Classical Mongolian was the literary language of Mongolian that was first introduced shortly after 1600, when Ligdan Khan set his clergy the task of translating the whole of the Tibetan Buddhist canon , consisting of the Kangyur and Tengyur , into Mongolian. This script then became the established literary language used for all Mongolian literature since its introduction, until the 1930s when the Mongolian Latin alphabet was introduced, which then in 1941 was replaced by the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet .
157-442: Subutai ( Classical Mongolian : Sübügätäi or Sübü'ätäi ; Modern Mongolian : ᠰᠦᠪᠡᠭᠡᠳᠡᠢ ; Сүбээдэй, Sübeedei . [sʊbeːˈdɛ] ; Chinese : 速不台 ; c. 1175–1248) was a Mongol general and the primary military strategist of Genghis Khan and Ögedei Khan . Subutai ultimately directed more than 20 campaigns and won 65 pitched battles , during which he conquered more territory than any other commander in history as part of
314-759: A central force. After a series of sweeping victories Baidar and Kadan regrouped their northern force and defeated the main Polish army at the Battle of Legnica , right before it could merge with the Bohemian Army a days march away. While Güyük 's army triumphed in Transylvania , a day after Legnica, Subutai was waiting for the Hungarian army on the Hungarian plain. Though the Hungarian King Bela IV had effectively blocked
471-530: A ceremony on his grandsons Möngke and Kublai after their first hunt in 1224 near the Ili River . Kublai was nine years old and with his eldest brother killed a rabbit and an antelope. After his grandfather smeared fat from the killed animals onto Kublai's middle finger per a Mongol tradition, he said "The words of this boy Kublai are full of wisdom, heed them well – heed them all of you." The elderly Genghis Khan would die three years after this event in 1227, when Kublai
628-705: A conference of Daoist and Buddhist leaders in early 1258. At the conference, the Daoist claim was officially refuted, and Kublai forcibly converted 237 Daoist temples to Buddhism and destroyed all copies of the Daoist texts. Kublai Khan and the Yuan dynasty clearly favored Buddhism, while his counterparts in the Chagatai Khanate , the Golden Horde , and the Ilkhanate later converted to Islam at various times in history – Berke of
785-608: A decade of his enthronement as Great Khan that he needed to concentrate on governing there. From the beginning of his reign, he adopted Chinese political and cultural models and worked to minimize the influences of regional lords, who had held immense power before and during the Song dynasty. Kublai heavily relied on his Chinese advisers until about 1276. He had many Han Chinese advisers, such as Liu Bingzhong and Xu Heng , and employed many Buddhist Uyghurs, some of whom were resident commissioners running Chinese districts. Kublai also appointed
942-466: A decline in tax revenues. Kublai quickly came to his appanage in Hebei and ordered reforms. Sorghaghtani Beki sent new officials to help him and tax laws were revised. Thanks to those efforts, many of the people who fled returned. The most prominent, and arguably most influential, component of Kublai Khan's early life was his study and a strong attraction to contemporary Han culture . Kublai invited Haiyun,
1099-450: A difficult route into the mountains of western Sichuan. Kublai went south over the grasslands and met up with the first column. While Uryankhadai travelled along the lakeside from the north, Kublai took the capital city of Dali and spared the residents despite the slaying of his ambassadors. The Dali emperor Duan Xingzhi ( 段興智 ) himself defected to the Mongols, who used his troops to conquer
1256-464: A feigned retreat, but he held his strong position. After a full day of fierce fighting that resulted in a stalemate, the Mongols retreated under darkness and attempted to hide their trail and outflank the Jin. Wan Yen Heda had retreated towards the city of Tengzhou in order to obtain supplies. Changing tracks, Subutai, identifying that the Jin were vulnerable to attrition, used a feint attack to temporarily divert
1413-620: A few families. In his old age, Subotei saw a mighty dominion stretching from the borders of Hungary to the Sea of Japan, from the outskirts of Novgorod to the Persian Gulf and the Yangtze River. He had no small part in creating it." In a unique historical anomaly, the strategic and operational innovations of Genghis Khan and Subutai became lost in history, and others were forced to rediscover them 600 and 700 years later. Even though Subutai had devastated
1570-720: A few months and Li Tan was executed. These armies also executed Wang Wentong, Li Tan's father-in-law, who had been appointed the Chief Administrator of the Central Secretariat (Zhongshu Sheng) early in Kublai's reign and became one of Kublai's most trusted Han Chinese officials. The incident instilled in Kublai a distrust of ethnic Hans. After becoming emperor, Kublai banned granting the titles of and tithes to ethnic Han warlords. Chagatayid Khan Alghu, who had been appointed by Ariq Böke, declared his allegiance to Kublai and defeated
