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128-466: Taungoo District was created by the Pagan Dynasty in the 1280s, and was much larger. It was ruled by appointed governors through succeeding dynasties. In 1510, Taungoo District briefly became the small, independent kingdom of Taunggyi . But within twenty years that kingdom soon controlled most of Burma, the capital was moved to Pegu , and Taungoo became a district again. By the mid-19th century, Taungoo

256-536: A Burmese army of 40,000 to 60,000 (including 800 elephants and 10,000 horses) at the battle of Ngasaunggyan in 1277. However, some argue that the Chinese figures, which came from eye estimates of a single battle, are greatly exaggerated. As Harvey puts it: the Mongols "erred on the side of generosity as they did not wish to diminish the glory in defeating superior numbers". But assuming that the precolonial population of Myanmar

384-696: A Rakhine person from a Bamar person, the predominant ethnic group in Myanmar , based solely on physical appearance, unless the individual is wearing traditional Rakhine clothing or speaking the Rakhine language . The Rakhine language is part of the Sino-Tibetan language family and shares a close relationship with the Burmese language . Among the various Sino-Tibetan languages spoken in the country, Rakhine stands out for its strong similarity to Burmese . Some experts contend that

512-484: A broader effort to indigenize the country's English ethnonyms and place names. The Rakhine State , also known as Arakan , in Myanmar is the home to the Rakhine people. The history of Rakhine is divided into seven parts - the independent kingdoms of Dhanyawadi , Waithali , Lemro , Mrauk U , Burmese occupation from 1785 to 1826, British rule from 1826 to 1948 and as a part of independent Burma from 1948. Dhanyawadi

640-516: A chief justice and a chief minister. Pagan's military was the origin of the Royal Burmese Army . The army was organised into a small standing army of a few thousand, which defended the capital and the palace, and a much larger conscript-based wartime army. Conscription was based on the kyundaw system (called the ahmudan system by later dynasties), which required local chiefs to supply their predetermined quota of men from their jurisdiction on

768-456: A golden age that would last for the next two centuries. Aside from a few occasional rebellions, the kingdom was largely peaceful during the period. King Kyansittha (r. 1084–1112) successfully melded the diverse cultural influences introduced into Pagan by Anawrahta's conquests. He patronised Mon scholars and artisans who emerged as the intellectual elite. He appeased the Pyus by linking his genealogy to

896-425: A growth in the number of population centres and a growing prosperous economy. The economy also benefited from the general absence of warfare that would stunt the economies of later dynasties. According to Victor Lieberman, the prosperous economy supported "a rich Buddhist civilization whose most spectacular feature was a dense forest of pagodas, monasteries, and temples, totaling perhaps 10,000 brick structures, of which

1024-527: A large number of new weirs and diversionary canals, and Minbu a similarly well-watered district south of Pagan. After these hubs had been developed, in the mid-to-late 12th century, Pagan moved into as yet undeveloped frontier areas west of the Irrawaddy and south of Minbu. These new lands included both irrigable wet-rice areas and non-irrigable areas suitable for rain-fed rice, pulses, sesame, and millet. Agricultural expansion and temple construction in turn sustained

1152-606: A market in land and certain types of labour and materials. Land reclamation, religious donations, and building projects expanded slowly before 1050, increased to 1100, accelerated sharply with the opening of new lands between c. 1140 and c. 1210 and continued at a lower level from 1220 to 1300. By the second half of the 13th century, Pagan had developed an enormous amount of cultivated lands. Estimates based on surviving inscriptions alone range from 200,000 to 250,000 hectares. (In comparison, Pagan's contemporary Angkor relied on its main rice basin of over 13,000 hectares.) But donations to

1280-496: A privy council of ministers, the forebear of the Hluttaw . But the seeds of Pagan's decline were sowed during this seemingly idyllic period. The state had stopped expanding, but the practice of donating tax-free land to religion had not. The continuous growth of tax-free religious wealth greatly reduced the tax base of the kingdom. Indeed, Htilominlo was the last of the temple builders although most of his temples were in remote lands not in

1408-483: A qualitative and quantitative standard that subsequent dynasties tried to emulate but never succeeded in doing. The court finally developed a complex organisation that became the model for later dynasties. the agricultural economy reached its potential in Upper Myanmar. The Buddhist clergy, the sangha , enjoyed one of its most wealthy periods. Civil and criminal laws were codified in the vernacular, Burmese , to become

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1536-501: A rich and distinct heritage. They also have their own ethnic armed group in Myanmar's Rakhine State known as the Arakan Army . The Rakhine people have a variety of appearances, showing a mix of traits from both South Asian and Mongoloid backgrounds. They have range of skin tones , typically ranging from light to medium brown. Rakhine men mostly wear a sarong called lungyi , while

1664-553: A small 9th-century settlement at Pagan (present-day Bagan) by the Mranma /Burmans. Over the next two hundred years, the small principality gradually grew to absorb its surrounding regions until the 1050s and 1060s when King Anawrahta founded the Pagan Empire, presumably for the first time unifying under one polity the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery. By the late 12th century, Anawrahta's successors had extended their influence farther to

1792-513: A smaller empire of the Irrawaddy valley and nearer periphery. Anawrahta's victory terracotta votive tablets emblazoned with his name in Sanskrit have been found along the Tenasserim coastline in the south, Katha in the north, Thazi in the east and Minbu in the west. In the northeast, a series of 43 forts Anawrahta established along the eastern foothills, of which 33 still exist as villages, reveal

1920-687: A unique dialect through which they could communicate. The Rakhine people were able to preserve their culture, language, and religion in Bengal. Rakhines observe Rakhine festival such as Sanggreng and Nai-chai ka. The last Rakhine language school in Kuakata closed in 1998 due to shortage of funds, In January 2006, Chin Than Monjur, opened a Rakhine language community school which expanded into three news schools and used Rakhine language books from Myanmar. The schools were forced to close due to shortage of funds. In summary,

2048-600: A violent overthrow. Radiocarbon dating shows that human activity existed until c. 870 at Halin , the Pyu city reportedly destroyed by an 832 Nanzhao raid. The region of Pagan received waves of Burman settlements in the mid-to-late 9th century, and perhaps well into the 10th century. Though Hmannan states that Pagan was fortified in 849—or more accurately, 876 after the Hmannan dates are adjusted to King Anawrahta 's inscriptionally verified accession date of 1044—the chronicle reported date

