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93-575: The Rocket Launcher T34 (Calliope) was a tank-mounted multiple rocket launcher used by the United States Army during World War II . The launcher was placed atop the M4 Sherman , with its prominent vertical side frames anchored to the turret's sides and fired a barrage of 4.5-inch (114 mm) M8 rockets from 60 launch tubes. It was developed in 1943; small numbers were produced and were used by various US armor units in 1944–45. Its name comes from

186-451: A CEP of hundreds of meters at dozens of kilometers' range to just a few meters and largely independent of the range of the round (except for INS, as INS navigation creates a small dispersion that is about proportional to range). This in turn made great increases of rocket (or missile) ranges useful; previously dispersion had made rockets too inefficient and often too dangerous to friendly troops at long ranges. Long-range MRL missiles often fly

279-707: A persecution of Catholics . However, after the retirement and death of the Queen Dowager, the Norons were gradually ousted, while the Andong Kim clan of Kim Jo-sun , the father of the Queen Sunwon , gained power. Gradually the Andong Kims came to dominate the court. With the domination of the Andong Kims, the era of Sedo Politics began. The formidable in-law lineage monopolized the vital positions in government, holding sway over

372-465: A coded message to the rocket to deploy air brakes at just the right time to correct most of the range error. This requires that the rockets were originally aimed too far, as the range can only be shortened by the air brakes, not extended. A more sophisticated system makes use of radar data and a one-way radio datalink to initiate a two dimensional (range and azimuth ) correction of the rocket's flight path with steering by fins or nose thrusters. The latter

465-811: A higher quasi-ballistic trajectory than shorter-ranged rockets and thus pose a de-confliction challenge, as they might collide with friendly aircraft in the air. The differences between an MRL missile and a large anti-tank guided missile, such as the Nimrod , have blurred due to guided MRL missiles such as the M31 GMLRS (guided unitary multiple launch rocket system), which passed flight tests in 2014. Joseon dynasty Joseon ( English: / ˈ tʃ oʊ s ʌ n / CHOH -sun ; Korean :  조선 ; Hanja :  朝鮮 ; MR :  Chosŏn ; [tɕo.sʰʌn] ), officially Great Joseon State ( 대조선국 ; 大朝鮮國 ; [tɛ.dʑo.sʰʌn.ɡuk̚] ),

558-421: A highly respected leader of a group loyal to Goryeo dynasty, and dethroned King Gongyang, exiling him to Wonju , and he ascended the throne himself. The Goryeo kingdom had come to an end after 474 years of rule. In the beginning of his reign, Yi Sŏng-gye, now ruler of Korea, intended to continue to use the name Goryeo for the country he ruled and simply change the royal line of descent to his own, thus maintaining

651-413: A kingdom led by ministers appointed by the king while Yi Bang-won wanted to establish an absolute monarchy ruled directly by the king. With Taejo's support, Jeong Do-jeon kept limiting the royal family's power by prohibiting political involvement of princes and attempting to abolish their private armies. Both sides were well aware of each other's great animosity and were getting ready to strike first. After

744-410: A nearly 200-year period of peace. Joseon witnessed the emergence of Silhak (Practical Learning). The early group of Silhak scholars advocated comprehensive reform of civil service examination, taxation, natural sciences and the improvement in agromanagerial and agricultural techniques. It aimed to rebuild Joseon society after it had been devastated by the two invasions. Under the leadership of Kim Yuk ,

837-563: A quick campaign that was assisted by northern yangban who had supported Gwanghaegun, the Jurchens imposed a treaty that forced Joseon to accept "brotherly relations" with the Jurchen kingdom. Because Injo persisted in his anti-Manchu policies, Qing emperor Hong Taiji sent a punitive expedition of 120,000 men to Joseon in 1636. Defeated, King Injo was forced to end his relations with the Ming and recognize

930-410: A reduced elevation for the launcher. Later models of the launcher also had flame deflectors to help prevent rocket exhaust from entering the engine compartment. Although Calliopes were originally manufactured before D-Day and were envisioned for bunker-busting duties on the beaches, the proposal was dropped due to the tank's high center of gravity which made its transportation unsteady. Thirty M4s of

1023-535: A small and medium-sized power at the time, were able to use this incident as an opportunity to lay a political foundation, and in particular, Jeong Do-jeon , a friend of Yi Sŏng-gye, wanted to use this incident as an opportunity to reform the corrupt nobles and the Buddhist community. He later killed King U and his son after a failed restoration and forcibly placed a royal named Wang Yo on the throne (he became King Gongyang of Goryeo ). In 1392, Yi eliminated Chŏng Mong-ju ,