1727-618: A general in the Mongol army and was a close companion of Temujin. Jelme rescued a severely wounded Temujin (hit by an arrow from Jebe , then an enemy) in the process of unification of the Mongolian plateau. Another brother, Chaurkhan (also romanized as Ca'urqan) is mentioned in the Secret History of the Mongols . According to Subutai's biography in the History of Yuan , Subutai's father was once driving
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#17328548553651884-586: A grand alliance of the Mongols and the Western European powers to defeat the Mamluks in Syria and North Africa that constantly invaded the Mongol dominions. Abagha and Kublai focused mostly on foreign alliances and opened trade routes. Khagan Kublai dined with a large court every day and met with many ambassadors and foreign merchants. Kublai's son Nomukhan and his generals occupied Almaliq from 1266 to 1276. In 1277,
2041-441: A greater role than Subotei Ba'atur in establishing and maintaining the early Mongol Empire. Trusted commander and retainer of Chinggis, later highly respected servant of Ogodei and Guyuk, Subotei served with great distinction in every phase of Mongolian national development during the first four decades of empire. When he first entered the service of Temujin, the later Cinggis Qan, the realm of that minor Mongol chieftain comprised only
2198-410: A group of Genghisid princes under Möngke's son Shiregi rebelled, kidnapped Kublai's two sons and his general Antong and handed them over to Kaidu and Möngke Temür. The latter was still allied with Kaidu who fashioned an alliance with him in 1269, although Möngke Temür had promised Kublai his military support to protect Kublai from the Ögedeids. Kublai's armies suppressed the rebellion and strengthened
2355-517: A heated argument with the Mongol princes Guyuk and Buri . Guyuk and Buri, jealous of Batu, accused Batu of incompetence and riding Subutai's coattails. This resulted in Guyuk and Batu, and possibly some of their men being sent home to Ögedei Khan for judgment, causing further rifts in the Mongol army. Despite these obstacles, the Mongols still attempted to solidify their control over Hungary. From Rogerius' writings it would seem that scattered resistance by
2512-517: A heavy resemblance to Mongol strategic methods, substituting tanks, motorized troop carriers, artillery, and airplanes for Mongol horse archers, lancers, and field artillery. The Red Army even went so far as to copy Subutai's use of smokescreens on the battlefield to cover troop movements. Later in the 20th century, American military theorist John Boyd and some of his followers used Genghis Khan and Subutai's campaigns as examples of maneuver warfare. Classic Mongolian language Classical Mongolian
2669-401: A herd of sheep in order to present them to his overlord, Taizu (Genghis Khan). Encountering robbers, he was seized. Huluhun (Subutai's brother) and Subutai arrived in good time, and with their lances stabbed some of the robbers. Horses and men fell together, and the remainder of the band withdrew and departed. Consequently, they relieved their father's difficulty, and the sheep were able to attain
2826-526: A high price. In all likelihood the 1,000 men were led by Jebe who was killed by some Kipchaks. As expected the coalition army pursued the Mongols and after retreating for 9 days, Subutai suddenly turned and crushed the combined Rus' and Cuman army at the Kalka (31 May 1223). Arab historian Ibn al-Athir mentions a campaign against Volga Bulgaria, where the Mongol army was defeated in late 1223 or early 1224 ( 620 ). According to Ibn al-Athir, 4,000 men survived from
2983-579: A key part in the campaign against the Tanguts of Xi Xia in 1226, serving as commander of the flank army to strike the Tanguts in the rear. While Genghis invaded the Xi Xia by a more traditional northern route, Subutai unexpectedly attacked from the west over the mountains and inhospitable deserts in modern Turkestan, causing Tangut resistance to collapse. The Tangut Empire was cut in two: with Genghis preventing reinforcements being sent west, Subutai subdued resistance in
3140-645: A legitimate heir to the throne instead of Kublai, who had turned away from the ways of Genghis Khan. Defections from Kublai's dynasty swelled the Ögedeids' forces. The Song imperial family surrendered to the Yuan in 1276, making the Mongols the first non-Han Chinese people to conquer all of China. Three years later, Yuan marines crushed the last of the Song loyalists . The Song Empress Dowager and her grandson, Emperor Gong of Song , were then settled in Khanbaliq where they were given tax-free property, and Kublai's wife Chabi took
3297-478: A major part of the army into the western regions to finally crush the Wild Kipchaks and Bulgars . Subutai was tasked to direct the operations (under the overall command of prince Batu ). This mission was more than just a typical invasion: Ögedei sent many of the next generation of Mongol princes, including the heirs of each of the four families, most likely to be trained by Subutai before he died. In order to crush
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#17328548553653454-456: A much more decisive and fluid manner where heavy firepower was used to create openings for rapid cavalry charges with deep formations. At the battle of the Kalka River in 1223, Subutai's 20,000 man army routed the 80,000 man Russian army by stringing it out after a 9-day retreat, and then immediately turning and delivering a decisive charge without a prolonged missile bombardment. The vanguard of
