroyed by Native Americans. The Indians did not attack the nearby presidio. In retaliation, the Spanish government authorized an expedition in 1759 to attack

12506-478: The Texans would cease military action against the tribe, establish more trading posts, and recognize the boundary between Texas and Comanchería. Comanche allies, including the Waco , Tawakoni, Kiowa, Kiowa Apache, and Wichita, also agreed to join in the treaty. By the end of his second term as president, Houston had spent less than $ 250,000, brought peace to the frontier and a treaty between the Comanches and their allies, and

12675-427: The Texans, and Lamar hoped for another pitched battle to use his Rangers and militia to remove the Plains tribes. The Comanche, however, had learned from Plum Creek and had no intention of massing again for the militia to use cannon and massed rifle fire on them. Lamar spent 2.5 million dollars against the Comanche in 1840 – more than the entire revenue of the Republic during Lamar's two-year term. When Sam Houston left

12844-634: The Texas Panhandle into New Mexico. The Apaches were driven out in a series of wars, and the Comanche came to control the area. This domain extended south from the Arkansas River across central Texas to the vicinity of San Antonio, including the entire Edwards Plateau west to the Pecos River and then north again following the foothills of the Rocky Mountains to the Arkansas River. After driving out

13013-646: The Texas Rangers fought the Battle of Stone Houses against the Kichai on November 10, 1837; they were outnumbered and defeated. The Indian problems of the first Houston administration were symbolized by the Córdova Rebellion . Evidence existed that a widespread conspiracy of Cherokee Indians and Mexicans had united to rebel against the new Republic of Texas and rejoin Mexico. Houston did not believe that his friends among

13182-509: The Texian officials that if he delivered that message, the Comanches would attempt to escape by fighting. He was instructed to relay the warning and left the room as soon as he finished translating. After learning that they were being held hostage, the Comanches attempted to fight their way out of the room using arrows and knives. The Texian soldiers opened fire at point-blank range, killing both Indians and whites. The Comanche women and children waiting outdoors began firing their arrows after hearing

13351-555: The Texians. The majority of the Mexican Congress did not approve the agreement. Intermittent conflicts between Mexico and Texas continued into the 1840s. The United States recognized the Republic of Texas in March 1837 but declined to annex the territory at that time. Texas was annexed by the United States on December 29, 1845, and was admitted to the Union as the 28th state on that day, with

13520-727: The Treaties of Velasco between the newly created Republic of Texas and General Antonio López de Santa Anna . The eastern boundary had been defined by the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819 between the United States and the Spanish Empire , which recognized the Sabine River as the eastern boundary of Spanish Texas and western boundary of the Missouri Territory . Under that treaty, the United States had renounced its claim to Spanish land to

13689-560: The United States to work around the abolition of slavery. Angered at the interference of the Mexican government, the Empresarios held the Convention of 1832 , which was the first formal step in what became the Texas Revolution . By 1834, American immigrants in the area greatly outnumbered Mexicans. Following a series of minor skirmishes between Mexican authorities and the immigrants, the Mexican government increased its military presence in Texas throughout 1834 and early 1835. Mexico created

13858-473: The area the following year. Within six months, all of the potential converts at San Ildefonso had left. By 1755, the missions were transferred to a new location on the San Marcos River . In August 1749, the Apache and Spanish agreed to peace. The Apache began to request Spanish missions. Authorities repeatedly denied these requests, wary that the Apache were trying to gain Spanish aid in attacking

14027-513: The area was relatively densely settled with Native American peoples, was remote from the population centers of New Spain , and lacked any obvious valuable resources such as silver, Texas had attracted only a small European population. Spain maintained a small military presence to protect Catholic missionaries working among Native American tribes, and to act as a buffer against the French in Louisiana and British North America . Following defeats by

14196-404: The area; through competition for resources and power, they became adversaries. All were relative newcomers to Texas; Europeans began permanently settling in Texas around the Rio Grande and upwards toward modern-day San Antonio and El Paso starting in the late 17th century; they reached Nacogdoches area around 1721. The Comanche had not arrived into the northern area of the state until roughly

14365-518: The bands of the Comanche, all the divisions of the bands, and the Kiowa and Kiowa Apache. Most or all Comanche chiefs joined the raid. Gathering around 500 warriors and another 400 women and boys to provide comfort and do the work, Buffalo Hump took his war party and raided all the way from the Edwards Plateau to the gulf. Burning and looting Victoria and Linnville , then the second biggest port in Texas,