2176-466: Is a small community of Rakhine people inhabiting the coastal areas of Patuakhali , Borguna and Cox's Bazar , having migrated to Bangladesh from Myanmar before the formation of these two contemporary countries. The total population of the community as of 2020 is 16,000. But according to the Joshua Project, the total population is 20,000. The Rakhine people and the local Bengali population developed

2304-682: Is called "Sankran". "Sankran" in Thai means change. Sangrai actually means saying goodbye to the old year and welcoming the new year. At the same time, the new Jhum farming season in the Chittagong Hill Tracts begins after Sangrai. Not only Jhum farming, the Marmaras do not get married again after the Maghi full moon until Sangrai, which means that the Marmaras in Sangrai mean to start anew by throwing away all

2432-563: Is characterized by its rich history, unique interpretations, and a blend of local customs, reflecting the region's diverse cultural heritage. The Arakan king Min Razagyi (1593–1612) conquered the areas and styled himself as the highest and most powerful king of Arakan, Chacomas, and Bengal in a 1607 letter to Portuguese mercenary Filipe de Brito e Nicote . In 1546 CE, while the Arakanese king Min Bin

2560-635: Is considered the first Kingdom of Arakan. Established around the 1st century CE, it served as a significant cultural and political center in the region. The kingdom is known for its flourishing trade, connecting Southeast Asia with the Indian subcontinent . Dhanyawadi's influence laid the groundwork for subsequent kingdoms in Arakan, contributing to the development of its unique cultural identity, which blends various influences from neighboring regions. The remnants of Dhanyawadi's architecture and artifacts offer insights into

2688-494: Is likely the date of foundation, not fortification. Radiocarbon dating of Pagan's walls points to c. 980 at the earliest. (If an earlier fortification did exist, it must have been constructed using less durable materials such as mud.) Likewise, inscriptional evidence of the earliest Pagan kings points to 956. The earliest mention of Pagan in external sources occurs in Song Chinese records, which report that envoys from Pagan visited

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2816-464: Is observed on the full moon day of the month of Vaisakha (usually in May). Pavarana is a Buddhist holy day which is also celebrated by the Rakhine people on Aashvin full moon of the lunar month . This usually occurs on the full moon of the 11th month. It marks the end of the three lunar months of Vassa , sometimes called "Buddhist Lent." The day is marked in some Asian countries where Theravada Buddhism

2944-427: Is popular across Myanmar . They have a rich cultural heritage that reflects their history, beliefs, and way of life. Despite facing challenges, including political and social strife, they continue to celebrate and preserve their rich cultural heritage, contributing to the diversity of Myanmar. Almost all Rakhine people are followers of Theravada Buddhism. Rakhine State is also home to many Buddhist temples, reflecting

3072-450: Is practiced. On this day at night, lanterns are blown into the sky to honor the heritage of Gautam Buddha . The Rakhine language is closely related to and generally mutually intelligible with Burmese . Notably, Rakhine retains an /r/ sound that has become /j/ in Burmese. Rakhine utilises the Burmese alphabet . It is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken in western Myanmar , primarily in

3200-410: Is today Arakan . The younger son Kanyaza Nge ( ကံရာဇာငယ် ) succeeded his father, and was followed by a dynasty of 31 kings, and then another dynasty of 17 kings. Some three and a half centuries later, in 483 BC, scions of Tagaung founded yet another kingdom much farther down the Irrawaddy at Sri Ksetra , near modern Pyay (Prome). Sri Ksetra lasted nearly six centuries, and was succeeded in turn by

3328-463: The Kyaukse district , east of Pagan. The newly irrigated regions attracted people, giving him an increased manpower base. He graded every town and village according to the levy it could raise. The region, known as Ledwin ( လယ်တွင်း , lit. "rice country"), became the granary, the economic key of the north country. History shows that one who gained control of Kyaukse became kingmaker in Upper Myanmar. By

3456-618: The Marma . By this period, the Bamar began to call the Rakhine the Myanmagyi (မြန်မာကြီး; lit.   ' great Mranma / Myanma ' ), as attested by contemporaneous Burmese and foreign sources. The ethnonym reflected their common ancestral kinship ties with the Buddhist-professing Bamar, with whom the Rakhine identified. By 1585, European, Persian, and Bengali accounts began describing

3584-748: The Pagan dynasty and the Pagan Kingdom ; also the Bagan dynasty or Bagan Kingdom ) was the first Burmese kingdom to unify the regions that would later constitute modern-day Myanmar . Pagan's 250-year rule over the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery laid the foundation for the ascent of Burmese language and culture , the spread of Bamar ethnicity in Upper Myanmar , and the growth of Theravada Buddhism in Myanmar and in mainland Southeast Asia . The kingdom grew out of

3712-560: The Pyu , Mon and Pali norms by the late 12th century. Theravada Buddhism slowly began to spread to the village level although Tantric , Mahayana , Brahmanic , and animist practices remained heavily entrenched at all social strata. Pagan's rulers built over 10,000 Buddhist temples in the Bagan Archaeological Zone of which over 2000 remain. The wealthy donated tax-free land to religious authorities. The kingdom went into decline in

3840-558: The Rakhine State . Closely related to Burmese , the language is spoken by the Rakhine and Marma peoples; it is estimated to have around one million native speakers and it is spoken as a second language by a further million. Rakhine State is home to Sanskrit inscriptions that date from the first millennium to the 1000s. These inscriptions were written in Northern Brahmic scripts (namely Siddham or Gaudi ), which are ancestral to

3968-605: The Sakya clan ( သကျ သာကီဝင် မင်းမျိုး ) – the clan of the Buddha – left his homeland with followers in 850 BC after military defeat by the neighbouring kingdom of Panchala ( ပဉ္စာလရာဇ် ). They settled at Tagaung in present-day northern Myanmar and founded a kingdom . The chronicle does not claim that he had arrived in an empty land, only that he was the first king. Abhiraja had two sons. The elder son Kanyaza Gyi ( ကံရာဇာကြီး ) ventured south, and in 825 BC founded his own kingdom in what

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4096-651: The State Administration Council junta in 2024. The ideology of the Arakan Army is centered on the following: The Rakhine Army has significantly challenged the Burmese junta's military might, often achieving surprising victories that showcase its strength and strategic prowess. The AA's operational capabilities were notably highlighted during Operation 1027 , a coordinated offensive aimed at key military targets in Rakhine State. This operation demonstrated