3611-631: A mystery in the west, the King of Hungary, Bela IV , was well-informed of the Mongol invasion of Russia and prepared as well as the fractured relations of Europe would allow him to. Though Bela was unable to obtain help from the Holy Roman Empire or the Pope, he did at least have the support of his cousins in Poland. Once again, Subutai invaded during winter, when they would be least expected. The Mongol invasion of Europe
3768-459: A peace agreement with Sidao. Kublai received a message from his wife that his younger brother Ariq Böke had been raising troops, so he returned north to the Mongolian Plateau. Before he arrived, he learned that Ariq Böke had held a kurultai (Mongol great council) at the capital Karakorum , which had named him Great Khan with the support of most of Genghis Khan's descendants. Kublai and
3925-458: A personal interest in their well-being. However, Kublai later had Emperor Gong sent away to become a monk to Zhangye . Kublai succeeded in building a powerful empire, created an academy, offices, trade ports, and canals, and sponsored science and the arts. The record of the Mongols lists 20,166 public schools created during Kublai's reign. Having achieved real or nominal dominion over much of Eurasia, and having successfully conquered China, Kublai
4082-507: A punitive expedition sent by Ariq Böke in 1262. The Ilkhan Hulagu also sided with Kublai and criticized Ariq Böke. Ariq Böke surrendered to Kublai at Xanadu on 21 August 1264. The rulers of the western khanates acknowledged Kublai's victory and rule in Mongolia. When Kublai summoned them to a new kurultai , Alghu Khan demanded recognition of his illegal position from Kublai in return. Despite tensions between them, both Hulagu and Berke , khan of
4239-507: A secondary target, by concentrating 400 trebuchets at a corner of the wall. However, the overall campaign seemed to have reached a stalemate. In 1231–1232 Subutai made another attempt to outmaneuver the Jin fortified lines by using a similar highly audacious approach that they had employed in Khwarezm (1219) and Xi Xia (1226). The Mongols divided into three armies, one to attack Henan from the North in
4396-493: A strong reconnaissance force to penetrate the Mongol scouting screen, his lieutenant told him in horror that his army was already entirely surrounded. Not surprisingly, Yuri and his army were easily defeated. The Mongols had made a treaty with Galicia-Volhynia , whose prince was therefore taken by surprise when the Mongols suddenly attacked in December 1240. Kiev , Vladimir , and other cities were quickly taken. The attack on Europe
4553-560: A wide frontage and rapidly coalesce at decisive points to defeat the enemy in detail. Their methods were aligned to completely crush the enemy state's will to fight. Subutai has been credited as the first general to operate campaigns using the modern organizational methods of command and control. Though unknown to the west for many centuries, Subutai's exploits were featured by the British military theorist B. H. Liddell Hart in his book Great Captains Unveiled after World War I. Liddell Hart used
4710-521: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . This Mongolia -related article is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Kublai Khan Kublai Khan (23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan and his regnal name Setsen Khan , was the founder and first emperor of the Mongol -led Yuan dynasty of China. He proclaimed
4867-512: Is considered to be the first fiat money maker. The paper bills made collecting taxes and administering the empire much easier and reduced the cost of transporting coins. In 1287, Kublai's minister Sangha created a new currency, Zhiyuan Chao, to deal with a budget shortfall. It was non-convertible and denominated in copper cash. Later Gaykhatu of the Ilkhanate attempted to adopt the system in Iran and
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5024-449: Is disputed, with Rashid al-Din specifically noting that Batu and Subutai only heard of the Khan's death after they had already begun the withdrawal. However, the death of Ogedei and the turmoil immediately after it prevented the Mongols from returning to Europe for decades. Still, the devastation had been immense. Subutai had devastated the agriculture of any area that was resisting. Though some of
5181-529: The Alans , Circassians , and Don Kipchaks/Cumans in detail. After plundering the southern Russian steppes, the Russian princes united with the retreating Cuman confederacy to defeat the Mongols with an 80,000 man host. Despite being heavily outnumbered, Subutai sacrificed the 1,000 men of his rear guard to induce the coalition army to recklessly pursue him and become separated. The plan worked, but strategic advantage came at
5338-570: The Borjigin lines except that of Jochi . This kurultai proclaimed Kublai Great Khan, on 15 April 1260, despite Ariq Böke's apparently legal claim to become Khan. This led to warfare between Kublai and Ariq Böke, which resulted in the destruction of the Mongol capital at Karakorum. In Shaanxi and Sichuan, Möngke's army supported Ariq Böke. Kublai dispatched Lian Xixian to Shaanxi and Sichuan, where they executed Ariq Böke's civil administrator Liu Taiping, and won over several wavering generals. To secure
