The Kichai tribe (also Keechi or Kitsai ) was a Native American Southern Plains tribe that lived in Texas , Louisiana , and Oklahoma . Their name for themselves was K'itaish .
109-736: The Kichai were most closely related to the Pawnee . French explorers encountered them on the Red River in Louisiana in 1701. By 1772, they were primarily settled around the east of the Trinity River, near present-day Palestine, Texas . After forced relocation , they came to share portions of southern and southwestern Oklahoma with the Wichita and with the Muscogee Creek Nation . The Kichai were part of
218-463: A "cowboy jury". In September 1872, Guipago met with Satanta and Ado-ete, the visit being one of Guipago's conditions for accepting a request to travel to Washington and meet President Grant for peace talks. Guipago eventually got the two captives released in September 1873. Guipago, Satanta, Set-imkia, Zepko-ete, Manyi-ten, Mamanti, Tsen-tainte and Ado-ete led Kiowa warriors during the "Buffalo war" along
327-453: A 14-year-old Oglala Lakota girl, on 22 April 1838. Writing in the 1960s, the historian Gene Weltfish drew from earlier work of Wissler and Spinden to suggest that the sacrificial practice might have been transferred in the early 16th century from the Aztec of present-day Mexico . More recent historians have disputed the proposed connection to Mesoamerican practice: They believe that
436-405: A Skidi faction that opposed the old rite developed. Two Skidi leaders, Knife Chief and his young relative Petalesharo, spearheaded the reformist movement. Knife Chief ransomed at least two captives before a sacrifice. Petalesharo cut loose a Comanche captive from the scaffold in 1817 and carried her to safety. For this, he received lasting fame among the whites. Indian agent John Dougherty and
545-452: A calendar and was a respected religious leader in his later years. In Kiowa tradition, death had strong associations with dark spirits and negative forces, which meant that the death of an individual was seen as a traumatic experience. Fear of ghosts in Kiowa communities stemmed from the belief that spirits commonly resisted the end of their physical life. The spirits were thought to remain around
654-414: A conical shape. Wooden poles called lodge poles from 12–25 feet (3.7–7.6 m) in length are used as support for the lodge. Lodge poles are harvested from red juniper and lodgepole pine . Tipis have at least one entrance flap. Smoke flaps were placed at the top so that smoke could escape from the fire pit within. The floor of the tipi was lined with animal pelts and skins for warmth and comfort. The tipi
763-545: A few more days of traveling. He found Quivira "well settled ... along good river bottoms, although without much water, and good streams which flow into another". Coronado believed that there were twenty-five settlements in Quivira. Both men and women Quivirans were nearly naked. Coronado was impressed with the size of the Quivirans and all the other Indians he met. They were "large people of very good build". Coronado spent 25 days among
872-421: A head who oversaw the daily business. Each section was further subdivided into three duplicate areas, with tasks and responsibilities related to the ages of women and girls, as described below. The membership of the lodge was quite flexible. The tribe went on buffalo hunts in summer and winter. Upon their return, the inhabitants of a lodge would often move into another lodge, although they generally remained within
981-533: A hinge. It could be closed at night and wedged shut. Opposite the door, on the west side of the central room, a buffalo skull with horns was displayed. This was considered great medicine . Mats were hung on the perimeter of the main room to shield small rooms in the outer ring, which served as sleeping and private spaces. The lodge was semi-subterranean, as the Pawnee recessed the base by digging it approximately three feet (one meter) below ground level, thereby insulating
1090-404: A large party of enemies. The Pawnees, with the Wichita and Arikara survived European encroachment, and they all adapted to forming compact villages on high ground and surrounding them with ditch-and-wall defenses. They lived most of the year in these well-insulated homes, but many would travel on multi-day communal deer hunts. Many also hunted buffalo , which, before the induction of horses,
1199-459: A number of influential Pawnees tried in vain to save the life of a captive Cheyenne girl on 11 April 1827. For any individual, it was extremely difficult to try to change a practice tied so closely to Pawnee belief in the renewal of life for the tribe. In June 1818, the Missouri Gazette of St. Louis contained the account of a sacrifice. The last known sacrifice was of Haxti ,
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#17328513982111308-695: A reference was recorded to a Panis in Montreal. Kiowa Kiowa ( / ˈ k aɪ . ə w ə , - ˌ w ɑː , - ˌ w eɪ / KY -ə-wə, - WAH , - WAY ) or Cáuigú IPA: [kɔ́j-gʷú] ) people are a Native American tribe and an Indigenous people of the Great Plains of the United States. They migrated southward from western Montana into the Rocky Mountains in Colorado in
1417-586: A river larger than any he had seen before. This was the Arkansas , probably a few miles east of present-day Dodge City, Kansas . The Spaniards and their Indian allies followed the Arkansas northeast for three days and found Quivirans hunting buffalo. The Indians greeted the Spanish with wonderment and fear, but calmed down when one of Coronado's guides addressed them in their own language. Coronado reached Quivira itself after
1526-411: A sacred bow, then the priest cut the skin of her chest to increase bleeding. She was shot quickly with arrows by all the participating men and boys to hasten her death. The girl was carried to the east and placed face down so her blood would soak into the earth, with appropriate prayers for the crops and life she would bring to all life on the prairie. About 1820–1821, news of these sacrifices reached
1635-420: A sacrifice. During the initial meeting both would cry and cry, because they knew the missions forced upon them by divine demand were wrong to carry out. With help from others, the warrior would capture a young unmarried girl from an enemy tribe. The Pawnee kept the girl and cared for her over the winter, taking her with them as they made their buffalo hunt. They arranged her sacrifice in the spring, in relation to
