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61-465: Today, it is distributed by TRON Forum , a successor of T-Engine Forum under T-License 2.2. In 1984, Dr. Ken Sakamura , then a research assistant at the University of Tokyo , started The Real-time Operating system Nucleus ( TRON Project ) at the University of Tokyo , with a goal of designing an open real-time operating system (RTOS) kernel. The TRON framework tries to define a complete architecture for

122-455: A GPU integrated into the motherboard. Most computers also have an external data bus to connect peripheral devices to the motherboard. Most commonly, Universal Serial Bus (USB) is used. Unlike the internal bus, the external bus is connected using a bus controller that allows the peripheral system to operate at a different speed from the CPU. Input and output devices are used to receive data from

183-590: A commensurate increase in energy use and cooling demand. The personal computer is one of the most common types of computer due to its versatility and relatively low price. Virtual hardware is software that mimics the function of hardware; it is commonly used in infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) and platform as a Service (PaaS). Embedded systems have the most variation in their processing power and cost: from an 8-bit processor that could cost less than USD $ 0.10, to higher-end processors capable of billions of operations per second and costing over USD$ 100. Cost

244-511: A computer's hardware and software—is based on the one devised by von Neumann in 1945. Despite the separation of the computing unit and the I/O system in many diagrams, typically the hardware is shared, with a bit in the computing unit indicating whether it is in computation or I/O mode. Common types of ISAs include CISC ( complex instruction set computer ), RISC ( reduced instruction set computer ), vector operations , and hybrid modes. CISC involves using

305-423: A gear-based device that could add and subtract, selling around 50 models. The stepped reckoner was invented by Gottfried Leibniz by 1676, which could also divide and multiply. Due to the limitations of contemporary fabrication and design flaws, Leibniz' reckoner was not very functional, but similar devices ( Leibniz wheel ) remained in use into the 1970s. In the 19th century, Englishman Charles Babbage invented

366-545: A larger expression set to minimize the number of instructions the machines need to use. Based on a recognition that only a few instructions are commonly used, RISC shrinks the instruction set for added simplicity, which also enables the inclusion of more registers . After the invention of RISC in the 1980s, RISC based architectures that used pipelining and caching to increase performance displaced CISC architectures, particularly in applications with restrictions on power usage or space (such as mobile phones ). From 1986 to 2003,

427-463: A significant constraint for manufacturers seeking to sell their products for less money than competitors offering a very similar commodity . Profit margins have also been reduced. Even when the performance is not increasing, the cost of components has been dropping over time due to improved manufacturing techniques that have fewer components rejected at quality assurance stage. The most common instruction set architecture (ISA)—the interface between

488-408: A single copy of SMP T-Kernel. Programs managed and executed by T-Kernel are dynamically allocated to a processor. Task scheduling and object management are centrally managed by the single copy of SMP T-Kernel for the entire system. User programs do not need to be aware of individual processors. Similar to a user program for T-Kernel on a single processor, a program runs on a single SMP T-Kernel. It

549-410: A two megapixel charge-coupled device (CCD) camera , a secondary 300,000 pixel camera for videotelephony , support for wireless network technologies, Bluetooth , Wi-Fi , and IrDA , VoIP phone feature, SD and mini-SD memory card slots, fingerprint authentication , and encryption coprocessor as options. It was expected to be sold for ¥ 300,000, $ 2,700. In May 2015, Sakamura received

610-400: A variety of plastics that are present in bulk in computers or other electronics can reduce the costs of constructing new systems. Components frequently contain copper , gold , tantalum , silver , platinum , palladium , and lead as well as other valuable materials suitable for reclamation. The central processing unit contains many toxic materials. It contains lead and chromium in

671-407: Is soft because it is easy to change. Hardware is typically directed by the software to execute any command or instruction . A combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing system, although other systems exist with only hardware. Early computing devices were more complicated than the ancient abacus date to the seventeenth century. French mathematician Blaise Pascal designed

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732-492: Is a growing movement to recycle old and outdated parts. Computer hardware contain dangerous chemicals such as lead, mercury, nickel, and cadmium. According to the EPA these e-wastes have a harmful effect on the environment unless they are disposed of properly. Making hardware requires energy, and recycling parts will reduce air pollution , water pollution, as well as greenhouse gas emissions. Disposing unauthorized computer equipment

793-427: Is a particular concern with these systems, with designers often choosing the cheapest option that satisfies the performance requirements. A computer case encloses most of the components of a desktop computer system. It provides mechanical support and protection for internal elements such as the motherboard, disk drives, and power supply, and controls and directs the flow of cooling air over internal components. The case