14534-566: The boundary were an issue, Texas was willing to settle for a boundary at the watershed between the Nueces River and Rio Grande, and leave out New Mexico. During its existence, the Republic of Texas received diplomatic recognition from only six nations: Belgium , France , the Netherlands , the Republic of Yucatán , the United Kingdom , and the United States of America . Texas' status as

14703-512: The captives. This event took place near the close of the Texas Revolution and Texan victory at the Battle of San Jacinto on April 21, 1836. Most Texans were busy trying to return to what was left of their former homes and dealing with their own losses as well as skirmishes with the retreating Mexican Army. The Republic of Texas era with the Indians can be divided into three phases: the diplomacy of President Sam Houston during his first term,

14872-575: The central government split Coahuila y Tejas into two separate departments. The Texian leadership under Austin began to organize its own military, and hostilities broke out on October 2, 1835 at the Battle of Gonzales , the first engagement of the Texas Revolution . In November 1835, a provisional government known as the Consultation was established to oppose the Santa Anna regime (but stopped short of declaring independence from Mexico). On March 1, 1836,

15041-492: The child baptized and then adopt them into their homes, where they were raised to be servants. At first the practice involved primarily Apaches, and eventually Comanche children were likewise adopted as servants. Until around the mid-17th century, the Comanche were part of the Shoshone people living along the upper Platte River in present-day Wyoming . Once they acquired horses, which gave them greater mobility and hunting access,

15210-435: The commotion inside. At least one Texian spectator was killed. When a small number of warriors managed to leave the council house, all of the Comanche began to flee. The soldiers who followed again opened fire, killing and wounding both Comanche and Texians. Armed citizens joined the battle, but claiming they could not differentiate between warriors and women and children since all of the Comanche were fighting, they shot at all

15379-450: The conflict, siding with the law-and-order party. Sam Houston ordered 500 militia to help end the feud. Citizenship was not automatically granted to all previous inhabitants of Texas, and some residents were not allowed to continue living legally within the Republic without the consent of Congress. The Constitution of the Republic of Texas (1836) established different rights according to the race and ethnicity of each individual. Section 10 of

15548-493: The consent of Congress. Furthermore, the Congress was not allowed to make laws banning or restricting either slavery or the slavery trade. Section 9 also established that: "No free person of African descent, either in whole or in part, shall be permitted to reside permanently in the Republic, without the consent of Congress." In September 1836 Texas elected a Congress of 14 senators and 29 representatives. The Constitution allowed

15717-499: The council house, a one-story stone building adjoining the jail on the corner of Main Plaza and Calabosa (Market) Street. During the council, the Comanche warriors sat on the floor, as was their custom, while the Texians sat on chairs on a platform facing them. Lockhart had informed them that she had seen 15 other prisoners at the Comanche's principal camp several days before. She maintained that

15886-470: The deportation of Indian tribes to places beyond the reach of white settlers. As carried out, the policy was based on establishing a permanent Indian frontier, i.e., a line beyond which the various "removed" tribes would be able to carry on their lives free from white settlement or attacks. Lamar became convinced that the Cherokee could not be allowed to stay in Texas after their part in the 1838-39 Córdova Rebellion (and after some disaffected Cherokee carried out

16055-543: The early 18th century; they did not become the predominant nation in the area until the late 18th century, following their successful adoption of the horse. Most other Plains Indians had already arrived by the mid-18th century. The people indigenous to northern Texas including the Panhandle are called the Southern Plains villagers , including Panhandle culture who include ancestors of the Wichita people . The Tonkawa are

16224-483: The early 19th century, as a result of the Comanche wars , the Mexican wars of Independence , and the collapse of colonial power , Mexican resistance to Comanche attacks had almost collapsed. In contrast to the neglected military capabilities of the Mexicans, authorities considered Americans extremely aggressive in combat, and they were subsequently encouraged to establish settlements on the frontier in present-day Texas as

16393-537: The east of the Rocky Mountains and to the north of the Rio Grande , which it claimed to have acquired as part of the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. The southern and western boundary of the Republic of Texas with Mexico was disputed throughout the republic's existence, since Mexico refused to acknowledge the independence of Texas. Texas claimed the Rio Grande as its southern boundary, while Mexico insisted that

16562-411: The effort bankrupted the fledgling republic. More importantly, although the Texas forces succeeded in rescuing large numbers of hostages, thousands remained in captivity. Houston was elected to his second term in large part because of the failure of Lamar's Indian policies. Houston's first presidency was focused on maintaining the Republic of Texas as an independent country. He had no resources to fight