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1116-516: A system of two rows of 12 guide rails mounted to a Maultier chassis, each row providing the capacity for 24 rockets, underslung as well as on top of the rails, for 48 rockets total. This vehicle was designated 8 cm Raketen-Vielfachwerfer (8 cm multiple rocket launcher). As the launch system was inspired by and looked similar to the BM-13, which the Germans had nicknamed " Stalin-Orgel " or "Stalin-Organ",

1209-535: A two-wheeled cart. The range of the fired arrows is estimated to have been 2,000 meters. The hwacha was used to great effect against invading armies during the Japanese invasions of 1592–1598 , most notably the Battle of Haengju , in which 40 hwachas were deployed to repel 30,000 Japanese soldiers. European armies preferred relatively large single-launch rockets prior to World War II. Napoleonic armies of both sides followed

1302-485: Is more common with systems which can be used to upgrade old rockets and the IMI ACCULAR is an example. Fin-stabilised rockets also allow for easy course corrections using rudders or minute charges. Precision-guided munitions have been introduced to exploit this. Guidance principles such as satellite navigation, inertial navigation systems and semi-active laser seekers are used for this. This improves dispersion from

1395-940: Is more difficult to determine the trajectory compared to that of a howitzer by adding or removing propellant increments. Simple MRL rocket types have a rather long minimum firing range for the same reason. An approach to lessen this limit is the addition of drag rings to the rocket nose. The increased drag slows the rocket down relative to a clean configuration and creates a less flat trajectory. Pre-packaged MRL munitions do not offer this option but some MRL types with individually loaded rockets do. Improvised MRLs based on helicopter or aircraft-mounted rocket pods (typically of 57–80   mm caliber) especially on light trucks and pickups (so-called " technicals ") are often seen in civil wars when rebels make use of captured launchers and munitions. Modern MRL systems can use modern land navigation (especially satellite navigation such as GPS) for quick and accurate positioning. The accurate determination of

1488-509: Is still a dispute about the nature and purpose of his group, which reflected the desire for a classless society and spread throughout Honam . He was subsequently accused of conspiracy to start a rebellion. Jeong Cheol , head of the Western faction, was in charge of investigating the case and used this event to affect the widespread purge of Easterners who had the slightest connection to Jeong Yeo-rip. Eventually 1000 Easterners were killed or exiled in

1581-481: The daimyō of Tsushima, Sadamori, capitulated to the Joseon court. In 1443, The Treaty of Gyehae was signed in which the daimyō of Tsushima was granted rights to conduct trade with Korea using fifty ships per year in exchange for sending tribute to Korea and aiding to stop any Waegu coastal pirate raids on Korean ports. On the northern border, Sejong established four forts and six posts to safeguard his people from

1674-622: The 743rd Tank Battalion had the T34 launchers installed to assist a planned push by the 30th Infantry Division in December 1944. The German Ardennes offensive stopped this plan, and the launchers were subsequently removed and not reinstalled on tanks until February 1945 with General Patton's army. In March 1945, when Patton's army was pushing through the Saarland in western Germany, the launchers did manage to see some usage in armored divisions. In 1945, it

1767-531: The Bukhak theory , which argued that Joseon should adopt Qing and Western culture through the Qing dynasty. Joseon scholars became intrigued by the sophisticated architectural technology of China, encompassing construction techniques, wagon utilization, and the ondol heating system. Particularly fascinated by brick, the proponents of Bukhak endeavored to popularize its usage across Joseon, and eventually succeeded. Bak Jiwon

1860-615: The Dopyeong Assembly , a council of the old government administration that held a monopoly in court power during the waning years of Goryeo , in favor of the State Council of Joseon , a new branch of central administration that revolved around the king and his edicts. After passing the subject documentation and taxation legislation, he issued a new decree in which all decisions passed by the State Council could only come into effect with

1953-647: The Jurchens , who later became the Manchus , living in Manchuria. In 1433, Sejong sent Kim Jong-seo , a government official, north to fend off the Jurchens. Kim's military campaign captured several castles, pushed north, and expanded Korean territory, roughly the current border between North Korea and China. During the rule of Sejong, Korea saw advances in natural science , agriculture , literature , traditional Chinese medicine , and engineering . Because of such success, Sejong

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2046-456: The Tangpyeongchaek – a policy of maintaining balance and equality between the factions. The two kings led a second renaissance of the Joseon kingdom. Yeongjo's grandson, the enlightened King Jeongjo enacted various reforms throughout his reign, notably establishing Kyujanggak , a royal library to improve the cultural and political position of Joseon and to recruit gifted officers to run