5495-700: The Caspian Sea through the Caucasus Mountains to fall on the rear of the Wild Kipchaks and Cumans . After destroying resistance in Persia and submitting Azerbaijan, the Mongols invaded the Christian Kingdom of Georgia . Though the king George IV of Georgia was reluctant to commit to battle, Subutai and Jebe forced his hand by ravaging the countryside and killing his people. Subutai and Jebe then defeated
5652-475: The Golden Horde being the only Muslim during Kublai's era (his successor did not convert to Islam). In 1258, Möngke put Kublai in command of the Eastern Army and summoned him to assist with an attack on Sichuan. As he was suffering from gout , Kublai was allowed to stay home, but he moved to assist Möngke anyway. Before Kublai arrived in 1259, word reached him that Möngke had died. Kublai decided to keep
5809-578: The Golden Horde , at first accepted Kublai's invitation. However, they soon declined to attend the kurultai . Kublai pardoned Ariq Böke, although he executed Ariq Böke's chief supporters. The mysterious deaths of three Jochid princes in Hulagu's service, the Siege of Baghdad (1258) , and unequal distribution of war spoils strained the Ilkhanate's relations with the Golden Horde. In 1262, Hulagu's complete purge of
5966-570: The House of Ögedei declined to personally attend the court of Kublai. Kublai instigated Baraq to attack Kaidu. Baraq began to expand his realm northward; he seized power in 1266 and fought Kaidu and the Golden Horde. He also pushed out Great Khan's overseer from the Tarim Basin . When Kaidu and Mentemu together defeated Kublai, Baraq joined an alliance with the House of Ögedei and the Golden Horde against Kublai in
6123-663: The Merkit , when he was 22 years old. Subutai's role was to act as the vanguard and defeat one of the Merkit camps at the Tchen River. Subutai refused Genghis Khan's offer for extra elite troops, and instead traveled to the Merkit camp alone, posing as a Mongol deserter. Subutai managed to convince the Merkits that the main Mongol army was far away, and they were in no danger. As a result, the Merkit lowered their guard and limited their patrols, allowing
6280-611: The Shanxi scholar Zhao Bi to his entourage. Kublai employed people of other nationalities as well, for he was keen to balance local and imperial interests, Mongol and Turkic . In 1251, Kublai's eldest brother Möngke became Khan of the Mongol Empire, and Khwarizmian Mahmud Yalavach and Kublai were sent to China proper . Kublai received the viceroyalty over northern China and moved his ordo to central Inner Mongolia . During his years as viceroy, Kublai managed his territory well, boosted
6437-615: The South China Sea and the Indian Ocean . In 1286, maritime trade was put under the Office of Market Taxes. The main source of revenue for the government was the monopoly of salt production. The Mongol administration had issued paper currencies from 1227 on. In August 1260, Kublai created the first unified paper currency called Jiaochao ; bills were circulated throughout the Yuan domain with no expiration date. To guard against devaluation,
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6594-664: The Tibetan monk Sangha rose to high office and had the office renamed the Commission for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs. In 1286, Sangha became the dynasty's chief fiscal officer. However, their corruption later embittered Kublai, and he later relied wholly on younger Mongol aristocrats. Antong of the Jalairs and Bayan of the Baarin served as grand councillors from 1265, and Oz-temur of the Arulad headed
6751-402: The censorate . Borokhula's descendant, Ochicher, headed a kheshig (Mongolian imperial guard) and the palace provision commission. In the eighth year of Zhiyuan (1271), Kublai officially created the Yuan dynasty and proclaimed the capital as Dadu ( Chinese : 大都 ; Wade–Giles : Ta-tu ; lit. 'Grand Capital', known as Khanbaliq or Daidu to the Mongols, modern Beijing)
6908-488: The creeping barrage of World War I, used to soften and disrupt enemy lines right before an attack. Like Genghis Khan, Subutai was a master at creating divisions within the enemy ranks and surprising them. The terrifying Mongol reputation, combined with highly effective spy networks that spread discord, as well as incentives to key local leaders, prevented his opponents from effectively uniting and fighting at their full capacity. In 1217, Genghis Khan sent Subutai to hunt down
7065-465: The kingdom of Dali , but not Dai Viet however. He later achieved great success invading Song China from the southwest in the 1258 invasion of Möngke Khan . Aju fought with his father, and then later led the successful five-year Mongol siege of the pivotal dual fortress of Xiangyang-Fancheng in the battle of Xiangyang , which opened up a gateway into the heart of the Song and enabled their total conquest six years later in 1279. "No Mongol general played
7222-424: The " Muslim trebuchet " (or Huihui Pao ), which was utilized by Kublai Khan during the Battle of Xiangyang . Although Kublai restricted the functions of the kheshig, he created a new imperial bodyguard, at first entirely ethnic Han in composition but later strengthened with Kipchak , Alan ( Asud ), and Russian units. Once his own kheshig was organized in 1263, Kublai put three of the original kheshigs under