1744-405: A season. In summer the march began at dawn or before, but usually did not last the entire day. Once buffalo were located, hunting did not begin until the tribal priests considered the time propitious. The hunt began by the men stealthily advancing together toward the buffalo, but no one could kill any buffalo until the warriors of the tribe gave the signal, in order not to startle the animals before
1853-512: A special prestige. The Kinep or Khe-ate were often called "Sun Dance Shields", because during the dance, they observed police duties and ensured security. The chief Woman's Heart (Manyi-ten) belonged to this band. The Semat were allowed to participate equally, but had no specific duties and obligations during the Sun Dance. Typical of the Plains Indians during the horse culture era,
1962-567: A symbol of health. The Kiowa historically had a nomadic hunter-gatherer society. They shared a similar cuisine with their neighboring Plains tribes, such as the Comanche. The most important food source for the Kiowa and fellow plains nations was the American bison or buffalo. Before the introduction of horses, the Plains tribes hunted bison on foot. Hunting required the hunter to get as close as possible to
2071-585: A traditional Pawnee ceremony with Eagle Corn soup was held in Oklahoma. According to True West Magazine , Eagle Corn soup had not been available for ceremonies for 125 years. After they obtained horses, the Pawnee adapted their culture and expanded their buffalo hunting seasons. With horses providing a greater range, the people traveled in both summer and winter westward to the Great Plains for buffalo hunting. They often traveled 500 miles (800 km) or more in
2180-531: A variety of ways: roasted, boiled, and dried. Dried meat was prepared into pemmican , for sustenance while the people were on the move. Pemmican is made by grinding dried lean meat into powder, then mixing a near-equal weight of melted fat or tallow and sometimes berries. The pemmican was shaped into bars and kept in pouches until ready to eat. The Kiowa sometimes ate certain parts of the bison raw. Other animals hunted included deer, elk , pronghorn , wild mustang , wild turkey , and bears. During times of scarce game,
2289-504: A wooden frame, or they were made from the skull of bison, which made a small, strong shield. Shields and weapons were adorned with feathers, furs, and animal parts, such as eagle claws for ceremonial purposes. The Kiowa people told ethnologist James Mooney that the first calendar keeper in their tribe was Little Bluff, or Tohausan , who was the principal chief of the tribe from 1833 to 1866. Mooney also worked with two other calendar keepers, Settan ( Little Bear) and Ankopaaingyadete (In
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#17328513982112398-504: Is a plural marker. Ancient names of the tribe were Kútjàu or Kwu-da [kʰʷút–tɔ̀] ("emerging" or "coming out rapidly") and Tep-da [tʰép+dɔ̀ː], relating to the tribal origin narrative of a creator pulling people out of a hollow log until a pregnant woman got stuck. Later, they called themselves Kom-pa-bianta (Kòmfàubî̱dàu) [kòmpɔ̀+bį̂ː–dɔ̀] (tipi flap+big–plural) for "people with large tipi flaps ", before they met Southern Plains tribes or before they met white men. In English, Kiowa
2507-562: Is also known as Touhason, is considered by many to be the greatest Kiowa Chief (1805–1866), as he unified and ruled the Kiowa for 30 years. He signed several treaties with the United States, including the Fort Atkinson Treaty of July 27, 1852, and the Little Arkansas Treaty of 1865. Guipago became the head chief of the Kiowa when Dohosan (Little Bluff) named him as his successor. Guipago and Satanta, along with old Satank, led
2616-459: Is designed to be warm inside during the cold winter months and cool inside during the warm summer. Tipis are easily collapsed and can be raised in minutes, making it an optimal structure for nomadic people like the Kiowa and other Plains Indian nations. The poles of the tipi were used to construct a travois during times of travel. Hide paintings often adorn the outside and inside of the tipis, with special meanings attached to certain designs. Before
2725-566: Is in danger of extinction, with only 20 speakers as of 2012. As of 2024 the Kiowa have a Kiowa Language Department . The University of Tulsa, the University of Oklahoma in Norman, and the University of Science and Arts of Oklahoma in Chickasha offer Kiowa language classes. In the Kiowa language, Kiowa call themselves [kɔ́j–gʷú], spelled variously as Cáuigú, Ka'igwu, Gáuigú, or Gaigwu, most given with
2834-525: Is now Oklahoma and Kansas, and they reached Nebraska in about 1750. (Other Caddoan speakers lived in the Southern Plains into Texas and Arkansas, forming a belt of related populations along the eastern edge of the Great Plains.) They lived in spacious villages of grass lodges and earth lodges . These were unfortified, reflecting an assumption that large raiding parties would not arrive without warning. They did not need to rapidly coordinate defense against
2943-479: Is pronounced KI-o-wa /ˈkaɪ.oʊ.wə/, KI-o-wə /ˈki.oʊ.wə/ is considered improper. The English name derives from how the Comanches would say /kɔ́j–gʷú/ in their language. Some older Kiowas will say Kiowa as KI-wah /ˈkaɪ.wɑː/. In Plains Indian Sign Language , Kiowa is expressed by holding two straight fingers near the lower outside edge of the right eye and moving these fingers back past the ear. This corresponded to
3052-558: The Caddoan language family . Historically, the Pawnee lived in villages of earth lodges near the Loup , Republican , and South Platte rivers. The Pawnee tribal economic activities throughout the year alternated between farming crops and hunting buffalo . In the early 18th century, the Pawnee numbered more than 60,000 people. They lived along the Loup (ickariʾ) and Platte (kíckatuus) river areas for centuries; however, several tribes from