854-464: Is also part of the system to control electromagnetic interference radiated by the computer and protects internal parts from electrostatic discharge. Large tower cases provide space for multiple disk drives or other peripherals and usually stand on the floor, while desktop cases provide less expansion room. All-in-one style designs include a video display built into the same case. Portable and laptop computers require cases that provide impact protection for

915-482: Is an RTOS for small-scale embedded systems. μT-Kernel specification is designed to be easily optimized and adapted for small-scale embedded systems. On the other hand, in order to ensure compatibility with T-Kernel, the functions that are common to T-Kernel are defined using the same interface, and the data type definitions are also the same as those used in T-Kernel. μT-Kernel source code is available as reference code on

976-546: Is an external board member for Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT), Japan. The Ubiquitous Communicator ( UC ) is a mobile computing device designed by Sakamura for use in ubiquitous computing . On 15 September 2004, YRP-UNL announced in Japan that it had begun producing a new model after creating five prototypes over three years. The model was used in trial tests circa late 2004. The new model, weighing about 196 grams , contains new features: RFID reader compatible for ucode ,

1037-418: Is called AMP T-Kernel, and T-Kernel for SMP is called SMP T-Kernel. Both T-Kernels are collectively called MP T-Kernel. This MP T-Kernel supports asymmetric multiple processors (AMP). AMP systems in general consist of multiple processors (each processor does not need to be the same type). Since a copy of AMP T-Kernel is assigned to each processor, there will be the same number of AMP T-Kernels as processors in

1098-524: Is in fact illegal. Legislation makes it mandatory to recycle computers through the government approved facilities. Recycling a computer can be made easier by taking out certain reusable parts. For example, the RAM , DVD drive, the graphics card , hard drive or SSD , and other similar removable parts can be reused. Many materials used in computer hardware can be recovered by recycling for use in future production. Reuse of tin , silicon , iron , aluminum , and

1159-597: Is installed on the campus of the University of Tokyo, where Ken Sakamura started the TRON Project in 1984. T-Kernel was released as an embedded RTOS for T-Engine. With subsequent version upgrades, it now supports target hardware other than T-Engine. (Supported CPU List) T-Kernel 2.0 also supports a processor emulator called QEMU. The T-Kernel 2.0 Software Package distributed by TRON Forum includes QEMU (emulator for tef_em1d) configured to emulate T-Engine reference board, so it

1220-455: Is one commonly used integrated development environment (IDE) for software cross-development targeting T-Kernel. The current release of T-Kernel 2.0 is distributed with a plug-in for Eclipse IDE. Also, a version of T-Kernel that runs on QEMU based emulator, and the QEMU based emulator itself, are available so that testing, training, and development can be done on a PC without a target hardware. It

1281-681: Is possible to develop T-Kernel 2.0 applications on a PC alone. Similar to the conventional ITRON specification OS, T-Kernel allows kernel-based programming using static memory allocation. However, in order to achieve the original purpose of T-Engine, which is "distribution of middleware", it is desirable to be able to use T-Kernel/Standard Extension, which allows dynamic memory allocation and process-based programming. To make it easy to distribute middleware , T-Kernel has separate specification for subsystem and device driver which will be suitable for different types of middleware APIs. An RTOS appropriate for individual application can be created by combining

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1342-595: Is supported by popular SSL/TLS libraries such as wolfSSL . In line with the diversification of target hardware, T-Kernel with additional features has been developed such as MP T-Kernel, which supports multiprocessors and multicores, and μT-Kernel, which targets small-scale embedded systems, and the specifications and source code for each are also publicly available in BOTH Japanese and English. There are two types of multiprocessors: Asymmetric Multiple Processor (AMP) and Symmetric Multiple Processor (SMP). T-Kernel for AMP

1403-434: Is surrounded by cooling fluid) and direct-to-chip (where the cooling fluid is directed to each computer chip) can be more expensive but are also more efficient. Most computers are designed to be more powerful than their cooling system, but their sustained operations cannot exceed the capacity of the cooling system. While performance can be temporarily increased when the computer is not hot ( overclocking ), in order to protect

1464-417: Is the connection between computer hardware and software. Even prior to this, in the mid-19th century mathematician George Boole invented Boolean algebra —a system of logic where each proposition is either true or false. Boolean algebra is now the basis of the circuits that model the transistors and other components of integrated circuits that make up modern computer hardware. In 1945, Turing finished