7379-460: The 1219 winter in Azerbaijan and Iran, raiding and looting while preventing the western Khwarezm forces from assisting the rest of the empire to the east. Here he conceived the idea of conducting the most audacious reconnaissance-in-force in history, which was described by Edward Gibbon as [an expedition] "which has never been attempted, and has never been repeated": 20,000 Mongol forces would circle
7536-499: The Carpathian passes using felled trees, ditches, traps, and other natural obstacles, in addition to the general disrepair or simple nonexistence of roads in eastern Hungary, Subutai's force still managed an astonishing pace of 100 km (60 mi) a day despite several feet of snow. The Mongols retained a pioneer corps capable of efficiently clearing pathways through the forest, and were unfazed by Bela's obstacles. Only one day after
7693-480: The Chagatai Khanate also died. In the new official version of his family's history, Kublai refused to write Berke's name as the khan of the Golden Horde because of Berke's support for Ariq Böke and wars with Hulagu; however, Jochi's family was fully recognized as legitimate family members. Kublai Khan named Abaqa as the new Ilkhan (obedient khan) and nominated Batu's grandson Mentemu for the throne of Sarai ,
7850-554: The Emperor fled and the city surrendered. Subutai originally wanted to execute everyone in Kaifeng to punish them for their intransigence and extremely long resistance. However, Ögedei intervened and ordered Subutai to treat them fairly. With assistance from the Song dynasty, the last Jin stronghold of Caizhou fell in 1234. However, it did not take the Song long to fall out with the Mongols. Two Song armies seized Kaifeng and Luoyang during
8007-587: The Georgian army despite the presence of many thousands of Georgian knights, by luring the knights away from their infantry with a feigned retreat , then enveloping the knights. After destroying them, the Mongols encircled and crushed the Georgian army. Subutai, who was identified by the Georgians as being in command, originally lured the Georgians into thinking his army was a friendly ally by having his men parade in front of crosses, and using spies to start false rumors that
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#17328548553658164-560: The Golden Horde returned the princes as a peace overture to the Yuan dynasty in 1282 and induced Kaidu to release Kublai's general. Konchi, khan of the White Horde , established friendly relations with the Yuan and the Ilkhanate, and as a reward received luxury gifts and grain from Kublai. Despite political disagreement between contending branches of the family over the office of Khagan, the economic and commercial system continued. Kublai Khan considered China his main base, realizing within
8321-583: The Golden Horde's interests in the Middle East and the Caucasus . In 1260, Kublai sent one of his advisors, Hao Ching, to the court of Emperor Lizong of Song to say that if Lizong submitted to Kublai and surrendered his dynasty, he would be granted some autonomy. Emperor Lizong refused to meet Kublai's demands and imprisoned Hao Ching and when Kublai sent a delegation to release Hao Ching, Emperor Lizong sent them back. Kublai called two Iraqi siege engineers from
8478-518: The Golden Horde, including Smolensk and Vitebsk in 1274–75. The Khans also sent Nogai Khan to the Balkans to strengthen Mongol influence there. Kublai renamed the Mongol regime in China Dai Yuan in 1271, and sought to sinicize his image as Emperor of China to win control of millions of Han Chinese people. When he moved his headquarters to Khanbaliq , also called Dadu, in modern-day Beijing, there
8635-531: The Goryeo supplied Korean troops and an ocean-going naval force for the Mongol campaigns. Despite the opposition of some of his Confucian-trained advisers, Kublai decided to invade Japan, Burma, Vietnam, and Java, following the suggestions of some of his Mongol officials. He also attempted to subjugate peripheral lands such as Sakhalin , where its indigenous people eventually submitted to the Mongols by 1308, after Kublai's death. These costly invasions and conquests and
8792-565: The Great Wall (not the Ming Great Wall ). In late 1211 he was the first to scale the walls of the key fortress of Huan-Chou, and took part in the ambush of a major Jin army at Wu Sha Pao and the climactic battle of Yehuling . In 1212, he may have served with Jebe during the latter's daring capture of Liaoyang, and in 1213 he served with Muqali and Jebe in a great raid in Shandong. Subutai played
8949-420: The Ilkhanate to destroy the fortresses of Song China. After the fall of Xiangyang in 1273, Kublai's commanders, Aju and Liu Zheng, proposed a final campaign against the Song dynasty, and Kublai made Bayan of the Baarin the supreme commander. Kublai ordered Möngke Temür to revise the second census of the Golden Horde to provide resources and men for his conquest of China. The census took place in all parts of