3161-584: The Comanche (raaríhtaʾ) and Kiowa (káʾiwa) further south. They had suffered many losses due to Eurasian infectious diseases brought by the expanding Europeans and European-Americans. By 1860, the Pawnee population was reduced to just 4,000. It further decreased, because of disease, crop failure, warfare, and government rations policy, to approximately 2,400 by 1873, after which time the Pawnee were forced to move to Indian Territory , which later became Oklahoma . Many Pawnee warriors enlisted to serve as Indian scouts in
3270-499: The Comanche ): As the pressure on Kiowa lands increased in the 1850s, the regional divisions changed. A new regional grouping emerged: After the death of the high chief Dohäsan in 1866, the Kiowa split politically into a peace faction and a war faction. War-bands and peace-bands developed primarily based on their proximity to Fort Sill ( Xóqáudáuhága – 'At Medicine Bluff', lit. 'Rock Cliff Medicine At Soldiers Collective They Are') and their degree of interaction. Kiowa bands within
3379-728: The Indian Removal period, including the Cherokee , Choctaw , Muskogee , and Chickasaw . The Cheyenne and Arapaho later made peace with the Kiowa. Together, they formed a powerful alliance with the Comanche and the Plains Apache to fight invading white settlers and U.S. soldiers, as well as Mexicans and the Mexican Army. Like other Plains Indians, the Kiowa had specific warrior societies. Young men who proved their bravery, skill, or displayed their worth in battle were often invited to one of
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3488-412: The Pawnee people, living on the western edge of the great plains. Prior to acquiring metal pots from Europeans, Kiowa cooked boiled meat and vegetables through a process of lining a pit in the earth with animal hides, filling that with water, and adding fire-heated rocks. The main form of shelter used by the Kiowa was the tipi or skin lodge . Tipis were made from bison hides shaped and sewn together in
3597-594: The Pawnee , Osage , Kickapoo , Kaw , Caddo , Wichita , and Sac and Fox . To the south, they fought with the Lipan Apache , Mescalero Apache , Chiricahua Apache (whom the Kiowa called the Do’-ko’nsenä’go, "People of the turned-up moccasins"), and Tonkawa . The Kiowa also clashed with American Indian nations from the Southeastern and Northeastern Woodlands who were forcibly removed to Indian Territory during
3706-505: The US Army to track and fight their old enemies, the Lakota , Dakota , and Cheyenne on the Great Plains . In 2011, there were approximately 3,200 enrolled Pawnee and nearly all of them reside in Oklahoma. Their tribal headquarters is in Pawnee, Oklahoma , and their tribal jurisdictional area includes parts of Noble , Payne , and Pawnee counties . The tribal constitution established
3815-606: The Wichita and Affiliated Tribes . These tribes live mostly in Southwestern Oklahoma , particularly in Caddo County , to which they were forcibly relocated by the United States Government in the 19th century. The Kichai language is a member of the Caddoan language family , along with Arikara , Pawnee , and Wichita . Kai Kai, a Kichai woman from Anadarko, Oklahoma , was the last known fluent speaker of
3924-421: The medicine man for ritual and spiritual purposes, such as good fortune and protection during battle. Kiowa horses were also often decorated with beaded masks (sometimes with bison horns attached to the sides) and feathers in their manes. Mules and donkeys were also used as means of transportation and wealth; however, they were not as esteemed. The Kiowa had a well structured tribal government like most tribes on
4033-535: The tipi ring during the annual Sun Dance (called Kc-to ): During the Sun Dance, some bands had special obligations. These were traditionally defined as follows: The Kâtá had the traditional right (duty or task) to supply the Kiowa during the Sun Dance with enough bison meat and other foods. This band was particularly wealthy in horses, tipis and other goods. The famous Principal Kiowa chiefs Dohäsan (Little Mountain) and Guipago (Lone Wolf) were members of this band. The Kogui were responsible for conducting
4142-508: The 17th and 18th centuries, and eventually into the Southern Plains by the early 19th century. In 1867, the Kiowa were moved to a reservation in southwestern Oklahoma . Today, they are federally recognized as Kiowa Indian Tribe of Oklahoma with headquarters in Carnegie, Oklahoma . As of 2011 , there were 12,000 members. The Kiowa language (Cáuijògà) , part of the Tanoan language family,
4251-537: The American bison because it was their main food source. They also hunted antelope, deer, turkeys, and other wild game. Women collected varieties of wild berries and fruit and processed them with prepared meats to make pemmican . Dogs were used to pull travois and rawhide parfleche that contained camping goods for short moves. The Kiowa tended to stay in areas for long periods of time. When they adopted horse culture after acquiring horses from Spanish rancherias south of
4360-555: The Apaches of the Southern Plains obtained horses and metal weapons in sufficient quantity to make them the dread of all their neighbors. For some decades the Pawnees were the victims of intensive raiding by large bands of mounted Apaches with iron weapons, and also by war parties of Chickasaws and Choctaws from the east who had firearms as well. The Siouan groups that became Quapaws , Osages , Omahas , Poncas and Kansas also appeared on
4469-507: The East Coast; it caused a sensation among European Americans. Before this, US Indian agents had counseled Pawnee chiefs to suppress the practice, as they warned of how it would upset the American settlers, who were arriving in ever greater number. Superintendent William Clark in St. Louis had pointed out the government's view on the ceremony to a visiting Pawnee delegation already in 1811. Slowly,
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4578-547: The Great Lakes began moving onto the Great Plains and encroaching on Pawnee territory, including the Dakota , Lakota (páhriksukat / paahíksukat) ("cut throat / cuts the throat"), and Cheyenne (sáhe / sáhi) . The Arapaho (sáriʾitihka) ("dog eater") also moved into Pawnee territory. Collectively, the Pawnee referred to these tribes as cárarat ("enemy tribe") or cahriksuupiíruʾ (" enemy "). The Pawnee were occasionally at war with