1525-534: Is the main component of a computer. It is a board with integrated circuitry that connects the other parts of the computer including the CPU , the RAM , the disk drives ( CD , DVD , hard disk , or any others) as well as any peripherals connected via the ports or the expansion slots . The integrated circuit (IC) chips in a computer typically contain billions of tiny metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs). Components directly attached to or to part of

1586-530: Is the number one OS for embedded chips in both Japan and the United States. T-Kernel was developed as a successor to the ITRON specification RTOS. T-Kernel is the name of the specification and at the same time a single implementation based on the authorized source code available from TRON Forum (formerly T-Engine Forum ) for free under T-License 2.2. T-Kernel was developed for T-Engine hardware platform. T-Engine

1647-489: The ENIAC project at the University of Pennsylvania —devised the underlying von Neumann architecture that has served as the template for most modern computers. Von Neumann's design featured a centralized memory that stored both data and programs, a central processing unit (CPU) with priority of access to the memory, and input and output (I/O) units . Von Neumann used a single bus to transfer data, meaning that his solution to

1708-625: The University of Tokyo (through March 2017). He is the creator of the real-time operating system (RTOS) architecture TRON . In 2001, he shared the Takeda Award for Social/Economic Well-Being with Richard Stallman and Linus Torvalds . As of 2006, Sakamura leads the ubiquitous networking laboratory (UNL), located in Gotanda , Tokyo , and the T-Engine forum for consumer electronics. The joint goal of Sakamura's ubiquitous networking specification and

1769-453: The central processing unit (CPU), random access memory (RAM) , motherboard , computer data storage , graphics card , sound card , and computer case . It includes external devices such as a monitor , mouse , keyboard , and speakers . By contrast, software is a set of written instructions that can be stored and run by hardware. Hardware derived its name from the fact it is hard or rigid with respect to changes, whereas software

1830-455: The difference engine , a mechanical device to calculate polynomials for astronomical purposes. Babbage also designed a general-purpose computer that was never built. Much of the design was incorporated into the earliest computers: punch cards for input and output, memory , an arithmetic unit analogous to central processing units , and even a primitive programming language similar to assembly language . In 1936, Alan Turing developed

1891-401: The operating system to map virtual memory to different areas of the finite physical memory. Computer processors generate heat, and excessive heat impacts their performance and can harm the components. Many computer chips will automatically throttle their performance to avoid overheating. Computers also typically have mechanisms for dissipating excessive heat, such as air or liquid coolers for

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1952-414: The universal Turing machine to model any type of computer, proving that no computer would be able to solve the decision problem . The universal Turing machine was a type of stored-program computer capable of mimicking the operations of any Turing machine (computer model) based on the software instructions passed to it. The storage of computer programs is key to the operation of modern computers and

2013-473: The AMP T-Kernel, it is possible to synchronize and communicate with user programs on other AMP T-Kernels. This MP T-Kernel supports symmetric multiple processors (SMP). SMP systems in general consist of multiple processors of the same type. Each processor has the same basic functions, and the same program code can be executed, and the main memory can be shared by all processors. All processors are managed by

2074-403: The CPU and GPU and heatsinks for other components, such as the RAM . Computer cases are also often ventilated to help dissipate heat from the computer. Data centers typically use more sophisticated cooling solutions to keep the operating temperature of the entire center safe. Air-cooled systems are more common in smaller or older data centers, while liquid-cooled immersion (where each computer

2135-525: The Japanese government once announced it would use the TRON PC in Japanese schools, the plan was dropped, partly due to economic issues with the United States. However, ITRON specification OS has been used in many devices, household appliances, automobile electronics, robots, satellites, and in factory automation systems in Japan, China, and elsewhere. Embedded system developers claim that ITRON specification OS

2196-703: The T-Engine forum, is to enable any everyday device to broadcast and receive information. It is essentially a TRON variant, paired with a competing standard to radio-frequency identification (RFID). Since the foundation of the T-Engine forum, Sakamura has been working on opening Japanese technology to the world. His prior brainchild, TRON, the universal RTOS used in Japanese consumer electronics has had limited adoption in other countries. Sakamura has signed deals with Chinese and Korean universities to work together on ubiquitous networking. He has also worked with French software component manufacturer NexWave Solutions, Inc. He

2257-587: The TRON Forum website. From μT-Kernel 3.0, the source code and specifications have also been made available on GitHub. Ken Sakamura Ken Sakamura ( 坂村 健 , Sakamura Ken , born 25 July 1951 in Tokyo , Japan ) , as of April 2017, is a Japanese professor and dean of the Faculty of Information Networking for Innovation and Design at Toyo University , Japan. He is a former professor in information science at