9106-544: The Jin capital of Kaifeng, the route that Wan Yen Heda was retreating along. With part of his force harassing the Jin army's foragers, the other units marched around the flanks in a wide arc and emerged ahead of the Jin army, aiming to destroy or steal the supplies of nearby villages along the Jin's line of retreat. Ogedei Khan had been able to cross the Yellow River after the Jin army blocking him had to march south to help Wan Yan Heda. With Subutai's army having maneuvered along
9263-449: The Jin forces away from their supply train, which he promptly seized with a hidden force. Rather than continually attempting to attack the vigilant Jin during their retreat, Subutai instead dispersed his army into several detachments to target supplies in the area. 3,000 men masked the Mongol dispersion and occupied the Jin's attention, while other Mongol forces slowly slipped away from the field in small numbers to hide their movements towards
9420-457: The Jin in 1232 continually pulled the hitherto successful Jin forces apart despite their highly advantageous terrain, as they could not determine which Mongol armies were the feints and which were the true threats until their main army became isolated and starved. Strongly fortified locations would be bypassed and ignored until all organized resistance had been destroyed. Sieges would be limited to critical or vulnerable locations; in other situations,
9577-467: The Jin rear, Ogedei was able to send reinforcements to Subutai, bringing the total Mongol strength to 50,000 men. After these reinforcements arrived and with the Jin army's food supplies severely depleted over the past three weeks, Subutai forced a battle on his terms and won a decisive victory at the Battle of Sanfengshan , capturing Wan Yen Heda and annihilating the main Jin army which had nowhere safe to retreat to. He then made forced marches and eliminated
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#17328548553659734-463: The Jochid troops and support for Kublai in his conflict with Ariq Böke brought open war with the Golden Horde. Kublai reinforced Hulagu with 30,000 young Mongols to stabilize the political crises in the western regions of the Mongol Empire. When Hulagu died on 8 February 1264, Berke marched to cross near Tbilisi to conquer the Ilkhanate but died on the way. Within a few months of these deaths, Alghu Khan of
9891-530: The Middle East and Europe as Khagan. By 1279, the Yuan conquest of the Song dynasty was completed and Kublai became the first non- Han emperor to rule all of China proper . The imperial portrait of Kublai was part of an album of the portraits of Yuan emperors and empresses, now in the National Palace Museum collection in Taipei. White, the color of the imperial costume of Kublai, was the imperial color of
10048-436: The Middle East, which was a complete failure, and shortly afterward he was assassinated. Kublai encouraged Asian arts and demonstrated religious tolerance. Despite his anti-Daoist edicts, Kublai respected the Daoist master and appointed Zhang Liushan as the patriarch of the Daoist Xuánjiào (玄教, "Mysterious Order"). Under Zhang's advice, Daoist temples were put under the Academy of Scholarly Worthies. Several Europeans visited
10205-546: The Mongol Empire’s greatest general was a reindeer-herding outsider to steppe nomadic culture has a strong literary appeal to modern authors." In fact, Subutai's family had been associated with the family of Temujin (future Genghis Khan) for many generations. Subutai's great-great-grandfather, Nerbi, was supposedly an ally of the Mongol Khan Tumbina Sechen. Subutai's father, Jarchigudai, supposedly supplied food to Temujin and his followers when they were in dire straits at lake Baljuna, and Subutai's elder brother Jelme also served as
10362-471: The Mongol campaigns. Their closer proximity to the steppe gave them greater interest and access to the Mongolian campaigns, first analyzed by the Russian General Mikhail Ivanin in the 19th century, which became a recommended text in the Russian military academies up until the mid 20th century. Ivanin's work became used in the Deep Battle doctrine developed by Soviet Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky , Mikhail Frunze , and G. S. Isserson . Deep Battle doctrine bore
10519-504: The Mongol equivalent of Genghis Khan's Chief of Staff, Subutai marched with the Khan's army through the deadly Kyzylkum Desert to emerge behind the Khwarezm defense network at Bukhara . After the rapid capture of the Khwarezm center of defense, Samarkand , Genghis Khan dispatched Subutai and Jebe with 30,000 men to hunt the Khwarezm Shah and prevent him from rallying the other Khwarezm armies. Shah Mohammed attempted to save himself by fleeing into central Persia , but while he eluded capture,
10676-424: The Mongol lines was an invitation to retreat, which would leave the knights and crossbowmen spread out all over the countryside, easy pickings for the disciplined Mongols. As Subutai had planned, the Hungarians poured through this 'hole' in the Mongol lines, which led to a swampy area, poor footing for horses and hard going for infantry. When the Hungarian knights split up, the Mongol archers picked them off at will. It
10833-409: The Mongol mission was to raid and scout, not conquer. After ravaging Georgia, the Mongols cut across the Caucasus Mountains during the winter to get around the Derbent Pass. The Mongols were tricked by their guides into taking a perilous route and emerged from the mountains exhausted, only to be confronted with a far larger steppe coalition army. Using clever diplomacy, Subutai isolated and defeated