2139-467: The calliope , a musical instrument also known as a steam organ, which has similar parallel or clustered pipes. The T34 version of the Calliope carried 60 rockets arranged in a group of 36 permanent tubes on the top, and a pair of jettisonable groups of 12 tubes (24 tubes in total) on the bottom. Each rocket was armed with a 4.5-inch (110 mm) fin-stabilized projectile armed with high explosives that had

2232-615: The deposed Queen Yun , who was forced to drink poison after poisoning one of Seongjong's concubines out of jealousy and leaving a scratch mark on Seongjong's face. When he was shown a piece of clothing that was allegedly stained with his mother's blood vomited after drinking poison, he beat two of Seongjong's concubines, who had accused Queen Yun to death, and pushed his grandmother, Grand Queen Dowager Insu , who died afterward. He executed government officials who supported Queen Yun's death along with their families. He also executed sarim scholars for writing phrases critical of Sejo's usurpation of

2325-526: The British adoption of Mysorean rockets as the Congreve rocket . These were explosive steel-cased bombardment rockets with minimal launchers. European navies developed naval multiple launcher mounts with steadily improving explosive rockets for light and coastal vessels. These weapons were largely replaced by conventional light artillery during the late nineteenth century. The first self-propelled MRLs—and arguably

2418-641: The Japanese together with the Koreans. During the war, Koreans developed powerful firearms and the turtle ships . The Joseon and Ming forces defeated the Japanese at a deep price. Following the war, relations between Korea and Japan were completely suspended until 1609. After the Japanese invasions, the Korean Peninsula was devastated. Meanwhile, Nurhaci (r. 1583–1626), the chieftain of the Jianzhou Jurchens ,

2511-460: The Joseon Dynasty , it was said that no official dared to receive a bribe or exploit the populace during this time because as Inspector General, he applied the law strictly. These radical reforms were very popular with the populace but were fiercely opposed by the conservative officials who had helped to put Jungjong on the throne. They plotted to cause Jungjong to doubt Jo's loyalty. Jo Gwang-jo

2604-452: The Joseon faced difficult external and internal problems. Internally, the foundation of national law and order weakened as a result of "Sedo Politics" (in-law government) by royal in-laws. The young Sunjo succeeded his father, King Jeongjo, in 1800. With Jeongjo's death the Noron seized power with the regency of Queen Dowager Jeongsun , whose family had strong ties to the faction, and initiated

2697-579: The Joseon period. By the late 14th century, the nearly 500-year-old Goryeo established in 918 was tottering, its foundations collapsing from years of war spilled over from the disintegrating Yuan dynasty . Following the emergence of the Ming dynasty , the royal court in Goryeo split into two conflicting factions, one favouring neutrality and the other wanting to retake the Liaodong peninsula , which many in Goryeo believed

2790-646: The Katyusha. The Germans began using a towed six-tube multiple rocket launcher during World War II, the Nebelwerfer , called the "Screaming Mimi" by the Allies. The system was developed before the war to skirt the limitations of the Treaty of Versailles. Later in the war, 15 cm Nebelwerfer 41s were mounted on modified Opel Maultier "Mule" halftracks, becoming Panzerwerfer 42 4/1s. Another version produced in limited numbers towards

2883-566: The Korean peninsula and saw the height of classical Korean culture, trade, literature, and science and technology. In the 1590s, the kingdom was severely weakened due to the two failed Japanese invasions of 1592 and 1598. Several decades later, Joseon was invaded by the Later Jin dynasty and the Qing dynasty in 1627 and 1636–1637 respectively, leading to an increasingly harsh isolationist policy, for which

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2976-418: The Ming court was also requesting assistance. Gwanghaegun tried to maintain neutrality, but most of his officials opposed him for not supporting Ming China, which had saved Joseon during Hideyoshi's invasions. In 1623, Gwanghaegun was deposed and replaced by Injo of Joseon (r. 1623–1649), who banished Gwanghaegun's supporters. Reverting his predecessor's foreign policy, the new king decided to openly support

3069-596: The Ming dynasty as the center of the civilized world. Joseon intellectuals, who had political and cultural allegiances to the Ming dynasty, were forced to reexamine their state identity when the Qing overthrew the Ming, leading to an influx of Ming refugees into Joseon. As a result, Joseon created the Little China ideology , known as sojunghwa. According to Youngmin Kim, " it held that the Joseon embodied Chineseness authentically while other neighboring countries failed to do so in