4687-665: The Kichai language. She collaborated with Dr. Alexander Lesser to record and document the language. Pawnee people The Pawnee , also known by their endonym Chatiks si chatiks (which translates to "Men of Men" ), are an Indigenous people of the Great Plains that historically lived in Nebraska and northern Kansas but today are based in Oklahoma . They are the federally recognized Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma , who are headquartered in Pawnee, Oklahoma . Their Pawnee language belongs to
4796-870: The Kiowa Casino in Carnegie , in Verden , and the Kiowa Casino and Hotel Red River in Devol (approximately 20 minutes north of Wichita Falls, Texas ). Originally from the Northern Plains and migrating to the Southern Plains, Kiowa society follows bilateral descent , where both maternal and paternal lines are significant. They do not have clans but have a complex kinship-based system and societies based on age and gender. Tipis , conical lodges made from hide or later canvas, provided lightweight, portable housing. They hunted and gathered wild foods and traded with neighboring agrarian tribes for produce. The Kiowa migrated seasonally with
4905-573: The Kiowa lived in a hunter-gatherer economy unlike the sedentary pueblo societies of the others. The Kiowa also had a complex ceremonial life and developed the ' Winter counts ' as calendars. The Kiowa recount their origins as near the Missouri River , and the Black Hills . They knew that they were driven south by pressure from the Sioux . For the earliest recorded — and recounted — history of
5014-517: The Kiowa were a warrior people. They fought frequently with enemies, both neighboring and far beyond their territory. The Kiowa were notable for their long-distance raids extending south into Mexico and north onto the Northern Plains. Almost all warfare took place on horseback. The Kiowa''s enemies included the Cheyenne , Arapaho , Navajo , Ute , and occasionally the Lakota to the north and west of Kiowa territory. East of Kiowa territory, they fought with
5123-729: The Kiowa would eat small animals such as lizards, waterfowl, skunks, snakes, and armadillos. They raided ranches for Longhorn cattle and horses to eat during difficult times. They also acquired horses for traveling, hunting, and fighting their enemies. Within Kiowa society, men did most of the hunting. Women were responsible for gathering wild edibles such as berries, tubers, seeds, nuts, vegetables, and wild fruit but could choose to hunt if they wanted to. Plants important to Kiowa cuisine include pecans , prickly pear , mulberries , persimmons , acorns, plums, and wild onions. They acquired cultivated crops, such as squash, maize , and pumpkin , by trading with and raiding various Indian peoples, such as
5232-551: The Kiowa, see further below. Following A'date, famous Kiowa leaders were Dohäsan (Tauhawsin, Over-Hanging Butte, alias Little Mountain, alias Little Bluff); Satank (Set-ankea, Sitting Bear), Guipago (Gui-pah-gho, Lone Wolf The Elder, alias Guibayhawgu, Rescued From Wolves), Satanta (Set-tainte, White Bear), Tene-angopte (Kicking Bird), Zepko-ete (Big Bow), Set-imkia (Stumbling Bear), Manyi-ten (Woman's Heart), Napawat (No Mocassin), Mamanti (Walking-above), Tsen-tainte (White Horse), Ado-ete (Big Tree). Dohasan, who
5341-463: The Middle of Many Tracks), commonly known as Anko . Other Plains tribes kept pictorial records, known as "winter counts". The Kiowa calendar system is unique: they recorded two events each year, offering a finer-grained record and twice as many entries for any given period. Silver Horn (1860–1940), or Haungooah, was the most highly esteemed artist of the Kiowa tribe in the 19th and 20th centuries. He kept
5450-438: The Northern Plains. They had a yearly Sun Dance gathering and an elected head-chief who was considered to be a symbolic leader of the entire nation. Warrior societies and religious societies were important to Kiowa society and carried out specific roles. Chiefs were chosen based on bravery and courage shown in battle as well as intelligence, generosity, experience, communication skills, and kindness to others. The Kiowa believed that
5559-402: The Pawnee had a cosmology with elements of all of nature represented in it. They based many rituals in the four cardinal directions. Pawnee priests conducted ceremonies based on the sacred bundles that included various materials, such as an ear of sacred corn, with great symbolic value. These were used in many religious ceremonies to maintain the balance of nature and the Pawnee relationship with
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#17328513982115668-645: The Pawnees, possibly including the ancestors of the Skidis and the Arikara . Another group, the Guas, may have been known later as the Paniouace. These people put up ferocious resistance when Coronado started to plunder their villages. In 1601, Juan de Oñate led another entrada in search of the wealth of Quivira. He met "Escansaques", probably Apaches, who tried to persuade him to plunder and destroy "Quiviran" villages. About 1670
5777-659: The Plains about this time, driven west by the expansion of the Iroquois , and they too raided the Pawnees. Archaeology indicates that pressure from hostile Apaches may have persuaded the Skidi Pawnees to move from their settlements on the Republican River to the upper Loup River in the course of the next century or so. Their settlement pattern also changed from little villages of small rectangular earth-lodges to more defensible larger, compact villages of larger, circular lodges,
5886-407: The Quivirans trying to learn of richer kingdoms just over the horizon. He found nothing but straw-thatched villages of up to two hundred houses and fields containing corn, beans, and squash. A copper pendant was the only evidence of wealth he discovered. The Quivirans were almost certainly Caddoans, and they built grass lodges as only the Wichita were still doing by 1898. Coronado was escorted to
5995-591: The Red River, together with the Comanche allies, in the summer (June–September) 1874. They surrendered after the Palo Duro Canyon fight. Tene-angopte had to select 26 Kiowa chiefs and warriors to be deported; Satanta was sent to a prison in Huntsville, Alabama , while Guipago, Manyi-ten, Mamanti, Tsen-tainte, and others were sent to St. Augustine, Florida , at what was then known as Fort Marion . Tene-angopte, damned by