4224-461: The governorship of Martaban in 1285, consolidated Mon -speaking regions of Lower Myanmar, and declared Ramannadesa (Land of the Mon) independent on 30 January 1287. In the west too, Arakan stopped paying tribute. The chronicles report that the eastern territories including trans-Salween states of Keng Hung, Kengtung and Chiang Mai stopped paying tribute although most scholars attribute Pagan's limits to

4352-519: The 11th century, Pagan consolidated its hold of Upper Burma, and established its authority over Lower Burma. The emergence of Pagan Empire would have a lasting impact on Burmese history as well as the history of mainland Southeast Asia . The conquest of Lower Burma checked the Khmer Empire's encroachment into the Tenasserim coast, secured control of the peninsular ports, which were transit points between

4480-414: The 15th century. U Kala 's Maha Yazawin traces the word's etymology to Alaungsithu 's conquest of the region during the Pagan era, but epigraphic evidence to support the underlying theory remains scant. Arthur Phayre traces the etymology to the Sanskrit or Pali words for 'monster' or 'demon' ( rākṣasa and rakkhasa ) respectively, which is more likely. Some Rakhine inhabitants now prefer

4608-475: The 20th century to 2,561 in 2014, with Rakhines leaving Bangladesh due to illegal land-grabbing and persecution. Lands owned by them in the districts decreased by 81%. Rakhine land is also being taken over by politicians in Patuakhali District. Recognizing their situation is important for promoting their rights and improving their lives. The Rakhine are predominantly Theravada Buddhists and are one of

4736-589: The 2nd and 5th centuries AD, scholars to between the 8th and 10th centuries CE. (A minority view led by Htin Aung contends that the arrival of Burmans may have been a few centuries earlier, perhaps the early 7th century. The earliest human settlement at Bagan is radiocarbon dated to c. 650 AD. But evidence is inconclusive to prove that it was specifically a Burman (and not just another Pyu) settlement.) Thant Myint-U summarises that "the Nanzhao Empire had washed up on

4864-507: The AA is the military wing of the United League of Arakan (ULA). It is currently led by Commander-in-Chief Major General Twan Mrat Naing and vice deputy commander-in-chief Brigadier General Nyo Twan Awng . The Arakan Army states that the objective of its armed revolution is to restore the sovereignty of the Arakan people. It was declared a terrorist organization in 2020 by Myanmar, and again by

4992-458: The AA's ability to mobilize effectively, utilize guerilla tactics, and leverage local support, leading to significant setbacks for the junta. The operation underscored the AA's determination and skill, establishing it as one of the strongest ethnic armed forces in Myanmar. With a focus on defending their homeland and securing rights for the Rakhine people, the Arakan Army has garnered considerable support among local populations. Their success against

5120-480: The Burman ethnicity. Sithu II's success in state building created stability and prosperity throughout the kingdom. His immediate successors Htilominlo and Kyaswa (r. 1235–1249) were able to live off the stable and bountiful conditions he passed on with little state-building on their part. Htilomino hardly did any governing. A devout Buddhist and scholar, the king gave up the command of the army, and left administration to

5248-533: The First Burmese Empire—the "charter polity" that formed the basis of modern-day Burma/Myanmar. Historically verifiable Burmese history begins with his accession. Anawrahta proved an energetic king. His acts as king were to strengthen his kingdom's economic base. In the first decade of his reign, he invested much effort into turning the arid parched lands of central Myanmar into a rice granary, successfully building/enlarging weirs and canals, mainly around

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5376-456: The Hluttaw grew greatly in the following decades. It came to manage not only day-to-day affairs but also military affairs of the kingdom. (No Pagan king after Sithu II ever took command of the army again.) The powerful ministers also became kingmakers. Their support was an important factor in the accession of the last kings of Pagan from Htilominlo (r. 1211–1235) to Kyawswa (r. 1289–1297). The court

5504-587: The Indian Ocean and China, and facilitated growing cultural exchange with the external world: Mons of Lower Burma, India and Ceylon. Equally important was Anawrahta's conversion to Theravada Buddhism from his native Ari Buddhism . The Burmese king provided the Buddhist school, which had been in retreat elsewhere in South Asia and Southeast Asia, a much needed reprieve and a safe shelter. By the 1070s, Pagan had emerged as

5632-471: The Irrawaddy basin and had founded one of Southeast Asia's earliest urban centres. By the early centuries AD, several walled cities and towns, including Tagaung, the birthplace of the first Burman kingdom according to the chronicles, had emerged. The architectural and artistic evidence indicates the Pyu realm's contact with Indian culture by the 4th century AD. The city-states boasted kings and palaces, moats and massive wooden gates, and always 12 gates for each of

5760-658: The Khmer Empire in Southeast Asia, recognised as a sovereign kingdom by the Chinese Song dynasty , and the Indian Chola dynasty . Several diverse elements—art, architecture, religion, language, literature, ethnic plurality—had begun to synthesize. Pagan's rise continued under Alaungsithu (r. 1112–1167), who focused on standardising administrative and economic systems. The king, also known as Sithu I, actively expanded frontier colonies and built new irrigation systems throughout

5888-768: The Marmas, the Rakhine also celebrate the New Year with their own rules. In the case of the Marmas, it is celebrated according to their Burmese calendar . The main attraction of Sangrai is the water sport called Marmara "Ri Long Poye". This water sports festival is held on the last day of Sangrai festival. Sangrai water sports are performed not only by the Marmas, but also by the Dai tribes of Southeast Asia, Myanmar , Thailand , Laos , Cambodia and China in mid-April. In Myanmar, such events are called "Thingyan" and in Thailand and Laos this ceremony

6016-467: The Mongols under Kublai Khan systematically invaded the country. The first invasion in 1277 defeated the Burmese at the Battle of Ngasaunggyan , and secured their hold of Kanngai (modern-day Yingjiang, Yunnan, 112 kilometres (70 mi) north of Bhamo ). In 1283–85, their forces moved south and occupied the land down to Hanlin. Instead of defending the country, the king fled Pagan for Lower Myanmar, where he

6144-587: The Mrauk-U temples far surpass those on the banks of Irrawaddy." Illustrative examples of Mrauk U period architecture include the Shite-thaung and Htukkanthein Temples . The Rakhine State and its people are predominantly Theravada Buddhist . This religious tradition plays a central role in the cultural and social life of the Rakhine community, influencing their festivals, rituals, and daily practices. Buddhism in Rakhine

6272-621: The Northern Rakhine. Southern Rakhine was not occupied by the Bagan Empire and the Ava Kingdom. In 1429, founder of Kingdom of Mrauk U , the king Min Saw Mon reclaimed the Arakanese throne with the help of the Bengal, and ruled the kingdom. But as a vassal of Bengal 1429 to 1430. Rakhine oral traditions and written records also describe several alternative origin myths, including one that traces