10990-402: The Mongol side in this battle. The remaining army proceeded to Desht-i Qipchaq , where they joined the army of Jochi, but historians have doubted this account in light of the Mongols seeking out and defeating the Qangli Turks in southern Russia shortly afterward. In the initial invasion of the Jin in 1211, Subutai served with Jebe's army that attacked the Chinese forts around the eastern edge of
11147-446: The Mongolian general Jebe), like he had in earlier wars. Genghis Khan led the Mongol army westwards in late 1219 to invade Khwarizm as retaliation for the execution of Mongol ambassadors. With roughly 100,000 armed men, the Mongol army was numerically superior to the forces of the Khwarizim Empire , and through deception and rapid maneuver, the Mongols defeated the isolated Khwarezm armies in detail before they could react. Serving as
11304-428: The Mongols either left a blockading force, or simply ignored fortified citadels and destroyed the surrounding agriculture so that the remaining people would starve if they remained within fortified walls. In contrast to the common perception of steppe horse archer armies slowly weakening their foes with arrows for many hours or even days, such as at the battle of Carrhae or the battle of Manzikert , Subutai fought in
11461-443: The Mongols fighting to cross the river the following day. Subutai ordered huge stonethrowers to clear the bank of Hungarian crossbowmen and open the way for his light cavalry to cross the river without further losses. This use of siege weapons was one of the first recorded uses of artillery bombardments against the enemy army to disrupt their resistance while simultaneously attacking them. In execution, his usage functioned more akin to
11618-420: The Mongols if they returned. After subduing a Cuman revolt in what is now Russia, Subutai turned towards Mongolia. Subutai insisted that Batu attend the kurultai to elect the successor of Ogedei in the Mongolian heartland. Batu declined to come and Güyük was elected after three years, with Subutai's support. Güyük had no love for Batu and wanted the best of the Mongol generals to be made unavailable to Batu if
11775-499: The Mongols in pitched battle, since Subutai only commanded a small 20,000 man force and did not want to even fight him. Supposedly the Mongol army had destroyed his left wing, and nearly broken his center and captured him, until reinforcements from his son arrived and the battlefield turned dark. Because of this battle, Mohammed was unable to take advantage of the upheaval in the Kara-Khitai Empire (simultaneously being conquered by
11932-581: The Mongols to easily surprise and encircle the Merkits, capturing two generals. He also served as a commander of the vanguard with distinction in the 1204 battle against the Naiman that gave the Mongols total control over Mongolia. Subutai was a major innovator in the art of war. In the invasions of China, Russia, and Europe, Subutai routinely coordinated large forces often separated by large distances. Subutai's maneuvers were designed to mislead his foes and strike them from unexpected directions. The Mongol invasion of
12089-404: The Mongols to get close enough for more concentrated fire. After cutting off Kaifeng from any outside help, Subutai alternated intense bombardments using a mixture of Muslim trebuchets, mangonels , and captured gunpowder with periods of rest and plundering the countryside. The Mongol dispersion helped them avoid contagion by the plague that devastated Kaifeng, and after being stretched to the limit,
12246-597: The Mongols usually did during the winter, when the rivers froze over). The Rus forces were defeated in 3 separate engagements and their cities were taken in quick succession. The Mongols spent the summer of 1238 resting along the Don River . Columns were sent out to subjugate the various tribes living in the plains around the Black Sea . In 1239, the Rus' state of Chernigov was defeated and their cities were taken. The Mongols were spared
12403-732: The Mongols were actually Christian wonder-workers who had come to assist the Georgians. This Mongol reconnaissance mission may have inadvertently altered the history of the Crusades, as Georgia had planned on sending their now destroyed army to join the Fifth Crusade . Instead, King George's sister Rusudan had to write to the Pope Honorius III to explain that they could not assist the Crusade because their whole army had been disintegrated. Though Georgia lay defenseless after these catastrophic defeats,
12560-438: The Russian army was already put in flight before the second wave even reached the battlefield and began to deploy. Subutai was one of the first Mongol generals, alongside Genghis Khan, who realized the value of engineers in siege warfare . Even in field battles he made use of siege engines . In the Battle of Mohi , the Hungarian crossbowmen repelled a night bridge crossing by the Mongols, and inflicted considerable casualties on