6104-518: The Rio Grande into Mexico, as well as by raiding other Indian peoples who already had horses, such as the Navajo and the various Pueblo people. With the horse, they could transport larger loads, hunt more game over a wider range and more easily, and travel longer and farther. The Kiowa became powerful and skilled mounted warriors who conducted long-distance raids against enemies. The Kiowa were considered among
6213-700: The Rio Grande, the Kiowa revolutionized their lifeways. They had much larger ranges for their seasonal hunting, and horses could carry some of their camping goods. The Kiowa and Plains Apache established a homeland in the Southern Plains , adjacent to the Arkansas River in southeastern Colorado and western Kansas and the Red River drainage of the Texas Panhandle and western Oklahoma. The Kiowa use Plantago virginica to make garlands or wreaths for old men to wear around their heads during ceremonial dances as
6322-544: The Skidis uniting in this way about 1680 while their close relations the Arikaras established a separate identity. In French Canada , Indian slaves were generally called Panis (anglicized to Pawnee), as most, during this period, had been captured from the Pawnee tribe or their relations. Pawnee became synonymous with "Indian slave" in general use in Canada, and a slave from any tribe came to be called Panis. As early as 1670,
6431-502: The ancient Kiowa hairstyle cut horizontally from the lower outside edge of the eyes to the back of their ears. This was a practical way to prevent their hair from getting tangled while shooting an arrow from a bowstring. George Catlin painted Kiowa warriors with this hairstyle. The Kiowa language is a member of the Kiowa-Tanoan language family. The relationship was first proposed by Smithsonian linguist John P. Harrington in 1910 and
6540-446: The burial site. After the burial, most of the belongings of the dead were burned along with their tipi. If their tipi or house was shared with family, the surviving relatives moved into a new house. As members of the Kiowa-Tanoan language family, the Kiowa at some distant time likely shared an ethnic origin with the other Amerindian nations of this small language family: Tiwa , Tewa , Towa , and others. By historic times, however,
6649-514: The camp while the men were away. They gathered and prepared food for winter months, and participated in key ritual events. Kiowa men lived in the families of their wives' extended families. Local groups ( jōfàujōgáu or jōdáu ) were led by the jōfàujōqì , which merged to become a band ( topadoga ). These bands were led by a chief , the Topadok'i ('main chief'). The Kiowa had two political subdivisions (particularly with regard to their relationship with
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#17328513982116758-456: The central room of the lodge. Lodge size varied based on the number of poles placed in the center of the structure. Most lodges had 4, 8, or 12 center-poles. A common feature in Pawnee lodges were four painted poles, which represented the four cardinal directions and the four major star gods (not to be confused with the Creator ). A second outer ring of poles outlined the outer circumference of
6867-675: The collection of lodges, the political designations for men were essentially between: Women tended to be responsible for decisions about resource allocation, trade, and inter-lodge social negotiations. Men were responsible for decisions which pertained to hunting, war, and spiritual/health issues. Women tended to remain within a single lodge, while men would typically move between lodges. They took multiple sexual partners in serially monogamous relationships. The Pawnee women are skilled horticulturalists and cooks, cultivating and processing ten varieties of corn , seven of pumpkins and squashes , and eight of beans . They planted their crops along
6976-508: The colors associated with the four semi-cardinal directions). The women kept the different strains separate as they cultivated the corn. While important in agriculture, squash and beans were not given the same theological meaning as corn. In 2005, the last 25 remaining seeds of the Pawnee Eagle Corn variety were successfully sprouted. The unique taste of Eagle Corn is described as being similar to almonds with cream. In November 2010,
7085-570: The community with workforce skills in the clean technology sector. The Pawnee were divided into two large groups: the Skidi / Skiri-Federation living in the north and the South Bands, which were further divided into several villages. While the Skidi / Skiri Federation were the most populous group of Pawnee, the Cawi / Chaui Band of the South Bands were generally the politically leading group, although each band
7194-412: The community's reactions were instantaneous and vicious. Families and relatives were expected to demonstrate grief through reactions such as wailing, ripping off clothes and shaving of the head. There have also been accounts of self-induced body lacerations and finger joints being cut. In the process of grief, women and the widowed spouse were expected to be more expressive in their mourning. The body of
7303-895: The complex, shifting political alliances of the South Plains. Early Europeans identified them as enemies of the Caddo . In 1712, they fought the Hainai along the Trinity River ; however, they were allied with other member tribes of the Caddoan Confederacy and intermarried with the Kadohadacho during this time. On November 10, 1837, the Texas Rangers fought the Kichai in the Battle of Stone Houses . The Kichai were victorious, despite losing their leader in
7412-463: The corn was ripe in late summer, or in the spring when the grass became green and they could plant a new cycle of crops. Summer hunts extended from late June to about the first of September; but might end early if hunting was successful. Sometimes the hunt was limited to what is now western Nebraska. Winter hunts were from late October until early April and were often to the southwest into what is now western Kansas. Like many other Native American tribes,