6400-529: The Pagan line continued to be claimed by successive Burmese dynasties down to the last Burmese dynasty Konbaung . Pagan's government can be generally described by the mandala system in which the sovereign exercised direct political authority in the core region ( pyi , lit. "country", ပြည် , [pjì] ), and administered farther surrounding regions as tributary vassal states ( naingngans , lit. "conquered lands", နိုင်ငံ , [nàiɴŋàɴ] ). In general,

6528-513: The Pagan region, reflecting the deteriorating state of royal treasury. By the mid-13th century, the problem had worsened considerably. The Upper Myanmar heartland over which Pagan exercised most political control had run out of easily reclaimed irrigable tracts. Yet their fervent desire to accumulate religious merit for better reincarnations made it impossible for Pagan kings to halt entirely their own or other courtiers' donations. The crown did try to reclaim some of these lands by periodically purging

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6656-421: The Pagan society—members of the royalty, senior court officials, and wealthy laymen—donated to the clergy enormous acreages of agricultural land, along with hereditary tied cultivators to attain religious merit. (Both religious lands and cultivators were permanently tax exempt.) Although it ultimately became a major burden on the economy, the practice initially helped expand the economy for some two centuries. First,

6784-480: The Pyu realm in the 830s and 840s, and settled at the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers, perhaps to help the Nanzhao pacify the surrounding countryside. Indeed, the naming system of the early Pagan kings—Pyusawhti and his descendants for six generations—was identical to that of the Nanzhao kings where the last name of the father became the first name of the son. The chronicles date these early kings to between

6912-455: The Rakhine and Buddhist groups like Barua people as the Magh and its derivatives (e.g., Mogh, Mugh, Mog, etc.). The word's etymology is likely to derive from Magadha , the name of an ancient Buddhist kingdom. By the late 19th century, British authorities adopted the ethnonym Arakanese . After 1991, the Burmese government changed the official English name of the ethnic group to Rakhine , as part of

7040-718: The Rakhine back to an intermarriage between a highland Mro and a lowland queen, and another that traces the ancestry of Rakhine monarchs back to Mahasammata , the legendary first monarch of the world. After the Kingdom of Mrauk U was annexed by the Konbaung Kingdom in 1784, Rakhine refugees began settling in Cox's Bazar and Patuakhali District . The British colonial officer of the East India Trading Company , Captain Hiram Cox ,

7168-590: The Rakhine language itself might be just a dialect of Burmese. The Rakhine people display a notable range of physical appearances, featuring both South Asian and Mongoloid traits. Despite this diversity, all identify as Rakhine, a community comprising seven ethnic groups. The Rakhine have embraced Buddhism since the era of The Buddha . Some legends suggest that they are descendants of the Sakya Kingdom, which faced downfall, leading many to escape and establish themselves in present-day Rakhine. The Rakhine are one of

7296-685: The Rakhine people mainly resides in Cox's Bazar and the Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh. Their presence reflects a rich culture but also highlights the challenges they face, such as issues with identity. The 150-year old Khaddya Song Chansai Rakhine cemetery in Taltali Upazila , Barguna District , was forcefully taken by local land grabbers in 2017. The Rakhine population in the Barguna and Patuakhali Districts decreased by 95%, from 50,000 in

7424-652: The Rakhine people. Although some of the kings had Muslim titles (nicknames) during the Kingdom of Mrauk U , as it was under Bengal Sultanate influence, none of them adopted the religion; they remained as Buddhists. The Kingdom of Mrauk U was the largest kingdom of the Arakan (Rakhine) Kingdom, encompassing the Chittagong region of Bangladesh and the Rakhine State of Myanmar . Arakanese chronicle records that more than six million shrines and pagodas flourished in Mrauk-U. A British archaeologist, Emil Forchhammer noted that "in durability, architectural skill, and ornamentation

7552-499: The Salween. At any rate, the 250-year-old Pagan Empire had ceased to exist. After their 1287 invasion, the Mongols continued to control down to Tagaung but refused to fill the power vacuum they had created farther south. Indeed, Emperor Kublai Khan never sanctioned an actual occupation of Pagan. His real aim appeared to have been "to keep the entire region of Southeast Asia broken and fragmented." At Pagan, one of Narathihapate's sons Kyawswa emerged as king of Pagan in May 1289. But

7680-454: The Song capital Bianjing in 1004. Mon inscriptions first mentioned Pagan in 1093, respectively. Below is a partial list of early Pagan kings as reported by Hmannan , shown in comparison with Hmannan dates adjusted to 1044 and the list of Zatadawbon Yazawin (the Royal Horoscopes Chronicle). Prior to Anawrahta, inscriptional evidence exists thus far only for Nyaung-u Sawrahan and Kunhsaw Kyaunghpyu . The list starts from Pyinbya ,

7808-437: The agricultural base of the kingdom with new manpower from the conquered areas, ensuring the needed wealth for a growing royalty and officialdom. Pagan dispatched governors to supervise more closely ports in Lower Myanmar and the peninsula. In the early 13th century, Pagan, alongside the Khmer Empire, was one of two main empires in mainland Southeast Asia. His reign also saw the rise of Burmese culture which finally emerged from

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7936-421: The alternative spelling of ရက္ခိုင်. Between the 17th and 18th centuries, the Rakhine began calling themselves Mranma (မြန်မာ) and its derivatives, as attested by texts like the Rakhine Minrazagri Ayedaw Sadan and the Dhanyawaddy Ayedawbon . The word, which is also cognate with Bamar and is the Rakhine pronunciation of "Myanmar," continues to be used by their descendants in Bangladesh, who are known as

8064-423: The army was driven back, it left no doubt as to who held the real power in central Myanmar. In the following years, the brothers, especially the youngest, Thihathu , increasingly acted like sovereigns. To check the increasing power of the three brothers, Kyawswa submitted to the Mongols in January 1297, and was recognised by the Mongol emperor Temür Khan as viceroy of Pagan on 20 March 1297. The brothers resented

8192-458: The banks of the Irrawaddy, and would find a new life, fused with an existing and ancient culture, to produce one of the most impressive little kingdoms of the medieval world. From this fusion would result the Burmese people, and the foundations of modern Burmese culture." Evidence shows that the actual pace of Burman migration into the Pyu realm was gradual. Indeed, no firm indications have been found at Sri Ksetra or at any other Pyu site to suggest