16731-514: The end of 1839 however, some of the Comanche chiefs of the Penateka band had come to believe that they could not drive the colonists completely from their homes as they had the Apache. Cheyenne and Arapaho attacks along the northern border of Comanche territory coupled with huge losses in the two preceding generations in several smallpox epidemics had the Penateka chiefs convinced a treaty might be in their best interests. Additionally, they now realized

16900-677: The end, near-total conquest of the Indian territories . Although several native tribes occupied territory in the area, the preeminent nation was the Comanche , known as the "Lords of the Plains". Their territory, the Comancheria , was the most powerful entity and persistently hostile to the Spanish, the Mexicans, the Texans, and finally the Americans. When Sul Ross rescued Cynthia Ann Parker at Pease River , he observed that this event would be felt in every family in Texas, as every one had lost someone in

17069-467: The entire Comanche-Kiowa alliance, especially if they received Mexican help. Texans were disturbed by accounts of the continued captivity of thousands of children and women, especially because of the stories by those rescued or ransomed. They made increased demands for the republic to retaliate against the Comanche. Under Lamar, the Republic of Texas waged war on the Comanche, invaded Comancheria, burned villages, attacked and destroyed numerous war bands, but

17238-520: The entire length of the Rio Grande. Most of the remaining Mexican settlements were destroyed; only those in the upper Rio Grande were secured. Thousands of surviving Mexican refugees fled to this area. The Comanche pushed out or killed most Europeans and Mexicans in the region, except the European-American Texans. In 1824, the Tonkawa entered into a treaty with Austin, pledging their support against

17407-438: The first president to serve for two years and subsequent presidents for three years. To hold an office or vote, a man had to be a citizen of the Republic. The first Congress of the Republic of Texas convened in October 1836 at Columbia (now West Columbia). Stephen F. Austin , often referred to as the "Father of Texas", died on December 27, 1836, after serving just two months as the republic's secretary of state. Due mainly to

17576-536: The first European contact. The Pueblo from the upper Rio Grande region were centered west of Texas. The Mississippian culture or Mound Builder region extended along the Mississippi River Valley east of Texas. The Mesoamerica civilization was centered south of Texas. The influence of Teotihuacan in northern Mexico peaked around AD 500 and declined over the 8th to 10th centuries. During Colonial Mexico , members of new cultures entered and settled in

17745-418: The first chief justice. The county-court system consisted of a chief justice and two associates, chosen by a majority of the justices of the peace in the county. Each county was also to have a sheriff, a coroner, justices of the peace, and constables to serve two-year terms. Congress formed 23 counties, whose boundaries generally coincided with the existing municipalities. In 1839, Texas became the first nation in

17914-715: The gates to St. James's Palace , the original Embassy of the Republic of Texas is now a hat shop but is clearly marked with a large plaque and there was a nearby restaurant in Trafalgar Square called the Texas Embassy Cantina, which closed in June 2012. A plaque on the exterior of 3 St. James's Street in London notes that the upper floors of the building housed the Texas Legation. The United Kingdom eventually recognized Texas in

18083-436: The ground. During the period of 1821 to 1835, colonists had difficulty with Comanche raids, despite the formation of full-time militia ranger companies in 1823. Tonkawa and Lenape tribes, enemies of the Comanche, allied with the new immigrants, trying to gain allies themselves against these traditional enemies. The Comanche detested the Tonkawa, in particular, for allegedly being cannibals . As early as 1823, Austin recognized

18252-474: The hands of the Indians. To commemorate the destruction of Santa Cruz de San Sabá, the benefactor commissioned a painting in 1762, completed in 1765 ( illustration ). This became the first work of art to depict a historical event in Spanish Texas . A historical marker was erected near the site of the mission, and archaeological excavations were carried out in the 1990s. In 1716, Spanish officials authorized

18421-488: The horse that the Comanche became the most powerful Indian nation of the plains. When the Comanche encountered and entered conflict against Spanish colonists, they blocked Spanish expansion to the east from New Mexico and prevented direct communication with the new Spanish settlements north of the Rio Grande . In turn, the Comanche and eventually Apache allies launched deep raids, sending hundreds of warriors into Mexico; they successfully captured and enslaved or adopted into