7521-421: The corpse or its burial place, as well as haunt former living spaces and possessions. Lingering spirits were also believed to help encourage the dying to cross from the physical world to the afterlife. The fear of ghosts can be seen in the way skulls were treated, which was believed to be a source of negative spiritual contamination that invited danger to the living. Due to the fears and risks associated with death,
7630-406: The deceased must be washed before burial. The washer, historically a woman, also combs the hair and paints the face of the dead. Once the body has been treated, a burial occurs promptly. When possible, the burial takes place on the same day, unless the death occurs at night. In this case the dead is buried the following morning. A quick burial was believed to reduce the risk of spirits remaining around
7739-447: The etymology of words and insights into how the Kiowa language changed to incorporate new items of material culture. McKenzie's letters on pronunciation and grammar of the Kiowa language are in the National Anthropological Archives. Kiowa /ˈkaɪ.əwə/ or Cáuijṑ̱gà / [Gáui[dò̱:gyà ("language of the Cáuigù (Kiowa)") is a Tanoan language spoken by Kiowa people, primarily in Caddo, Kiowa, and Comanche counties. Additionally, Kiowa were one of
7848-405: The fertile river bottomlands. These crops provided a wide variety of nutrients and complemented each other in making whole proteins. In addition to varieties of flint corn and flour corn for consumption, the women planted an archaic breed which they called "Wonderful" or "Holy Corn", specifically to be included in the sacred bundles. The holy corn was cultivated and harvested to replace corn in
7957-405: The finest horsemen on the Plains. A man's wealth was measured primarily by the size of his horse herd, with particularly wealthy individuals having herds numbering in the hundreds. Horses were targets of capture during raids. The Kiowa considered it an honor to steal horses from enemies, and such raids often served as a rite of passage for young warriors. They adorned their horses with body paint from
8066-593: The first Saturday in May. The Pawnee operate two casinos, three smoke shops , two fuel stations, and one truck stop. Their estimated economic impact for 2010 was $ 10.5 million. Increased revenues from the casinos have helped them provide for education and welfare of their citizens. They issue their own tribal vehicle tags and operate their housing authority. In December 2023, the Pawnee Nation and electric vehicle manufacturer Canoo announced an agreement that aims to help
8175-405: The first attack. Caddo-Wichita-Delaware lands were broken up into individual allotments at the beginning of the 20th century. Kichai people's allotted lands were mainly in Caddo County, Oklahoma . Forty-seven full-blood Kichai lived in Oklahoma in 1950. There were only four at the end of the 20th century. The Kichai are not a distinct federally recognized tribe , but they are instead enrolled in
8284-417: The further edge of Quivira, called Tabas, where the neighboring land of Harahey began. He summoned the "Lord of Harahey" who, with two hundred followers, came to meet with the Spanish. He was disappointed in his hopes for riches. The Harahey Indians were "all naked – with bows, and some sort of things on their heads, and their privy parts slightly covered". Hyde identifies them as Awahis, the old Caddoan name for
8393-637: The gods and spirits. In the 1890s, already in Oklahoma, the people participated in the Ghost Dance movement. The Pawnee believed that the Morning Star and Evening Star gave birth to the first Pawnee woman. The first Pawnee man was the offspring of the union of the Moon and the Sun. As they believed they were descendants of the stars, cosmology had a central role in daily and spiritual life. They planted their crops according to
8502-710: The government of the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma. This government consists of the Resaru Council, the Pawnee Business Council, and the Supreme Court. Enrollment into the tribe requires a minimum of one-eighth Pawnee blood quantum . The Rêsâru’karu, also known as the Nasharo or Chiefs Council consists of eight members, each serving four-year terms. Each band has two representatives on the Nasharo Council selected by
8611-565: The hunters could get in position for the attack on the herd. Anyone who broke ranks could be severely beaten. During the chase, the hunters guided their ponies with their knees and wielded bows and arrows. They could incapacitate buffalo with a single arrow shot into the flank between the lower ribs and the hip. The animal would soon lie down and perhaps bleed out, or the hunters would finish it off. An individual hunter might shoot as many as five buffalo in this way before backtracking and finishing them off. They preferred to kill cows and young bulls, as
8720-475: The inherent, statutory, and treaty powers of the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma by the enactment of legislation, the transaction of business, and by otherwise speaking or acting on behalf of the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma on all matters which the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma is empowered to act, including the authority to hire legal counsel to represent the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma. Adult Pawnee citizens elect new council members. The nation holds elections every two years on
8829-448: The interior from extreme temperatures. Lodges were strong enough to support adults, who routinely sat on them, and the children who played on the top of the structures. (See photo above.) As many as 30–50 people might live in each lodge, and they were usually of related families. A village could consist of as many as 300–500 people and 10–15 households. Each lodge was divided in two (the north and south), and each section had
8938-421: The introduction of the horse to North America, the Kiowa and other plains peoples used domestic dogs to carry and pull their belongings. Tipis and belongings, as well as small children, were carried on travois, a frame structure using the tipi poles and pulled by dogs and later horses. The introduction of the horse to Kiowa society revolutionized their way of life. They acquired horses by raiding rancheros south of