8320-537: The basic jurisprudence for subsequent ages. Sithu II formally founded the Palace Guards in 1174, the first extant record of a standing army, and pursued an expansionist policy. Over his 27-year reign, Pagan's influence reached further south to the Strait of Malacca , at least to the Salween river in the east and below the current China border in the farther north. (Burmese chronicles also claim trans-Salween Shan states, including Kengtung and Chiang Mai.) Continuing his grandfather Sithu I's policies, Sithu II expanded

8448-456: The basis of population in times of war. This basic system of military organisation was largely unchanged down to the precolonial period although later dynasties, especially the Toungoo dynasty, did introduce standardisation and other modifications. The early Pagan army consisted mainly of conscripts raised just prior to or during the times of war. Although historians believe that earlier kings like Anawrahta must have had permanent troops on duty in

8576-457: The capital. The region consisted of the capital and the key irrigated hubs ( khayaings , ခရိုင် , [kʰəjàiɴ] ) of Kyaukse and Minbu . Because of the irrigated hubs, the region supported the largest population in the kingdom, which translated into the largest concentration of royal servicemen who could be called into military service. The king directly ruled the capital and its immediate environs while he appointed most trusted members of

8704-449: The city of Pagan, once home to 200,000 people, had been reduced to a small town, never to regain its preeminence. (It survived into the 15th century as a settlement.) The brothers placed one of Kyawswa's sons as the governor of Pagan. Anawrahta's line continued to rule Pagan as governors under Myinsaing, Pinya and Ava Kingdoms until 1368/69. The male side of Pagan ended there although the female side passed into Pinya and Ava royalty. But

8832-471: The clergy in the name of Buddhist purification, and seizing previously donated lands. Although some of the reclamation efforts were successful, powerful Buddhist clergy by and large successfully resisted such attempts. Ultimately, the rate of reclamation fell behind the rate at which such lands were dedicated to the sangha . (The problem was exacerbated to a smaller degree by powerful ministers, who exploited succession disputes and accumulated their own lands at

8960-449: The core by appointing its governors in place of hereditary rulers. In the 12th and 13th centuries, for example, Pagan made a point of appointing its governors in the Tenasserim coast to closely supervise the ports and revenues. By the second half of the 13th century, several key ports in Lower Myanmar (Prome, Bassein, Dala) were all ruled by senior princes of the royal family. However, the escape of Lower Myanmar from Upper Myanmar's orbit in

9088-435: The core zone governors did not have much autonomy because of the close proximity to the capital. Surrounding the core region were the naingngans or tributary states, governed by local hereditary rulers as well as Pagan appointed governors, drawn from princely or ministerial families. Because of their farther distances from the capital, the regions' rulers/governors had greater autonomy. They were required to send tributes to

9216-508: The crown but they generally had a freehand in the rest of the administration. They were chief justices, commanders-in-chief, and tax collectors. They made local officer appointments. In fact, no evidence of royal censuses or direct contact between the Pagan court and headmen beneath the governors has been found. Over the course of 250 years, the throne slowly tried to integrate the most strategically and economically important regions—i.e. Lower Myanmar, Tenasserim, northernmost Irrawaddy valley—into

9344-459: The crown's authority diffused away with the increasing distance from the capital. Each state was administered at three general levels: taing ( တိုင်း , province), myo ( မြို့ , town), and ywa ( ရွာ , village), with the high king's court at the centre. The kingdom consisted of at least 14 taings . The core region was the present-day Dry Zone of Upper Myanmar, measuring approximately 150 to 250 kilometres (93 to 155 mi) in radius from

9472-448: The dynasty at Pagan (Bagan). But the 19th-century Glass Palace Chronicle ( Hmannan Yazawin ) connects the dynasty's origins to the clan of the Buddha and the first Buddhist king Maha Sammata ( မဟာ သမ္မတ ). The Glass Palace Chronicle traces the origins of the Pagan kingdom to India during the 9th century BC, more than three centuries before the Buddha was born. Abhiraja ( အဘိရာဇာ )of

9600-480: The earliest inhabitants of Myanmar of whom records are extant; and that Pagan kings had adopted the Pyu histories and legends as their own. Indeed, the Mranma and Pyu people became mixed after years of immigration and settlement. The earliest archaeological evidence of civilisation far dates to 11,000 BC. Archaeological evidence shows that as early as the 2nd century BC the Pyu had built water-management systems along secondary streams in central and northern parts of

9728-511: The early history and society of Arakan. King Min Hti is one of the famous Arakan king known for being the longest reigning monarch in the whole world history , although the exact length of his reign is unknown. It is known that he ruled the Launggyet Dynasty of Arakan from c. 1279 to 1373/74. All the Arakan kingdoms has always been predominantly Buddhist, with the majority known today as

9856-500: The effective extent of his authority. Moreover, most scholars attribute Pagan's control of peripheral regions (Arakan, Shan Hills) to later kings—Arakan to Alaungsithu , and cis-Salween Shan Hills to Narapatisithu . (Even those latter-day kings may not have had more than nominal control over the farther peripheral regions. For example, some scholars such as Victor Lieberman argue that Pagan did not have any "effective authority" over Arakan. ) At any rate, all scholars accept that during

9984-529: The expense of the crown.) By 1280, between one and two-thirds of Upper Myanmar's cultivatable land had been donated to religion. Thus the throne lost resources needed to retain the loyalty of courtiers and military servicemen, inviting a vicious circle of internal disorders and external challenges by Mons , Mongols and Shans . The first signs of disorder appeared soon after Narathihapate 's accession in 1256. The inexperienced king faced revolts in Arakanese state of Macchagiri (present-day Kyaukpyu District ) in

10112-504: The following townships 18°38′N 96°25′E  /  18.633°N 96.417°E  / 18.633; 96.417 This Bago Region location article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Pagan Dynasty 21°10′20″N 94°51′37″E  /  21.17222°N 94.86028°E  / 21.17222; 94.86028 The Pagan Kingdom ( Burmese : ပုဂံပြည် , pronounced [bəɡàɰ̃ kʰɪʔ] , lit.   ' Bagan State ' ; also known as

10240-448: The fortifier of Pagan according to Hmannan . By the mid-10th century, Burmans at Pagan had expanded irrigation-based cultivation while borrowing extensively from the Pyus' predominantly Buddhist culture. Pagan's early iconography, architecture and scripts suggest little difference between early Burman and Pyu cultural forms. Moreover, no sharp ethnic distinction between Burmans and linguistically linked Pyus seems to have existed. The city