3162-416: The Ming, but a rebellion led by military commander Yi Gwal erupted in 1624 and wrecked Joseon's military defenses in the north. Even after the rebellion had been suppressed, King Injo had to devote military forces to ensure the stability of the capital, leaving fewer soldiers to defend the northern borders. In 1627, a Jurchen army of 30,000 led by Nurhaci's nephew Amin overran Joseon's defenses. After

3255-474: The Qing as suzerain instead. Injo's successor Hyojong of Joseon (r. 1649–1659) tried to form an army to keep his enemies away and conquer the Qing for revenge, but could never act on his designs. Despite reestablishing economic relations by officially entering the imperial Chinese tributary system , Joseon leaders and intellectuals remained resentful of the Manchus, whom they regarded as barbarians, and regarded

3348-506: The Vielfachwerfer soon became known as the " Himmler-Orgel ", or "Himmler-Organ". There are two main types of MRLs: Like all artillery, MRLs have a reputation of devastating morale on ill-disciplined or already-shaken troops. The material effect depends on circumstances, as well-covered field fortifications may provide reasonable protection. MRLs are still unable to properly engage reverse slope positions in mountain warfare because it

3441-577: The Yuan dynasty weakened. The act caused an uproar among the Goryeo court, and General Ch'oe Yŏng seized the chance to argue for an invasion of the Ming-controlled Liaodong Peninsula . General Yi Sŏng-gye was chosen to lead the attack; he revolted, swept back to the capital Gaegyeong (now Kaesong ) and initiated a coup d'état , overthrowing King U of Goryeo in favor of his son, Chang of Goryeo (1388). Neo-Confucian scholars, who were

3534-475: The aftermath. Throughout Korean history, there was frequent piracy on sea and brigandage on land. The only purpose for the Joseon navy was to secure the maritime trade against the Waegu . The navy repelled pirates using an advanced form of gunpowder technologies including cannons and fire arrows in form of singijeon deployed by hwacha . During the Japanese invasions in the 1590s , Toyotomi Hideyoshi , plotting

3627-404: The air. The tracking allows determination of the influence of winds and propellant temperatures on the rockets' flight paths. These observations can then be factored into the firing solution for the rocket salvo for effect. Such tracking radars can also be used to predict the range error of individual rockets. Trajectory-correcting munitions may then benefit from this, as a directional radio may send

3720-514: The approval of the king. This ended the custom of court ministers and advisors making decisions through debate and negotiations amongst themselves, and thus brought the royal power to new heights. Shortly thereafter, Taejong installed an office, known as the Sinmun Office , to hear cases in which aggrieved subjects felt that they had been exploited or treated unjustly by government officials or aristocrats . He kept Jeong Do-jeon's reforms intact for

3813-537: The aristocracy to maintain private armies. His revocation of such rights to field independent forces effectively severed their ability to muster large-scale revolts, and drastically increased the number of men employed in the national military. Taejong's next act as king was to revise the existing legislation concerning the taxation of land ownership and the recording of state of subjects. With the discovery of previously hidden land, national income increased twofold. In 1399, Taejong had played an influential role in scrapping

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3906-423: The battery position previously required such effort that making a dispersed operation of the battery was at times impractical. MRL systems with GPS can have their MRLs dispersed and fire from various positions at a single target, just as previously multiple batteries were often united on one target area. Radar may be used to track weather balloons to determine winds or to track special rockets that self-destruct in

3999-466: The burdens of the people and solidify the basis of the nation's economy, he reformed the tax system. In 1871, U.S. and Korean forces clashed in a U.S. attempt at "gunboat diplomacy" following on the General Sherman incident of 1866. In 1873, King Gojong announced his assumption of royal rule. With the subsequent retirement of Heungseon Daewongun, Queen Min (later called Empress Myeongseong ) became

4092-527: The chief minister of King Hyeonjong , the implementation of reforms proved highly advantageous both to state revenues and to the lot of the peasants. The co-existence system between Southerners and Westerners which were established after the Injo coup started to fall. After the Yesong debate, factional conflict grew particularly intense under the reigns of the kings Sukjong and Gyeongjong , with major rapid reversals of

4185-522: The conquest of Ming China with Portuguese guns, invaded Korea with his daimyōs and their troops, intending to use Korea as a stepping stone. Factional division in the Joseon court, inability to assess Japanese military capability, and failed attempts at diplomacy led to poor preparation on Joseon's part. The use of superior firearms by the Japanese left most of the southern part of the Korean Peninsula occupied within months, with both Hanseong (present-day Seoul ) and Pyongyang captured. The invasion