18590-567: The hostages or dragged out indefinitely the return of them. Secretary of War Albert Sidney Johnston issued instructions which made clear that Lamar expected the Comanche to act in good faith in returning the hostages and to yield to his threats of force. Johnston sent militia to San Antonio with explicit instructions: Should the Comanche come in without bringing with them the Prisoners, as it is understood they have agreed to do, you will detain them. Some of their number will be dispatched as messengers to

18759-415: The hostility of President Mirabeau B. Lamar , and the resumed diplomatic efforts of Houston's second term. Houston led the republic to negotiate with the Comanche. They said they would stop raiding if they were given sufficient amounts of what they considered prerequisites for peaceful relations: gifts, trade, and regular face-to-face diplomacy. Houston, who enjoyed a good reputation among Indians, had married

18928-618: The huge importance the captive Texans held by the Comanches had in the Texan imagination. Thus, they reasoned great concessions could be gained from the Texans. Consequently, the Comanche offered to meet with the Texans in an effort to negotiate peace in return for a recognized boundary between the Republic and the Comancheria and the return of the hostages. The most notable Penateka war chief Potsʉnakwahipʉ (" Buffalo Hump ") disagreed with this decision and did not trust Lamar or his representatives. None of

19097-574: The incident, and this episode in Texas history solidified Austin as Texas's seat of government for the Republic and the future state. There were also domestic disturbances. The Regulator–Moderator War involved a land feud in Harrison and Shelby Counties in East Texas from 1839 to 1844. The feud eventually involved Nacogdoches , San Augustine, and other East Texas counties. Harrison County Sheriff John J. Kennedy and county judge Joseph U. Fields helped end

19266-480: The leadership of Bernardo Gutiérrez de Lara . Gutiérrez de Lara initiated Mexico's secession from Spain with efforts contributed by Augustus Magee . Bolstered by new recruits, and led by Samuel Kemper (who succeeded Magee after his death in battle in 1813), the expedition gained a series of victories against soldiers led by the Spanish governor, Manuel María de Salcedo . Their victory at the Battle of Rosillo Creek convinced Salcedo to surrender on April 1, 1813; he

19435-540: The main tribal opposition to the Republic, manifested in multiple raids on Mexican, indigenous, and European settlements. In the late 1830s, Sam Houston negotiated peace between Texas and the Comanches. When Lamar ascended to presidency in 1838 he reversed the Houston administration's policy towards the Native Americans. War soon resumed with the Comanches and Lamar ordered an invasion of Comancheria itself. In retaliation,

19604-464: The militia sent a peace commission to negotiate for the Indians' removal. The Cherokee reluctantly agreed to sign a treaty of removal that guaranteed to them the profit from their crops and the cost of the removal. During the next 48 hours the Cherokee insisted they would leave peacefully but refused to sign the treaty because of a clause in the treaty that would require that they be escorted out of Texas under armed guard. On July 15, 1839, under orders from

19773-454: The militia, the commissioners told the Indians that the Texans would march on their village immediately and that those willing to leave peacefully should fly a white flag . On July 15–16, 1839, a combined militia force under General K. H. Douglass, Ed Burleson, Albert Sidney Johnston and David G. Burnet attacked the Cherokees, Delaware, and Shawnee under Cherokee Chief Bowles at the Battle of

19942-472: The mission. After three years, the government would pay mission expenses, and the government would also fund the garrison. The missions along the San Marcos River would be closed, and all of their assets would be purchased by Pedro Terreros and transferred to the new mission. Unlike most missions, this one would report to the viceroy instead of the governor. Franciscan missionaries were assigned from

20111-455: The mission. Ortiz requested that the missionaries move into the presidio, but they refused. Because so many women and children lived in the fort, Ortiz could spare only a few soldiers to remain at the mission with the priests. The Comanche allied with other traditional Apache enemies, including the Tonkawa and Hasinai, and on March 16, 1758, this force of about 2,000 warriors attacked the mission. According to Spanish accounts, at least half of

20280-467: The missions, but none ever did. Three of the six missionaries returned to San Antonio. The presence of the mission infuriated Comanche leaders, who saw San Sabá as proof of an alliance between the Spanish and Apache and an encroachment on their land. The Apache encouraged this perception, leaving Spanish-made items, such as shoes, behind when they raided Comanche camps. The garrison soon heard rumors that hundreds of Comanche warriors were moving towards

20449-411: The need to have specific forces designated to fight the Plains tribes, especially the Comanche. They did not distinguish between Mexicans and Americans in their raids. Austin created the first Rangers by hiring 10 men; they were paid to fight Indians and protect the colonial settlements. Soon the colonists organized additional Ranger companies. After the Republic was created, this trend continued. Without