9047-470: The lodge. Horizontal beams linked the posts together. The frame was covered first with smaller poles, tied with willow withes. The structure was covered with thatch, then earth. A hole left in the center of the covering served as a combined chimney / smoke vent and skylight. The door of each lodge was placed to the east and the rising sun. A long, low passageway, which helped keep out outside weather, led to an entry room that had an interior buffalo-skin door on
9156-480: The longstanding rite ensured the fertility of the soil and success of the crops, as well as renewal of all life in spring and triumphs on the battlefields. The sacrifice was related to the belief that the first human being was a girl, born of the mating of the Morning Star , the male figure of light, and the unwilling Evening Star , a female figure of darkness, in their creation story . The ritual stood outside
9265-502: The members of the tribal bands, Cawi, Kitkahaki, Pitahawirata, and Ckiri. The Nasharo Council has the right to review all acts of the Pawnee Business Council regarding the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma membership and Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma claims or rights growing out of treaties between the Pawnee Nation of Oklahoma and the United States according to provisions listed in the Pawnee Nation Constitution. In 2020 Jimmy Whiteshirt
9374-434: The mother's clan and are part of her people. In the past, a young couple moved into the bride's parents' lodge. People work together in collaborative ways, marked by both independence and cooperation, without coercion. Both women and men are active in political life, with independent decision-making responsibilities. Within the lodge, each north–south section had areas marked by activities of the three classes of women: Among
9483-428: The numerous nations across the U.S., Canada, and Mexico that spoke Plains Sign Talk . Originally a trade language, it became a language in its own right that remained in use across North America. The Kiowa Indian Tribe of Oklahoma is headquartered in Carnegie, Oklahoma . Their tribal jurisdictional area includes Caddo , Comanche , Cotton , Jackson , Kiowa , Tillman , Greer and Harmon Counties . Enrollment in
9592-441: The organization of the ceremonial year and was not necessarily an annual occurrence. The commencement of the ceremony required that a man had been commanded to sponsor it while asleep. Typically, a warrior would dream of the Morning Star, usually in the autumn, which meant it was time to prepare for the various steps of the ritual. The visionary would consult with the Morning Star priest, who helped him prepare for his journey to find
9701-409: The people lived in this pattern for nearly 700 years, since about 1250 CE. The Pawnee generally settled close to the rivers and placed their lodges on the higher banks. They built earth lodges that by historical times tended to be oval in shape; at earlier stages, they were rectangular. They constructed the frame, made of 10–15 posts set some 10 feet (3.0 m) apart, which outlined
9810-487: The position of the stars, which related to the appropriate time of season for planting. Like many tribal bands, they sacrificed maize and other crops to the stars. The Skidi Pawnees in Village Across a Hill practiced human sacrifice , specifically of captive girls, in the " Morning Star ritual ". They continued this practice regularly through the 1810s and possibly after 1838 – the last reported sacrifice. They believed
9919-478: The rising of the Morning Star. She was well treated and fed throughout this period. When the morning star (either the planet Mars , Jupiter , or some times Venus ) rose ringed with red, the priest knew it was the signal for the sacrifice. He directed the men to carry out the rest of the ritual, including the construction of a scaffold outside the village. It was made of sacred woods and leathers from different animals, each of which had important symbolism. It
10028-507: The sacred bundles prepared for the major seasons of winter and summer. Seeds were taken from sacred bundles for the spring planting ritual. The cycle of corn determined the annual agricultural cycle, as it was the first to be planted and first to be harvested (with accompanying ceremonies involving priests and men of the tribe as well.) In keeping with their cosmology , the Pawnee classify the varieties of corn by color: black, spotted, white, yellow, and red (which, excluding spotted, related to
10137-459: The sacrifice ritual originated independently, within ancient, traditional Pawnee culture. The ancestors of the Pawnees also spoke Caddoan languages and had developed a semi-sedentary lifestyle in valley-bottom lands on the Great Plains. Unlike other groups of the Great Plains, they had a stratified society with priests and hereditary chiefs. Their religion included ritual cannibalism and human sacrifice. At first contact, they lived through what
10246-493: The speculated meaning "Principal People." In the early 18th century, the Plains Apache lived around the upper Missouri River and maintained close connections to the Kiowa. They were ethnically different and spoke different languages. The first part of the name is the element [kɔ́j] (spelled Kae-, Cáui-, Gáui-, or Gai-) which simply means 'Kiowa'. Its origin is lost. The second element -gua/gú [–gʷú] (or [–gʷúɔ̯] in older Kiowa)
10355-410: The target before shooting with arrows or using the long lance. Occasionally, they wore the skins of wolves or coyotes to hide their approach toward the bison herds. Hunting bison became far easier after the Kiowa acquired horses. Bison were hunted on horseback and the men used bows and arrows to take them down, as well as long lances to pierce the hearts of the animals. The women prepared bison meat in
10464-585: The taste of older bulls was disagreeable. After successful kills, the women processed the bison meat, skin and bones for various uses: the flesh was sliced into strips and dried on poles over slow fires before being stored. Prepared in this way, it was usable for several months. Although the Pawnee preferred buffalo, they also hunted other game, including elk, bear, panther, and skunk, for meat and skins. The skins were used for clothing and accessories, storage bags, foot coverings, fastening ropes and ties, etc. The people returned to their villages to harvest crops when