2318-562: The age of the Internet of Things ... For his achievements, Sakamura has won many awards: Takeda Award, the Medal with Purple Ribbon from the Japanese government, Okawa Prize, Prime Minister Award, and Japan Academy Prize. He is a fellow and the golden core member of the IEEE Computer Society. Computer hardware Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer , such as

2379-453: The among most popular operating systems for embedded computers around world. The R&D results from TRON Project are useful for ubiquitous computing. For example, UNL joined the standardization efforts at ITU-T and helped produce a series of Recommendations, including H.642 “Multimedia information access triggered by tag-based identification”. The idea behind H.642 series is based on de facto “ucode” standard developed by UNL for communication in

2440-548: The annual rate of improvement in hardware performance exceeded 50 percent, enabling the development of new computing devices such as tablets and mobiles. Alongside the density of transistors, DRAM memory as well as flash and magnetic disk storage also became exponentially more compact and cheaper. The rate of improvement slackened off in the twenty-first century. In the twenty-first century, increases in performance have been driven by increasing exploitation of parallelism . Applications are often parallelizable in two ways: either

2501-618: The atmosphere, landfill or waterways. While electronics consist a small fraction of total waste generated, they are far more dangerous. There is stringent legislation designed to enforce and encourage the sustainable disposal of appliances, the most notable being the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive of the European Union and the United States National Computer Recycling Act. E-cycling ,

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2562-557: The design for a computer (the Automatic Computing Engine ) that was never built. Around this time, technological advancement in relays and vacuum tubes enabled the construction of the first computers. Building on Babbage's design, relay computers were built by George Stibitz at Bell Laboratories and Harvard University 's Howard Aiken , who engineered the MARK I . Also in 1945, mathematician John von Neumann —working on

2623-443: The design of the CPU, memory, and memory interconnect . Memory hierarchy ensures that the memory quicker to access (and more expensive) is located closer to the CPU, while slower, cheaper memory for large-volume storage is located further away. Memory is typically segregated to separate programs from data and limit an attacker's ability to alter programs. Most computers use virtual memory to simplify addressing for programs, using

2684-405: The different computing architecture layers to address the needs of different applications. Industrial TRON ( ITRON ) Specification OS has been the most popular TRON architecture for OS kernel layer. ITRON specification promotion was done by the various companies which sold the commercial implementations. A different RTOS developed in TRON Project was called BTRON. BTRON stands for Business TRON and

2745-499: The entire system. Each AMP T-Kernel has functions to synchronize and communicate with other AMP T-Kernels in the system. These functions between processors in AMP T-Kernel have been expanded from the interprocess synchronization and communication functions of T-Kernel 1.00 so that they can be used between processors. User programs are executed on one of the AMP T-Kernels, and by using the synchronization and communication functions of

2806-575: The external world or write data respectively. Common examples include keyboards and mice (input) and displays and printers (output). Network interface controllers are used to access the Internet . USB ports also allow power to connected devices—a standard USB supplies power at 5 volts and up to 500 milliamps (2.5 watts ), while powered USB ports with additional pins may allow the delivery of more power—up to 6 amps at 24v. Global revenue from computer hardware in 2023 reached $ 705.17 billion. Because computer parts contain hazardous materials, there

2867-602: The functions including system memory management function and address space management function in order to manage middleware such as device drivers and subsystems. This component has been extended from μITRON in T-Kernel. This offers the functions for debuggers to be used in development tools. The source code of T-Kernel was distributed free of charge by TRON Forum under its own license called T-License. As of September 2024, software such as T-Kernel and μT-Kernel has been released as open source based on T-License 2.2, and can be used free of charge, including for commercial use. With

2928-461: The hardware from excessive heat, the system will automatically reduce performance or shut down the processor if necessary. Processors also will shut off or enter a low power mode when inactive to reduce heat. Power delivery as well as heat dissipation are the most challenging aspects of hardware design, and have been the limiting factor to the development of smaller and faster chips since the early twenty-first century. Increases in performance require

2989-525: The lungs, liver, and kidneys. Computer components contain many toxic substances, like dioxins , polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), cadmium , chromium , radioactive isotopes and mercury . Circuit boards contain considerable quantities of lead-tin solders that are more likely to leach into groundwater or create air pollution due to incineration. Recycling of computer hardware is considered environmentally friendly because it prevents hazardous waste , including heavy metals and carcinogens, from entering

3050-506: The metal plates. Resistors, semiconductors, infrared detectors, stabilizers, cables, and wires contain cadmium. The circuit boards in a computer contain mercury, and chromium. When these types of materials, and chemicals are disposed improperly will become hazardous for the environment. When e-waste byproducts leach into groundwater, are burned, or get mishandled during recycling, it causes harm. Health problems associated with such toxins include impaired mental development, cancer, and damage to