20618-467: The new Republic. In 1836, five sites served as temporary capitals of Texas ( Washington-on-the-Brazos , Harrisburg , Galveston , Velasco and Columbia ), before President Sam Houston moved the capital to Houston in 1837. The next president, Mirabeau B. Lamar , moved the capital to the new town of Austin in 1839. The first flag of the republic was the " Burnet Flag " (a single gold star on an azure field), followed in 1839 by official adoption of

20787-470: The new country and name Lafitte as governor. Within weeks, 500 Spanish troops arrived in Texas and marched on Nacogdoches. Long and his men withdrew. Over 40 of his men were captured. Long escaped to Natchitoches, Louisiana . Others fled to Galveston and settled along Bolivar Peninsula. Undeterred in defeat, Long returned again in 1820. He joined the refugees at Bolivar Peninsula on April 6, 1820, leading more reinforcements. He continued to raise money to equip

20956-499: The next several months were spent recruiting men. While these arrangements were being made, Comanche raided the horse herd at the San Sabá presidio, killing twenty soldiers. This event strengthened the Spanish resolve. In September, 1759, Colonel Diego Ortiz Parrilla, the commander of the garrison tasked with protecting the mission, and his 500 soldiers and Apache braves marched north into Comanche territory. On October 2 they engaged in

21125-470: The ongoing war for independence, five sites served as temporary capitals of Texas in 1836: ( Washington-on-the-Brazos , Harrisburg , Galveston , Velasco and Columbia). The capital was moved to the new city of Houston in 1837. In 1839, a small pioneer settlement situated on the Colorado River in central Texas was chosen as the republic's seventh and final capital. Incorporated under the name Waterloo,

21294-437: The other 11 bands of the Comanche were involved in the peace talks. The decision of chiefs from one band of the Comanche to negotiate, as well as the offer of returning of the hostages, appears to have convinced Lamar that the Comanche tribe was ready to surrender the hostages. However, the majority of past negotiations concerning the return of hostages were never honored by the Comanche who obtained concessions but did not return

21463-437: The painting is "the only such work executed in Mexico in the mid-1700s that attempted to document a contemporary historical event". The painting was the subject of some controversy in the 1980s, after United States Customs agents confiscated it in Texas and returned it to Mexico. In 1936, a historical monument was established at a site tentatively identified as the mission grounds. In 1965, archaeologists began searching for

21632-507: The peace treaties Elder John Parker had negotiated with local Indians. Because these Native Americans were subject nations to the Comanche, the tribe did not feel bound to observe the peace. The killing of colonist militia at Fort Parker also resulted in the Comanche taking two women and three children as captives. The Parkers were well known, and the destruction of most of their clan produced shock throughout Texas. Survivors, especially James W. Parker , called for vengeance and help to recover

21801-453: The plantation business model. In the Law of April 6, 1830 , Mexican President Anastasio Bustamante outlawed American immigration to Texas, following several conflicts with the Empresarios over the status of slavery, which had been abolished in Mexico in 1829, but which the Texians refused to end. Texians replaced slavery with long-term indentured servitude contracts signed by "liberated" slaves in

21970-464: The presidency of Texas the first time, the population seemed to support Lamar's strong anti-Indian policies. After the Great Raid and hundreds of lesser raids, with the Republic bankrupt and all of the captives either recovered or murdered by the Indians, Texans turned away from continuation of war and toward more diplomatic initiatives by electing Houston to his second presidency. Houston's Indian policy

22139-462: The presidio, as that would appear to be a retreat. In January 1759, a junta met in San Antonio to determine the appropriate military response. They were unable to get significant numbers of volunteers among the citizens in Texas and neighboring Nuevo León and instead recommended that the force include soldiers, militiamen, and natives. The government committed 52,000 pesos to fund the expedition and

22308-411: The red man cannot dwell in harmony together", he said, "Nature forbids it." His answer to the 'Indian Problem' was "to push a rigorous war against them; pursuing them to their hiding places without mitigation or compassion, until they shall be made to feel that flight from our borders without hope of return, is preferable to the scourges of war." Lamar was the first official of Texas to attempt "removal",