10573-408: The ten most elite warriors of all the Kiowa who were elected by the members of the other four adult warrior societies. Kiowa warriors used a combination of traditional and nontraditional weapons, including long lances, bows and arrows, tomahawks, knives, and war clubs, as well as the later acquired rifles, shotguns, revolvers, and cavalry swords. Shields were made from tough bison hide stretched over
10682-636: The tribe requires a minimum blood quantum of ¼ Kiowa descent. As of 2022 , the Kiowa Tribal Chairman is Lawrence SpottedBird, and the Vice-Chairman is Jacob Tsotigh. The Kiowa tribe issues its own vehicle tags. As of 2011 , the tribe owns one smoke shop, the Morningstar Steakhouse and Grill, Morningstar Buffet, The Winner's Circle restaurant in Devol, Oklahoma , and Kiowa Bingo near Carnegie, Oklahoma . The tribe owns three casinos,
10791-443: The village. Men's lives were more transient than those of women. They had obligations of support for the wife (and family they married into), but could always go back to their mother and sisters for a night or two of attention. When young couples married, they lived with the woman's family in a matrilocal pattern. The Pawnee are a matrilineal people. Ancestral descent is traced through the mother, and children are considered born into
10900-411: The wall and tore the roof apart to follow the elaborate ceremony. A procession of all the men and boys – even male infants carried among the men – accompanied the girl out of the village to the scaffold. Together they awaited the morning star. When the star was due to rise, the girl was placed and tied on the scaffold. At the moment the star appeared above the horizon, the girl was shot with an arrow from
11009-485: The war ceremonies during the Sun Dance. There were numerous famous families and leaders known for their military exploits and bravery, such as Ad-da-te ("Islandman"), Satanta (White Bear) , and Kicking Bird , and the war chiefs Big Bow (Zepko-ete) and Stumbling Bear (Set-imkia). The Kaigwu were the guardians of the Sacred or Medicine bundle (Tai-mé, Taimay) and the holy lance. Therefore, they were respected and enjoyed
11118-566: The warring faction of the Kiowa nation, while Tene-angopte and Napawat led the peaceful party. In 1871, Satank, Satanta and Big Tree (translated in some documents as Addo-etta ) helped lead the Warren Wagon Train Raid . They were arrested by United States soldiers and transported to Jacksboro, Texas. En route, near Fort Sill, Indian Territory, Satank killed a soldier with a knife and was shot by cavalry troops while trying to escape. Satanta and Big Tree were later convicted of murder by
11227-591: The warrior societies. In addition to warfare, the societies worked to keep peace within the camps and tribe as a whole. There were six warrior societies among the Kiowa. The Po-Lanh-Yope (Little Rabbits) was for boys; all young Kiowa boys were enrolled. The group mostly served social and education purposes, involving no violence or combat. The Adle-Tdow-Yope (Young Sheep), Tsain-Tanmo (Horse Headdresses), Tdien-Pei-Gah (Gourd Society), and Ton-Kon-Gah (Black Legs or Leggings) were adult warrior societies. The Koitsenko (Qkoie-Tsain-Gah, Principal Dogs or Real Dogs) consisted of
11336-521: The young fearless warrior was ideal. The entire tribe was structured around this individual. The warrior was the ideal to which young men aspired. Because of these factors, the Kiowa was of utmost importance in the history of the Southern Plains. The women gain prestige through the achievements of their husbands, sons, and fathers, or through their own achievements in the arts. Kiowa women tanned, skin-sewed, painted geometric designs on parfleche and later beaded and quilled hides. The Kiowa women took care of
11445-473: Was autonomous. As was typical of many Native American tribes, each band saw to its own. In response to pressures from the Spanish , French , and Americans , as well as neighboring tribes, the Pawnee began to draw closer together. Historically, the Pawnee led a lifestyle combining village life and seasonal hunting, which had long been established on the Plains. Archeology studies of ancient sites have demonstrated
11554-463: Was challenging and dangerous. The first written records of Caddoans come from Coronado 's entrada in 1541. With cavalry, steel weapons, and guns he had forced his way through the Apaches, Pueblos, and other nations of the modern southeastern US, but they had no gold. Coronado's interpreter repeated rumors (or confirmed Coronado's fantasies) that gold was to be had elsewhere in a location named Quivira . After more than 30-day journey, Coronado found
11663-426: Was definitively established by Ken Hale in 1967. Parker McKenzie , born in 1897, was a noted authority on the Kiowa language, learning English only when he began school. He collaborated with John P. Harrington, who credited him as the first author of jointly published work at a time when Native consultants were seldom acknowledged. Later, he also worked with Laurel Watkins on the Kiowa language. He went on to discuss
11772-412: Was erected over a pit with elements corresponding to the four cardinal directions. All the elements of the ritual related to symbolic meaning and belief, and were necessary for the renewal of life. The preparations took four days. Most of the actual ceremony took place in the earth lodge of the visionary, since the Pawnee villages did not have a special ceremonial lodge. Bystanders outside dug holes in
11881-599: Was recalled as Pawnee Nation President. Becoming the shortest serving president on the Pawnee Nation Business Council after being recalled in 5 months. Officers for the Resaru Council are: The Pawnee Business Council is the supreme governing body of the Pawnee Tribe of Oklahoma. Subject to the limitations imposed by the Constitution and applicable Federal law, the Pawnee Business Council shall exercise all
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