10368-705: The four main Buddhist ethnic groups of Burma (the others being the Burman , Shan and Mon people ). Rakhine culture is similar to the mainstream Burmese culture but with more Indian influence , likely due to its geographical isolation from the Burmese mainland divided by the Arakan Mountains and its closer proximity to India . Traces of Indian influence remain in many aspects of Arakanese culture, including its literature, music, and cuisine. The traditional Rakhine kyin wrestling also plays an important role in its culture. Rakhine mont di , consisting of rice vermicelli noodles,

10496-440: The government. The members of the court can be divided into three general categories: royalty, ministers, and subordinate officials. At the top were the high king, princes, princesses, queens and concubines. The ministers were usually drawn from more distant branches of the royal family. Their subordinates were not royal but usually hailed from top official families. Titles, ranks, insignia, fiefs and other such rewards helped maintain

10624-577: The invasions and later provided military aid to Ava , hoping to stop Toungoo's advance into Upper Burma. Arakanese legends and some Rakhine people claim that they are Aryans came from Shakya in India. On the other hand, they might be mixed with Indo-Aryans and Tibeto-Burman. Kanyans of Irrawaddy Valley with later integrated into Arakanese race. Rakhine and Burmese are very closely related languages, which both descend from Old Burmese . 3000 or 2800 years ago, The Chandra dynasty that ruled Dhanyawadi and Waithali

10752-551: The junta not only boosts their reputation but also inspires other ethnic groups in Myanmar, as the AA continues to assert its influence and military strength in the ongoing struggle for autonomy and justice. Outside of Myanmar, a sizable Rakhine community exists in the southeast districts of Bangladesh, namely in Khagrachari, Rangamati, Bandarban and southern Cox's Bazar, with the Mong circle in Khagrachari having administrative duties. There

10880-545: The king of Pagan received a periodic nominal tribute but had "no substantive authority", for example, on such matters as the selection of deputies, successors, or levels of taxation. Pagan largely stayed out of the affairs of these outlying states, only interfering when there were outright revolts, such as Arakan and Martaban in the late 1250s or northern Kachin Hills in 1277. The court was the centre of administration, representing at once executive, legislative and judiciary branches of

11008-421: The kingdom of Pagan to expand beyond the dry zone of Upper Myanmar, and to dominate its periphery, including the maritime Lower Myanmar. As reconstructed by Michael Aung-Thwin , G.H. Luce and Than Tun , the main driver for this agriculture-based economic expansion was the practice of donating tax-free lands to the Buddhist clergy. For some two hundred years between 1050 and 1250, wealthy and powerful segments of

11136-533: The kingdom of Pagan. The Glass Palace Chronicle goes on to relate that around 107 AD, Thamoddarit ( သမုဒ္ဒရာဇ် ), nephew of the last king of Sri Ksetra, founded the city of Pagan (formally, Arimaddana-pura ( အရိမဒ္ဒနာပူရ ), lit. "the City that Tramples on Enemies"). The site reportedly was visited by the Buddha himself during his lifetime, and it was where he allegedly pronounced that a great kingdom would arise at this very location 651 years after his death. Thamoddarit

11264-416: The kingdom. He also introduced standardised weights and measures throughout the country to assist administration as well as trade. The standardisation provided an impetus for the monetisation of Pagan's economy, the full impact of which however would not be felt until later in the 12th century. The kingdom prospered from increased agricultural output as well as from inland and maritime trading networks. Much of

11392-406: The late 13th century proves that the region was far from fully integrated. History shows that the region would not be fully integrated into the core until the late 18th century. The royal authority attenuated further in farther naingngans : Arakan, Chin Hills, Kachin Hills, and Shan Hills. These were tributary lands over which the crown only had a "largely ritual" or nominal sovereignty. In general,

11520-508: The later kings to expand. Pagan reached the height of political and administrative development during the reigns of Narapatisithu (Sithu II; r. 1174–1211) and Htilominlo (r. 1211–1235). The Sulamani Temple , Gawdawpalin Temple , Mahabodhi Temple , and Htilominlo Temple were built during their reigns. The kingdom's borders expanded to its greatest extent. Military organisation and success reached their zenith. Monumental architecture achieved

11648-454: The loyalty-patronage structure of the court. The king as the absolute monarch was the chief executive, legislator and justice of the land. However, as the kingdom grew, the king gradually handed over responsibilities to the court, which became more extensive and complex, adding more administrative layers and officials. In the early 13th century, c. 1211, part of the court evolved into the king's privy council or Hluttaw . The role and power of

11776-683: The main Theravada stronghold. In 1071, it helped to restart the Theravada Buddhism in Ceylon whose Buddhist clergy had been wiped out by the Cholas . Another key development according to traditional scholarship was the creation of the Burmese alphabet from the Mon script in 1058, one year after the conquest of Thaton. Anawrahta was followed by a line of able kings who cemented Pagan's place in history. Pagan entered

11904-518: The major ethnic groups in Myanmar. Some Rakhine people can be recognized by their mixed backgrounds, which often show South Asian features or Skin colors , or both. The Rakhine people are known to be not related to Bangladeshi backgrounds. Their names are typically in Rakhine, often resembling Burmese names . The Arakan Army is ethnic armed organisation predominantly composed of Rakhine people who follow Theravada Buddhism . Founded in April 2009,

12032-731: The majority along the coastal region of present-day Rakhine State (formerly called Arakan ), although Rakhine communities also exist throughout the country, particularly in the Ayeyarwady and Yangon Regions . They constitute approximately 4.61% or more of Myanmar's total population. Rakhine communities exist in Bangladesh 's Chittagong Hill Tracts and in India, where they are known as the Marma and Magh peoples respectively. Rakhine people consist of seven different ethnic groups, namely Rakhine, Kamein , Kwe Myi, Daingnet people , Maramagyi , Mru people and Thet.  Among them, Rakhine group are

12160-558: The majority ethnic group in Rakhine State and have long been influenced by their proximity to India and have formed trading links with the sub-continents. Thet, Kamein, Daingnet and Marma people are the minority ethnic groups and they live in the hills. The Arakanese are predominantly Theravada Buddhist .  Their language has some similarities with Burmese language and also very similar to Burma in culture and traditional dress. They have developed their own kingdoms, dynasties, scripts, coins, costumes, culture, and dialects, showcasing