22477-459: The region. As Austin used his network and government sponsors to spread the word of rich lands in Texas, thousands of additional colonists from the United States flooded into the region, many illegally. Many had no interest in being ruled by the government of Mexico. In 1829, when Mexico abolished slavery throughout Mexico, the immigrants from the U.S. were exempted in some colonies or actively evaded governmental efforts to enforce this abolition in

22646-492: The region. The Americans were eager to gain territory where they could extend slavery for agricultural and other development. Eli Harris led 120 men across the Sabine River to Nacogdoches. Long followed two weeks later with an additional 75 men. On June 22, the combined force declared a new government, with Long as president and a 21-member Supreme Council. The following day, they issued a declaration of independence, modeled on

22815-411: The republic, especially since the Cherokee War was relatively brief and bloodless for Texas, though certainly not for the Cherokee. The Comanche and Kiowa however, had in the 1830s a population estimated between 20,000 and 30,000. They were well supplied with high-quality firearms and had a large surplus of horses. In addition, by the 1830s the Comanche had established a large network of Indian allies and

22984-417: The resources for a standing army, Texas created small Ranger companies mounted on fast horses to pursue and fight Comanches on their own terms. On May 19, 1836, a huge war party of Comanche, Kiowa, Wichita, and Delaware attacked the colonist outpost of Fort Parker . Completed in March 1834, it had been regarded by the colonists as a stronghold, sufficient to protect them from any Native Americans not observing

23153-459: The revolution by slaves and free people of color in Saint-Domingue, Napoleon decided to abandon North America; he sold what became known as the Louisiana Purchase to the United States. The status of Texas during these transfers was unclear and was not resolved until 1819, when the Adams–Onís Treaty between Spain and the United States ceded Spanish Florida to the United States, and established

23322-477: The same language and culture but at times fought internally in ritualized combat, even as they cooperated at other times. Prior 1750, the Apaches were highly influential in west Texas, but this changed with the Comanche incursions. Beginning in the 1740s, the Comanche began crossing the Arkansas River and established themselves on margins of the Llano Estacado . This area extended from southwestern Oklahoma across

23491-538: The settlement of the border province Spanish Texas , in the hopes of checking the influence of French missionaries and traders in neighboring Louisiana . Over the next several years, missionaries established a series of Spanish missions in Texas , ministering primarily to the Hasinai and Coahuiltecan tribes. By 1731, many of the missions were relocated to the San Antonio River , and the number of soldiers in Texas

23660-411: The soldiers to come outside the safety of the wooden walls. When their ploys did not work, the natives left on March 18. The San Sabá mission was the only Spanish mission in Texas to be completely destroyed by a native attack. Spanish authorities were livid and determined to make a dramatic statement so that the tribes would not take advantage of perceived Spanish weakness. They chose not to disband

23829-502: The state of Coahuila y Tejas . The capital was controversially located in southern Coahuila, the part farthest from Texas. Following Austin's lead, additional groups of immigrants, known as Empresarios , continued to colonize Mexican Texas from the United States. A spike in the price of cotton, and the success of plantations in Mississippi encouraged large numbers of white Americans to migrate to Texas and obtain slaves to try to replicate

23998-487: The support of the new country for his right to colonize. The establishment of Mexican Texas coincided with the Austin-led colonization, leading to animosity between Mexican authorities and the acceleration of American immigration to Texas. The First Mexican Empire was short-lived, being replaced by a republican form of government in 1823. In 1824, the sparsely populated territories of Texas and Coahuila were joined to form

24167-429: The territory. Under the change, many slaves in Mexico were reclassified as indentured servants , with the longterm goal of freedom. Americans did not like this policy and also objected to the central government's actions in tightening political and economic control over the territory. Eventually these tensions resulted in the Texas Revolution . In 1821, while colonists were still welcome, Jose Francisco Ruiz negotiated

24336-406: The three tribes agreed to share the same hunting grounds and had a mutual self-defense and war pact. European and especially mixed-race Mexican colonists reached Texas prior to the end of Spanish rule . Colonial authorities did not encourage colonization in this area, as it was too far from their bases. The number of colonists was extremely limited, and they were always at risk of Comanche raids. By

24505-442: The town was renamed Austin shortly thereafter in honor of Stephen F. Austin. The court system inaugurated by Congress included a Supreme Court consisting of a chief justice appointed by the president and four associate justices, elected by a joint ballot of both houses of Congress for four-year terms and eligible for re-election. The associates also presided over four judicial districts. Houston nominated James Collinsworth to be