4278-485: The country became known as the " hermit kingdom " in Western literature . After the end of these invasions from Manchuria , Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace and prosperity, along with cultural and technological development. What power the kingdom recovered during its isolation waned as the 18th century came to a close. Faced with internal strife, power struggles, international pressure, and rebellions at home,

4371-558: The country, and by large-scale invasions by Japan and Manchu which nearly toppled the kingdom. The Sarim faction had suffered a series of political defeats during the reigns of Yeonsangun, Jungjong, and Myeongjong , but it gained control of the government during the reign of King Seonjo . It soon split into opposing factions known as the Easterners and the Westerners by their political or philosophical masters. Easterners mainly followed

4464-500: The crown, and psychologically exhausted from the death of his second wife, King Taejo abdicated and immediately crowned his second son Yi Bang-gwa as King Jeongjong . One of King Jeongjong's first acts as monarch was to revert the capital to Gaegyeong, where he is believed to have been considerably more comfortable, away from the toxic power strife. Yet Yi Bang-won retained real power and was soon in conflict with his disgruntled older brother, Yi Bang-gan, who also yearned for power. In 1400,

4557-645: The end of the war was a conversion of the Schwerer Wehrmachtschlepper ("heavy military transport", sWS) halftrack to a configuration similar to the Panzerwerfer 42 4/1, mounting the 10-barreled 15 cm Nebelwerfer. Another German halftrack MRL system was inspired by the Russian BM-13. Keeping the Soviet 82 mm rocket caliber as well as the launch and rocket stabilisation designs, it was developed into

4650-512: The face of the barbarian domination of the center of the civilized world." A set of standardized rites and unifying symbols were developed in Late Joseon Korea to maintain that sense of cultural identity. Long after submitting to the Qing, the Joseon court and many Korean intellectuals kept using Ming reign periods , as when a scholar marked 1861 as "the 234th year of Chongzhen ". After invasions from Japan and Manchuria, Joseon experienced

4743-533: The façade of continuing the 500-year-old Goryeo tradition. After numerous threats of mutiny from the drastically weakened but still influential Gwonmun nobles, who continued to swear allegiance to the remnants of the Goryeo and to the now-demoted Wang clan , the consensus in the reformed court was that a new dynastic title was needed to signify the change. In naming the new kingdom, Taejo contemplated two possibilities – "Hwaryeong" (his place of birth) and "Joseon". After much internal deliberation, as well as endorsement by

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4836-577: The first form of constitutional law in a written form in Korea. Sejo undermined much of the foundation of many existing systems, including the Jiphyeonjeon which his predecessors, Sejong and Munjong, had carefully laid down. He cut down on everything he deemed unworthy and caused countless complications in the long run. Many of these adjustments were done for his own power, not regarding the consequences and problems that would occur. The favoritism he showed toward

4929-412: The kingdom declined rapidly in the late 19th century. The Joseon period has left a substantial legacy to modern Korea; much of modern Korean culture , etiquette, norms, and societal attitudes toward current issues, along with the modern Korean language and its dialects , derive from the culture and traditions of Joseon. Modern Korean bureaucracy and administrative divisions were also established during

5022-451: The large kill zone of each warhead, can easily deliver saturation fire over a target area. However, modern rockets can use GPS or inertial guidance to combine the advantages of rockets with the higher accuracy of precision-guided munitions . The first multiple rocket launchers, known as Huo Che , were invented during the medieval Chinese Song dynasty , in which the Chinese fire lance

5115-400: The left and right turret cheeks supported the weapon placed one meter above the turret. The rockets were fired electrically using cables that were inserted through the tank commander 's hatch. The main gun could not be fired once the rocket launcher had been attached. This caused the tank crews to modify the launcher's installation in the field, thereby allowing the main gun to fire, albeit at

5208-484: The ministers who aided him in taking the throne led to increased corruption in the higher echelon of the political field. Sejo's weak son Yejong succeeded him as the eighth king, but died two years later in 1469. Yejong's nephew Seongjong ascended the throne. His reign was marked by the prosperity and growth of the national economy and the rise of neo-Confucian scholars called sarim who were encouraged by Seongjong to enter court politics. He established Hongmungwan ,

5301-549: The most famous—was the Soviet BM-13 Katyusha , first used during World War II and exported to Soviet allies afterwards. They were simple systems in which a rack of launch rails was mounted on the back of a truck. This set the template for modern MRLs. The Americans mounted tubular launchers atop M4 Sherman tanks to create the T34 Calliope rocket launching tank, only used in small numbers, as their closest equivalent to