3111-490: The middleware called T-Kernel Extension with T-Kernel. T-Monitor initializes computer hardware and handles the interrupt set up at the start. T-Monitor lessens hardware-dependency of T-Kernel, and improves the application portability. T-Kernel consists of the following three components from the viewpoint of function. This offers the basic functions as real-time Operating System. (Functions corresponding to μITRON's functions are mainly handled by this component.) This offers

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3172-443: The motherboard include: An expansion card in computing is a printed circuit board that can be inserted into an expansion slot of a computer motherboard or backplane to add functionality to a computer system via the expansion bus. Expansion cards can be used to obtain or expand on features not offered by the motherboard. Using expansion cards for a video processor used to be common, but modern computers are more likely to instead have

3233-530: The original T-License, the source code could be freely modified, and it was free for both personal use and commercial use when incorporated into a product. However, under the "Single One Source" policy of T-Kernel, it was not possible to freely redistribute the source code under the original T-License. T-License 2.0 has been improved to allow the redistribution of original source code and the distribution of modified source code, giving users more freedom in terms of source code distribution. eBinder from eSol Corporation

3294-611: The prestigious ITU150 award from the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), along with Bill Gates , Robert E. Kahn , Thomas Wiegand , Mark I. Krivosheyev, and Martin Cooper . The following is the citation given by ITU: ... Today, the real-time operating systems based on the TRON specifications are used for engine control on automobiles, mobile phones, digital cameras, and many other appliances, and are believed to be

3355-552: The recycling of computer hardware, refers to the donation, reuse, shredding and general collection of used electronics. Generically, the term refers to the process of collecting, brokering, disassembling, repairing and recycling the components or metals contained in used or discarded electronic equipment, otherwise known as electronic waste (e-waste). E-cyclable items include, but are not limited to: televisions, computers, microwave ovens, vacuum cleaners, telephones and cellular phones, stereos, and VCRs and DVDs just about anything that has

3416-646: The same function is running across multiple areas of data ( data parallelism ) or different tasks can be performed simultaneously with limited interaction ( task parallelism ). These forms of parallelism are accommodated by various hardware strategies, including instruction-level parallelism (such as instruction pipelining ), vector architectures and graphical processing units (GPUs) that are able to implement data parallelism, thread-level parallelism and request-level parallelism (both implementing task-level parallelism). Microarchitecture , also known as computer organization, refers to high-level hardware questions such as

3477-563: The storage problem by locating programs and data adjacent to each other created the Von Neumann bottleneck when the system tries to fetch both at the same time—often throttling the system's performance. Computer architecture requires prioritizing between different goals, such as cost, speed, availability, and energy efficiency. The designer must have a good grasp of the hardware requirements and many different aspects of computing, from compilers to integrated circuit design. Cost has also become

3538-446: The unit. Hobbyists may decorate the cases with colored lights, paint, or other features, in an activity called case modding . Most personal computer power supply units meet the ATX standard and convert from alternating current (AC) at between 120 and 277 volts provided from a power outlet to direct current (DC) at a much lower voltage: typically 12, 5, or 3.3 volts. The motherboard

3599-528: Was announced that a copyright transfer agreement for μT-Kernel 2.0 specification had been signed with IEEE. On September 11, 2018, "IEEE 2050-2018," standard based on "μT-Kernel 2.0" was officially approved as an IEEE standard. In May 2023, the IEEE recognized the RTOS, proposed, created, and released by TRON Project, as an IEEE Milestone, titled "TRON Real-time Operating System Family, 1984." The certified Milestone plaque

3660-555: Was arguably the most advanced ubiquitous computing platform in the world when it was released. Now some users have begun transitioning from ITRON Specification OS to μT-Kernel . The Japanese domestic rocket Epsilon, which was launched in September 2013, and the observatory satellite HISAKI, which was put into the earth orbit, used μITRON and T-Kernel respectively. T-Kernel 2.0 was used for the control system of Hayabusa2 launched by H-IIA rocket on December 3, 2014. On December 11, 2017, it

3721-453: Was meant for desktop PC with windowing environment. In 1989, Matsushita Electric Industrial Co., Ltd., now known as Panasonic Corporation , introduced a TRON PC that used this BTRON OS. This personal computer had an Intel 80286 chip of 8 MHz and only 2 MB of memory, but it could display moving video. Also, it had a dual-booting system that could run both the BTRON OS and DOS . Although

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