24674-496: The transfer of power from the Republic to the new state of Texas formally taking place on February 19, 1846. However, the United States inherited the southern and western border-disputes with Mexico, which had refused to recognize Texas's independence or to accept U.S. offers to purchase the territory. Consequently, the annexation led to the Mexican–American War (1846–1848). The Republic of Texas claimed borders based upon

24843-415: The tribe thousands of Hispanics, Anglos, and Indians of other tribes. Eventually, the numbers were so large that persons not born Comanche made up nearly thirty percent of the Comanche nation. The Comanches were decentralized; historically, they did not form a single cohesive tribal unit but were divided into almost a dozen autonomous groups. The bands had as many as 45 distinct divisions. These groups shared

25012-432: The tribe to inform them that those detained, will be held as hostages until the Prisoners are delivered up, then the hostages will be released. Thirty-three Penateka chiefs and warriors accompanied by 32 other Comanches arrived in San Antonio on March 19, 1840, to meet with Texas officials. Commissioners of the Texas government demanded the return of all captives held by the Penateka. In addition, Texas officials insisted that

25181-522: The tribe's bands. The Texas Congress passed laws opening up all Indian lands to white settlement and overrode Houston's veto. The settlement frontier quickly moved north along the Brazos , Colorado , and Guadalupe rivers, into Comanche hunting ranges and the borders of Comancheria. As a result the Texan-Comanche relationship turned violent. Houston made efforts to restore peace and the Comanches. Alarmed at

25350-574: The university in 1847. Later it became the University of East Texas, and soon after that became the Masonic Institute of San Augustine in 1851. Guadalupe College at Gonzales was approved January 30, 1841; however, no construction efforts ensued for the next eleven years. The Texian independence movement was one of many such movements faced by Mexico between 1835 and 1935. The Texian leaders at first intended to extend their national boundaries to

25519-478: The vigor of Texan settlement, he considered a fixed boundary, contrary to their traditional notions about borders. However, Houston was forbidden by Texas law to yield any land claimed by the Republic. He still made peace with the Comanche in 1838. Mirabeau Bonaparte Lamar, second president of the Republic of Texas, was hostile toward the natives. Lamar's cabinet boasted that it would remove Houston's "pet" Indians. In 1839, Lamar announced his policy: "The white man and

25688-536: The war party in a huge running gun battle. The Rangers and militia overran the Comanche guarding their loot and eventually in a running gun-fight recovered several dozen captives held by the Comanche and eventually recovered mules with several hundred thousand dollars in bullion on them. The remainder of the Lamar presidency was spent in daring but exhausting round of raids and rescue attempts, managing to recover several dozen more captives. Buffalo Hump continued his war against

25857-415: The warriors carried European guns, an unusual event in a time when most natives fought with bow and arrow or hatchets. Eight people died, including Father Terreros, and the mission was burned to the ground. Almost every animal in the mission compound was killed, including the cattle. One missionary and about 20 other people escaped to the presidio. The Comanche gathered near the fort and tried to entice

26026-480: The west and southwest, the Gulf of Mexico to the southeast, the two U.S. states of Louisiana and Arkansas to the east and northeast, and United States territories encompassing parts of the current U.S. states of Oklahoma , Kansas , Colorado , Wyoming , and New Mexico to the north and west. The Anglo residents of the area and of the republic were referred to as Texians . The Mexican state of Coahuila y Tejas declared its independence from Mexico during

26195-424: The world to enact a homestead exemption , under which creditors cannot seize a person's primary residence. President Anson Jones signed the charter for Baylor University in the fall of 1845. Henry Lee Graves was elected Baylor's first president. It is believed to be the oldest university in Texas; however, Rutersville College was chartered in 1840 with land and the town of Rutersville . Chauncey Richardson

26364-525: Was a breakaway state in North America . It existed for 10 years, from March 2, 1836 to February 19, 1846. It shared borders with Mexico , the Republic of the Rio Grande (another Mexican breakaway republic), and the United States of America . Much of its territory was controlled by Mexico or Comancheria ; Mexico considered it a rebellious province during its entire existence. It was bordered by Mexico to

26533-405: Was based on taking booty and captives, the proximity of American communities' proved more fruitful to Comanche raiding. Although Texan military force was much stronger than previous Mexican colonists, the sheer rapidity of advance and large numbers of the raiders overwhelmed many of these early Texan colonists. For example, in 1826 Comanches raided and burned Green DeWitt 's new town of Gonzales to