5394-422: The most part. In addition, Taejong executed or exiled many of his supporters who had helped him ascend the throne to strengthen his own royal authority. To limit the influence of in-laws, he killed all four of his wife 's brothers and Shim On , the father-in-law of his son Sejong . Taejong remains a controversial figure who killed many of his rivals and relatives to gain power and yet ruled effectively to improve

5487-414: The most to assisting his father's rise to power, Chief State Councillor Jeong Do-jeon and Nam Eun used their influence on the king to name Yi Bang-seok, his eighth son (second son of Queen Sindeok ), as crown prince in 1392. This conflict arose largely because Jeong Do-jeon, who shaped and laid down ideological, institutional, and legal foundations of the new kingdom more than anyone else, saw Joseon as

5580-452: The nation. King Jeongjo also spearheaded bold social initiatives, opening government positions to those who would previously have been barred because of their social status. King Jeongjo had the support of the many Silhak scholars. King Jeongjo's reign also saw the further growth and development of Joseon's popular culture. At that time, the group of Silhak scholars encouraged the individual to reflect on state traditions and lifestyle, initiating

5673-417: The natural boundaries at the rivers of Amnok and Tuman through the subjugation of the Jurchens . During its 500-year duration, Joseon encouraged the entrenchment of Confucian ideals and doctrines in Korean society. Neo-Confucianism was installed as the new state's ideology. Buddhism was accordingly discouraged, and occasionally Buddhists faced persecutions. Joseon consolidated its effective rule over

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5766-429: The neighboring Ming dynasty's emperor, Taejo declared the name of the kingdom to be Joseon, a tribute to the ancient Korean state of Gojoseon . He also moved the capital to Hanseong (modern Seoul ) from Gaegyeong (modern Kaesong). When the new dynasty was brought into existence, Taejo brought up the issue of which son would be his successor. Although Yi Bang-won , Taejo's fifth son by Queen Sinui , had contributed

5859-468: The people, sought to reduce the gap between the rich and poor with a land reform that would distribute land to farmers more equally and limit the amount of land and number of slaves that one could own, promulgated Confucian writings with vernacular translations widely among the populace, and sought to trim the size of government by reducing the number of bureaucrats. According to the Veritable Records of

5952-444: The political scene, and intervening in the succession of the throne. These kings had no monarchic authority and could not rule over the government. The other aristocratic families, overwhelmed by the power exercised by the royal in-laws, could not speak out. As the power was concentrated in the hands of the royal in-law lineage, there was disorder in the governing process, and corruption became rampant. Large sums were offered in bribes to

6045-584: The populace's lives, strengthen national defense, and lay down a solid foundation for his successor Sejong's rule. In August 1418, following Taejong's abdication two months earlier, Sejong the Great ascended the throne. In May 1419, King Sejong, under the advice and guidance of his father Taejong, embarked upon the Gihae Eastern Expedition to remove the nuisance of waegu (coastal pirates) who had been operating out of Tsushima Island . In September 1419,

6138-430: The powerful lineages to obtain positions with nominally high rank. Even the low-ranking posts were bought and sold. This period, which spanned 60 years, saw the manifestation of both severe poverty among the Korean population and ceaseless rebellions in various parts of the country. Externally, Joseon became increasingly isolationist . Its rulers sought to limit contact with foreign countries. In 1863, King Gojong took

6231-437: The royal library and advisory council composed of Confucian scholars, with whom he discussed philosophy and government policies. He ushered in a cultural golden age that rivaled Sejong's reign by publishing numerous books on geography, ethics, and various other fields. He also sent several military campaigns against the Jurchens on the northern border in 1491, like many of his predecessors. The campaign, led by General Heo Jong ,

6324-457: The ruling faction, known as hwanguk (換局; literally change in the state of affairs ), being commonplace. During the early reign of Sukjong , the southerners managed to become a ruling faction and made westerners lose power. But the southerners' rise to power was temporary. Sukjong , who believed that political faction would weaken the king's power started rapid reversals of the ruling faction, which resulted in bloody killings between factions. After

6417-423: The same explosive yield as a M101 howitzer and had a maximum range of 4,100 yards (3,700 m). The rack was physically connected to the barrel of the 75 mm gun M2–M6 using an arm. This arm was connected to the rack via a pivoting joint and clamped to the gun with a split ring. This allowed the missile launcher to follow the same elevation and depression arc of +25 to -12 degrees. A large support beam bolted to