12288-502: The mid-1050s, Anawrahta's reforms had turned Pagan into a regional power, and he looked to expand. Over the next ten years, he founded the Pagan Empire, the Irrawaddy valley at the core, surrounded by tributary states. Anawrahta began his campaigns in the nearer Shan Hills , and extended conquests to Lower Myanmar down to the Tenasserim coast to Phuket and North Arakan . Estimates of the extent of his empire vary greatly. The Burmese and Siamese chronicles report an empire which covered

12416-469: The mid-13th century as the continuous growth of tax-free religious wealth by the 1280s had severely affected the crown's ability to retain the loyalty of courtiers and military servicemen. This ushered in a vicious circle of internal disorders and external challenges by the Arakanese , Mons , Mongols and Shans . Repeated Mongol invasions (1277–1301) toppled the four-century-old kingdom in 1287. The collapse

12544-456: The millennium-old Pyu realm came crashing down under repeated attacks by the Nanzhao kingdom of Yunnan between the 750s and 830s AD. Like that of the Pyu, the original home of Burmans prior to Yunnan is believed to be in present-day Qinghai and Gansu provinces . After the Nanzhao attacks had greatly weakened the Pyu city-states, large numbers of Burman warriors and their families first entered

12672-493: The monastery-temple complexes, typically located some distances away from the capital, helped anchor new population centres for the throne. Such institutions in turn stimulated associated artisan, commercial, and agricultural activities critical to the general economy. Secondly, the need to accumulate land for endowments, as well as for awards for soldiers and servicemen, drove the active development of new lands. The earliest irrigation projects focused on Kyaukse where Burmans built

12800-467: The new "king" controlled just a small area around the capital, and had no real army. The real power in Upper Myanmar now rested with three brothers, who were former Pagan commanders, of nearby Myinsaing . When the Hanthawaddy Kingdom of Lower Myanmar became a vassal of Sukhothai in 1293/94, it was the brothers, not Kyawswa, that sent a force to reclaim the former Pagan territory in 1295–96. Though

12928-675: The new arrangement as a Mongol vassalage as it directly reduced their power. On 17 December 1297, the three brothers overthrew Kyawswa, and founded the Myinsaing Kingdom . The Mongols did not know about the dethronement until June–July 1298. In response, the Mongols launched another invasion, reaching Myinsaing on 25 January 1301, but could not break through. The besiegers took the bribes of the three brothers, and withdrew on 6 April 1301. The Mongol government at Yunnan executed their commanders but sent no more invasions. They withdrew entirely from Upper Myanmar starting on 4 April 1303. By then,

13056-498: The number of conscripted cultivators offered the best single indication of military success, Upper Myanmar with a greater population was the natural centre of political gravity. Various sources and estimates put Pagan's military strength anywhere between 30,000 and 60,000 men. One inscription by Sithu II, who expanded the empire to its greatest extent, describes him as the lord of 17,645 soldiers while another notes 30,000 soldiers and cavalry under his command. A Chinese account mentions

13184-489: The old things, including the beginning of the new year. And so the Marmaras celebrate the New Year with a joyous ceremony in the hope of blessings and good wishes. The Rakhine People also observe the Buddha Purnima or internationally known as Vesak . It is also known as Buddha Birthday worldwide. This is the anniversary of three important events in Buddha's life—his birth, his attainment of enlightenment , and his death. It

13312-570: The palace, the first specific mention of a standing military structure in the Burmese chronicles is 1174 when Sithu II founded the palace guards—"two companies inner and outer, and they kept watch in ranks one behind the other". The palace guards became the nucleus round which the mass levy assembled in war time. Most of the field levy served in the infantry but the men for the elephantry , cavalry , and naval corps were drawn from specific hereditary villages that specialised in respective military skills. In an era of limited military specialisation, when

13440-466: The premier Buddhist Pagodas of Mrauk-U . His expansionist drive was to run into serious obstacles however. His control of Bengal beyond Chittagong was largely nominal and he, like the sultans of Bengal before him, never solved Tripuri raids into Bengal. Moreover, his interference in Lower Burma (1542) against Toungoo provoked Toungoo invasions in (1545–47) that nearly toppled his regime. He survived

13568-476: The present-day Myanmar and northern Thailand. The Siamese chronicles assert that Anawrahta conquered the entire Menam valley, and received tribute from the Khmer king. One Siamese chronicle states that Anawrahta's armies invaded the Khmer kingdom and sacked the city of Angkor , and another one goes so far as to say that Anawrahta even visited Java to receive his tribute. Archaeological evidence however confirms only

13696-420: The real and mythical ancestors of Sri Ksetra, the symbol of the Pyu golden past, and by calling the kingdom Pyu, even though it had been ruled by a Burman ruling class. He supported and favoured Theravada Buddhism while tolerating other religious groups. To be sure, he pursued these policies all the while maintaining the Burman military rule. By the end of his 28-year reign, Pagan had emerged a major power alongside

13824-451: The region's strong spiritual heritage. Buddhism is the majority religion and a central part of their identity. Rakhine people those who live in Bangladesh, mainly residing in the Chittagong Hill Tracts who are also known as the Marma people follows Buddhism. In India, there may be a small minority following Hinduism or Christianity as well. Sangrai is one of the main traditional ceremonies of

13952-458: The remains of over 2000 survive." Agriculture was the primary engine of the kingdom from its beginnings in the 9th century. Burman immigrants are believed to have either introduced new water management techniques or greatly enhanced existing Pyu system of weirs, dams, sluices, and diversionary barricades. At any rate, the Kyaukse agricultural basin's development in the 10th and 11th centuries enabled

14080-475: The riverine portions of Minbu and Pakkoku . To the north lay the Nanzhao Kingdom, and to the east still largely uninhabited Shan Hills , to the south and the west Pyus, and farther south still, Mons . The size of the principality is about 6% of that of modern Burma/Myanmar. In December 1044, a Pagan prince named Anawrahta came to power. Over the next three decades, he turned this small principality into

14208-429: The royal family to rule Kyaukse and Minbu. Newly settled dry zone taik ( တိုက် , [taiʔ] ) areas on the west bank of the Irrawaddy were entrusted to the men of lesser rank, as well as those from powerful local families known as taik leaders ( taik-thugyis , တိုက်သူကြီး , [taiʔ ðədʑí] ). The governors and taik-leaders lived off apanage grants and local taxes. But unlike their frontier counterparts,