26702-675: Was built in 1841, and still stands in Austin as the oldest frame structure in the city. Conversely, the Republic of Texas embassy in Paris was located in what is now the Hôtel de Vendôme , adjacent to the Place Vendôme in the 1st arrondissement of Paris . The United Kingdom hesitated to grant official recognition to the Republic of Texas due to its own friendly relations with Mexico, but nevertheless admitted Texian goods into British ports. In London , opposite

26871-404: Was cut to 144. Spanish economic policies were designed to discourage its colonists from trading with other nations. All goods meant for Texas were supposed to be shipped to Veracruz and brought overland to San Antonio . The costs and difficulty of transportation made goods very expensive, making it difficult for settlers or missionaries to afford items that could be traded with, or offered as

27040-554: Was elected Rutersville first president. The college later became Southwestern University in Georgetown, Williamson county . University of Mary Hardin-Baylor was also chartered by the Republic of Texas in 1845, and received lands in Belton, Texas . Wesleyan College, chartered in 1844 and signed by president Sam Houston , another predecessor to Southwestern did not survive long due to competition from other colleges. Mirabeau Lamar signed

27209-517: Was executed two days later. On April 6, 1813, the victorious Republican Army of the North drafted a constitution and declared the independent Republic of Texas, with Gutiérrez as its president. Soon disillusioned with the Mexican leadership, the Anglo Americans under Kemper returned to the United States. The ephemeral Republic of Texas came to an end on August 18, 1813, with the Battle of Medina , where

27378-453: Was forced to surrender by Spanish troops. He was taken prisoner and sent to Mexico City; about six months later he was shot and killed by a guard, who reportedly was bribed to do so by José Félix Trespalacio. The Long Expeditions were ended. Along with the rest of Mexico, Texas gained its independence from Spain in 1821 following the Treaty of Córdoba , and the new Mexican state was organized under

27547-421: Was given a Spanish land grant in Texas. When Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821, its government continued to recruit Americans, as it wanted to develop its depopulated northern provinces. In the 1820s, seeking additional colonists as a means of conquering the area, Mexico reached an agreement with Austin reauthorizing his Spanish land grants. That allowed several hundred American families to move into

27716-581: Was not a member of the tribe, including Texas citizens. After the signing of this treaty, Houston presented Chief Bowles with a sword, a red silk vest, and a sash. One of Houston's first acts as president of the republic was to send the treaty to be ratified by the Texas Senate. After the treaty stalled in the Senate for a year, lawmakers decided that it would be detrimental to the citizens of Texas, reportedly because settler David G. Burnet had already been granted

27885-443: Was not formally colonized by the empire until competing French interests at Fort St. Louis were a catalyst for Spain to establish permanent settlements in the area. The region was long occupied and claimed by the existing indigenous groups of Native Americans. During the period from the 1690s–1710s, sporadic missionary expeditions took place before the Spanish established San Antonio as a permanent civilian settlement. Because

28054-510: Was one of the Spanish missions in Texas . It was established in April 1757, along with the Presidio San Luis de las Amarillas , later renamed Presidio of San Sabá , in what is now Menard County . Located along the San Saba River , the mission was intended to convert members of the Lipan Apache tribe. Although no Apache ever resided at the mission, its existence convinced the Comanche that

28223-832: Was serving as a Spanish spy. While making numerous promises – and excuses – to Long, Lafitte gathered information about the expedition and passed it on to Spanish authorities. By July 16, the Spanish Consul in New Orleans had warned the viceroy in Mexico City that "I am fully persuaded that the present is the most serious expedition that has threatened the Kingdom". Lafitte failed to assist the expedition, which soon ran low on provisions. Long dispersed his men to forage for food. Discipline began to break down, and many men, including James Bowie , returned home. In early October, Lafitte reached an agreement with Long to make Galveston an official port for

28392-531: Was to disband the vast majority of the regular Army troops but muster four new companies of Rangers to patrol the frontier. Houston ordered the Rangers to protect the Indian lands from encroachment by settlers and illegal traders. Houston wanted to do away with the cycle of rage and revenge that had spiraled out of control under Lamar. Under Houston's policies, Texas Rangers were authorized to punish severely any infractions by

28561-410: Was unable to find any Apache. Ortiz attempted to halt the expedition, but the six missionaries refused to leave. The mission was built near modern-day Menard . Presidio San Luis de las Amarillas was built at the same time on the other side of the river and 3 miles away as demanded by the priests. Apache representatives periodically appeared at the mission, promising that they would soon relocate to

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