6510-547: The seat of royal authority. From 1862 to 1864, an insurgency movement driven by Donghak followers and religious leader Choe Je-u gathered a peasant army to take over southern parts of Korea until Choe was executed in 1864. During his reign, the power and authority of the in-law families such as the Andong Kims sharply declined. To get rid of the Andong Kim and Pungyang Jo clans, he promoted persons without making references to political party or family affiliations, and to reduce

6603-470: The striking distance reached 300 to 400 paces. The Chinese also enhanced rocket tips with poison and made sure that the launchers were mobile. They designed a multiple rocket launcher to be carried and operated by a single soldier. Various forms of MRLs evolved, including a launcher mounted on a wheelbarrow. The Joseon dynasty of Korea used an expanded variant of such a launcher (called a hwacha ) made of 100 to 200 holes containing rocket arrows placed on

6696-418: The studies of Korea that addressed its history, geography, epigraphy and language. During the late Joseon period of the 18th and 19th centuries, Joseon started to change its perceptions of the Qing dynasty. The shift in perceptions commenced through the introduction of Qing dynasty culture to Joseon society by Yeonhaengsa, Korean envoys to the Qing dynasty. Progressive-thinking Joseon intellectuals advocated

6789-409: The sudden death of Queen Sindeok, while King Taejo was still in mourning for his second wife, Yi Bang-won struck first by raiding the palace and killed Jeong Do-jeon and his supporters as well as Queen Sindeok's two sons (his half-brothers) including the crown prince in 1398. This incident became known as the "First Strife of Princes". Aghast at the fact that his sons were willing to kill each other for

6882-737: The teachings and philosophy of Yi Hwang and Jo Sik while the Westerners followed the philosophy of Yi I and Song Hon. Within decades the Easterners themselves divided into the Southerners and the Northerners ; in the seventeenth century the Westerners also permanently split into the Noron and the Soron . Factions in the Joseon dynasty were formed based on their different interpretations of Confucian philosophy, which mainly differed according to who their master

6975-429: The tensions between Yi Bang-won's faction and Yi Bang-gan's camp escalated into an all-out conflict that came to be known as the "Second Strife of Princes". In the aftermath of the struggle, the defeated Yi Bang-gan was exiled to Dosan while his supporters were executed. Thoroughly intimidated, King Jeongjong immediately invested Yi Bang-won as heir presumptive and voluntarily abdicated. That same year, Yi Bang-won assumed

7068-504: The three bloody hwanguk, the Southerners lost their influence in the central government, and the ruling Westerners were divided into hard-line Noron who rejected the Southerners and moderate Soron who were friendly to the Southerners. This shift resulted in political radicalism which viewed other factions as the ones that should be eliminated. In response, the next kings, Yeongjo (r. 1724–1776) and Jeongjo (r. 1776–1800), generally pursued

7161-411: The throne of Joseon as King Taejong , third king of the dynasty. In the beginning of Taejong's reign, the former King Taejo refused to relinquish the royal seal that signified the legitimacy of any king's rule. Regardless, Taejong initiated policies he believed would prove his qualification to rule. One of his first acts as king was to abolish the privilege enjoyed by the upper echelons of government and

7254-501: The throne, Sejo executed the six ministers and also killed Danjong in his place of exile. King Sejo enabled the government to determine exact population numbers and to mobilize troops effectively. He also revised the land ordinance to improve the national economy and encouraged the publication of books. Most importantly, he compiled the Grand Code for State Administration , which became the cornerstone of dynastic administration and provided

7347-534: The throne. Yeonsangun also seized a thousand women from the provinces to serve as palace entertainers and appropriated the Sungkyunkwan as a personal pleasure ground. He abolished the Office of Censors, whose function was to criticize inappropriate actions and policies of the king, and Hongmungwan. He banned the use of hangul when the common people used it on posters to criticize the king. After twelve years of misrule, he

7440-517: The throne. His father, Heungseon Daewongun , ruled for him until Gojong reached adulthood. During the mid-1860s the Regent was the main proponent of isolationism and the instrument of the persecution of native and foreign Catholics, a policy that led directly to the French Campaign against Korea in 1866. The early years of his rule also witnessed a large effort to restore the dilapidated Gyeongbokgung ,

7533-414: Was theirs . Goryeo remained a neutral third-party observer in the conflict between the Yuan and the Ming and had friendly diplomatic relations with both. In 1388, a Ming messenger came to Goryeo to demand that territories of the former Ssangseong Prefectures be handed over to Ming China. The tract of land was taken by Mongol forces during the invasion of Korea , but had been reclaimed by Goryeo in 1356 as