14336-444: The sangha over the 250 years of the empire accumulated to over 150,000 hectares (over 60%) of the total cultivated land. Ultimately, the practice proved unsustainable when the empire had stopped growing physically, and a major factor in the empire's downfall. Rakhine people The Rakhine people ( Burmese and Rakhine  : ရခိုင်လူမျိုး ) or Arakanese are a Southeast Asian ethnic group in Myanmar (Burma) forming

14464-438: The shadows of Mon and Pyu cultures. With the Burman leadership of the kingdom now unquestioned, the term Mranma (Burmans) was openly used in Burmese language inscriptions. Burmese became the primary written language of the kingdom, replacing Pyu and Mon. His reign also saw the realignment of Burmese Buddhism with Ceylon's Mahavihara school. The Pyus receded into the background, and by the early 13th century, had largely assumed

14592-457: The signs of the zodiac, one of the many enduring patterns that would continue until the British occupation. Sri Ksetra emerged as the premier Pyu city-state in the 7th century AD. Although the size of the city-states and the scale of political organisation grew during the 7th to early 9th centuries, no sizeable kingdom had yet emerged by the 9th century. According to a reconstruction by G.H. Luce ,

14720-591: The south into the upper Malay Peninsula , to the east at least to the Salween river , in the farther north to below the current China border, and to the west, in northern Arakan and the Chin Hills . In the 12th and 13th centuries, Pagan, alongside the Khmer Empire , was one of two main empires in mainland Southeast Asia. The Burmese language and culture gradually became dominant in the upper Irrawaddy valley, eclipsing

14848-515: The wealth was devoted to temple building. Temple building projects, which began in earnest during Kyansittha's reign, became increasingly grandiose, and began to transition into a distinctively Burman architectural style from earlier Pyu and Mon norms. By the end of Sithu I's reign, Pagan enjoyed a more synthesised culture, an efficient government and a prosperous economy. However a corresponding growth in population also put pressure on "the fixed relationship between productive land and population", forcing

14976-509: The west, and Martaban (Mottama) in the south. The Martaban rebellion was easily put down but Macchagiri required a second expedition before it too was put down. The calm did not last long. Martaban again revolted in 1285. This time, Pagan could not do anything to retake Martaban because it was facing an existential threat from the north. The Mongols of the Yuan dynasty demanded tribute, in 1271 and again in 1273. When Narathihapate refused both times,

15104-494: The women also wear a sarong called thabein ..The Rakhine people celebrate several key festivals inlcuding Sangrain and Buddha Purnima. "Rakhine" (less commonly spelt Rakhaing ) is the contemporary ethnonym and name of the region in Rakhine, Burmese, and English today. The word is extant to the mid-11th century, appearing on a pillar inscription at Shite-thaung Temple , and also appears in European, Persian, and Ceylonese accounts by

15232-478: Was also the chief justice of the land. Sithu I (r. 1112–1167) was the first Pagan king to issue an official collection of judgments, later known as the Alaungsithu hpyat-hton , to be followed as precedents by all courts of justice. A follow-up collection of judgments was compiled during the reign of Sithu II (r. 1174–1211) by a Mon monk named Dhammavilasa. As another sign of delegation of power, Sithu II also appointed

15360-412: Was assassinated by one of his sons in 1287. The Mongols invaded again in 1287. Recent research indicates that Mongol armies may not have reached Pagan itself, and that even if they did, the damage they inflicted was probably minimal. But the damage was already done. All the vassal states of Pagan revolted right after the king's death, and went their own way. In the south, Wareru , the man who had seized

15488-652: Was fighting a battle with the Burmese, the Sak king attacked Northern Arakan Roma and occupied the Arakanese-controlled Chacomas of the Northern Arakan Mountains . After his initial military successes against Bengal and Tripura (1532–34), Min Bin began to regard himself "as a world conqueror or cakravartin ", and in commemoration of his victory in Bengal he built the Shitthaung Temple , one of

15616-466: Was followed by 250 years of political fragmentation that lasted well into the 16th century. The origins of the Pagan kingdom have been reconstructed using archaeological evidence as well as the Burmese chronicle tradition. Considerable differences exist between the views of modern scholarship and various chronicle narratives. According to the local myth and chronicles written down in the 18th century trace its origins to 167 AD, when Pyusawhti founded

15744-436: Was followed by a caretaker, and then Pyusawhti in 167 AD. The chronicle narratives then merge, and agree that a dynasty of kings followed Pyusawhti. King Pyinbya ( ပျဉ်ပြား ) fortified the city in 849 AD. Modern scholarship holds that the Pagan dynasty was founded by the Mranma of the Nanzhao kingdom in the mid-to-late 9th century AD; that the earlier parts of the chronicle are the histories and legends of Pyu people ,

15872-702: Was given the task of providing land to the refugees in 1799. An estimated 100,000 refugees were settled in Cox's Bazar, Chittagong Hill Tracts, and Patuakhali by the East India Company government. They settled in Patuakhali District and Barguna District in the 19th century. Rakhine descendants spread as far north as Tripura state in India , where they are known as the Mog . Historically, all Rakhine monarchs practiced Buddhism . It can be difficult to distinguish

16000-525: Was governed by a local governor appointed by the Konbaung kings. The Taungoo District consisted of 52 wards, including today's Pyinmana and Naypyidaw regions. The Taungoo District was cut in half after the Second Anglo-Burmese War . The British annexed the southern half, including the city of Taungoo while the northern portion, including Pyinmana and Ela, remained Burmese. The district contains

16128-515: Was more likely Indo-Aryan in origin. Arakanese legends claim that the Unknown ethnic are founder of Dhanyawadi. Now they are mixed with Rakhine people. By the 9th century Rakhine people have founded Le-Mro, Le-Mro in the Rakhine language means "four cities," which refers to the four ancient Rakhine cities. In 1103, they had consolidated control of the region, becoming a tributary state of the Pagan Empire until 1167. In 1406–1429, Kingdom of Ava occupied

16256-419: Was one of several competing city-states until the late 10th century when it grew in authority and grandeur. By Anawrahta's accession in 1044, Pagan had grown into a small principality—about 320 kilometres (200 mi) north to south and about 130 kilometres (81 mi) from east to west, comprising roughly the present districts of Mandalay , Meiktila , Myingyan , Kyaukse , Yamethin , Magwe , Sagaing , and

16384-428: Was relatively constant, the estimates of 40,000 to 60,000 of the entire military are not improbable, and are in line with figures given for the Burmese military between the 16th and 19th centuries in a variety of sources. The economy of Pagan was based primarily on agriculture , and to a much smaller degree, on trade . The growth of the Pagan Empire and subsequent development of irrigated lands in new lands sustained

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