7626-569: Was a dynastic kingdom of Korea that existed for 505 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom was founded following the aftermath of the overthrow of Goryeo in what is today the city of Kaesong . Early on, Korea was retitled and the capital was relocated to modern-day Seoul . The kingdom's northernmost borders were expanded to

7719-529: Was among the first to construct brick Chinese-style buildings in Anui, Gyeongsang Province, and Gyedong, Seoul, towards the end of the 18th century. Following the establishment of the Suwon Hwaseong Fortress , which was influenced by Qing construction technology and techniques, Qing-style architectural style and techniques started to become more widespread in Joseon society. After the death of King Jeongjo,

7812-451: Was and what they believed in. The alternations in power among these factions were often accompanied by charges of treason and bloody purges, initiating a cycle of revenge with each change of regime. One example is the 1589 rebellion of Jeong Yeo-rip , one of the bloodiest political purges of Joseon. Jeong Yeo-rip, an Easterner, had formed a society with a group of supporters that also received military training to fight against Waegu . There

7905-460: Was executed, and most of his reform measures died with him in the resulting third literati purge . For nearly 50 years afterward, the court politics were marred by bloody and chaotic struggles between factions backing rival consorts and princes. In-laws of the royal family wielded great power and contributed to much corruption in that era. The middle Joseon period was marked by intense and bloody power struggles between political factions that weakened

7998-436: Was finally deposed in a coup which placed his half-brother Jungjong on the throne in 1506. Jungjong was a fundamentally weak king because of the circumstances that placed him on the throne, but his reign also saw a period of significant reforms led by his minister Jo Gwang-jo , the charismatic leader of sarim. He established a local self-government system called hyangyak to strengthen local autonomy and communal spirit among

8091-506: Was fixed backward on a pike or arrow and shot at an enemy as early as 1180. This form of rocket was used during the Mongol siege of Kaifeng . Chinese militaries later created multiple rocket launchers that fired up to 100 small fire-arrow rockets simultaneously. The typical powder section of the arrow-rockets was 1/3 to 1/2 ft (10 to 15 cm) long. Bamboo arrow shafts varied from 1.5 ft (45 cm) to 2.5 ft (75 cm) long and

8184-457: Was given the title "Sejong the Great". The most remembered contribution of King Sejong is the creation of Hangul , the Korean alphabet, in 1443. Rejected in its time by the scholarly elite, the everyday use of Hanja in writing was eventually surpassed by Hangul in the latter half of the 20th century. After King Sejong's death, his son Munjong continued his father's legacy but soon died of illness in 1452, just two years after his coronation. He

8277-429: Was slowed when Admiral Yi Sun-shin destroyed the Japanese invasion fleet. The guerrilla resistance that eventually formed also helped. Local resistance slowed down the Japanese advance and decisive naval victories by Admiral Yi left control over sea routes in Korean hands, severely hampering Japanese supply lines. Furthermore, Ming China intervened on the side of the Koreans, sending a large force in 1593 which pushed back

8370-492: Was succeeded by his twelve-year-old son, Danjong . In addition to two regents, Princess Gyeonghye also served as Danjong's guardian and, along with the general Kim Jong-seo, attempted to strengthen royal authority. Danjong's uncle, Grand Prince Suyang , gained control of the government and eventually deposed his nephew to become the seventh king of Joseon himself in 1455, taking the name Sejo. After six ministers loyal to Danjong attempted to assassinate Sejo to return Danjong to

8463-519: Was successful, and the defeated Jurchens, led by the Udige clan (兀狄哈), retreated to the north of the Yalu River . King Seongjong was succeeded by his son, Yeonsangun , in 1494. Yeonsangun is often considered the worst tyrant in Joseon's history, whose reign was marked by literati purges between 1498 and 1506. His behavior became erratic after he learned that his biological mother was not Queen Junghyeon but

8556-469: Was unifying the Jurchen tribes of Manchuria into a strong coalition that his son Hong Taiji (r. 1626–1643) would eventually rename the "Manchus". After he declared Seven Grievances against Ming China in 1618, Nurhaci and the Ming engaged in several military conflicts. On such occasions, Nurhaci required help from Gwanghaegun of Joseon (r. 1608–1623), putting the Korean state in a difficult position because

8649-524: Was used in various actions by the 2nd, 4th, 6th, 12th, and 14th armored divisions. Although seeing limited action, it was effective as a weapon for psychological warfare . The noise generated by launches was sometimes enough to scare enemy soldiers. Multiple rocket launcher Unguided rocket artillery is notoriously inaccurate and slow to reload compared to gun artillery. A multiple rocket launcher helps compensate for this with its ability to launch multiple rockets in rapid succession, which, coupled with

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