12717-623: The Sakya lama Drogön Chögyal Phagpa ("the Phags pa Lama") his Imperial Preceptor , giving him power over all the empire's Buddhist monks . In 1270, after the Phags pa Lama created the 'Phags-pa script , he was promoted to imperial preceptor. Kublai established the Supreme Control Commission under the Phags pa Lama to administer the affairs of Tibetan and Chinese monks. During Phagspa's absence in Tibet,
12874-671: The Volga Bulgars, who had previously defeated Batu in 1232, Subutai launched another giant encirclement campaign. The Mongols marched up the Volga river in a wide arc on the west side. However, this force was just to occupy their attention, for he sent a secondary army to surprise the Bulgars from the east by crossing the Ural mountains. After squashing the Bulgar armies, he defeated the guerrilla leader Bachman on
13031-551: The Yuan capitol). Kublai Khan patronized Muslim scholars and scientists, and Muslim astronomers contributed to the construction of the observatory in Shaanxi . Astronomers such as Jamal ad-Din introduced 7 new instruments and concepts that allowed the correction of the Chinese calendar. Muslim cartographers made accurate maps of all the nations along the Silk Road and greatly influenced
13188-455: The Yuan dynasty based on the Chinese philosophical concept of the Five Elements . Kublai Khan was the fourth son of Tolui , and his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki . As his grandfather Genghis Khan advised, Sorghaghtani chose a Buddhist Tangut woman as her son's nurse, whom Kublai later honored highly. On his way home after the Mongol conquest of Khwarezmia , Genghis Khan performed
13345-902: The Yuan dynasty, there were two Duke Yanshengs, once in the north in Qufu and the other in the south at Quzhou. An invitation to come back to Qufu was extended to the southern Duke Yansheng Kong Zhu by the Yuan Dynasty Emperor Kublai Khan. The title was taken away from the southern branch after Kong Zhu rejected the invitation, so the northern branch of the family kept the title of Duke Yansheng. The southern branch still remained in Quzhou where they lived to this day. Confucius's descendants in Quzhou alone number 30,000. Yuan Emperors like Kublai Khan forbade practices such as butchering according to Jewish ( kashrut ) or Muslim ( dhabihah ) legal codes and other restrictive decrees continued. Circumcision
13502-512: The Yuan garrisons in Mongolia and the Ili River basin. However, Kaidu took control over Almaliq. In 1279–80, Kublai decreed death for those who performed slaughtering of cattle according to the legal codes of Islam ( dhabihah ) or Judaism ( kashrut ), which offended Mongolian custom. When Tekuder seized the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1282, attempting to make peace with the Mamluks, Abaqa's old Mongols under prince Arghun appealed to Kublai. After
13659-443: The agricultural output of Henan , and increased social welfare spending after receiving Xi'an . These acts received great acclaim from ethnic Han warlords and were essential to the founding of the Yuan dynasty. In 1252, Kublai criticized Mahmud Yalavach, who was never highly valued by his ethnic Han associates, over his cavalier execution of suspects during a judicial review, and Zhao Bi attacked him for his presumptuous attitude toward
13816-527: The armies of Russia, Georgia, Hungary, Poland, Bulgaria, and Latin Constantinople in a series of one-sided campaigns, Western military leaders, historians, and theorists completely ignored him until the 20th century. The Mongols did not operate as one distinct mass, but instead moved along 3–5 axes of approach, often 500–1000 km apart, and threatened numerous objectives simultaneously. Like Napoleon, Subutai (and Genghis Khan) would disperse their forces along
13973-485: The assassination of Ahmad Fanakati and execution of his sons, Kublai confirmed Arghun's coronation and awarded his commander in chief Buqa the title of chancellor . Kublai's niece, Kelmish, who married a Khongirad general of the Golden Horde, was powerful enough to have Kublai's sons Nomuqan and Kokhchu returned. Three leaders of the Jochids, Tode Mongke , Köchü , and Nogai, agreed to release two princes. The court of
14130-551: The beginning of the fragmentation of the empire. Kublai's real power was limited to the Yuan Empire, even though as Khagan he still influenced the Ilkhanate and, to a significantly lesser degree, the Golden Horde . In 1271, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty and formally claimed orthodox succession from prior Chinese dynasties. The Yuan dynasty came to rule over most of present-day China, Mongolia , Korea , southern Siberia, and other adjacent areas. He also amassed influence in
14287-452: The blood. While Batu Khan, son of Jochi , was the overall leader, Subutai was the actual commander in the field, and as such was present in both the northern and southern campaigns against Kievan Rus' . He personally commanded the central column that moved against the Kingdom of Hungary , and likely gave detailed instructions to his subordinates. Though the Mongol methods of warfare were mostly
14444-410: The camp. In addition to defeating the enemy, Subutai also had to spend substantial energy keeping the egos of the Mongol princes in check during the Hungarian campaign. During the battle, Subutai had to shame Batu into continuing the fight after the first failed attack on the bridge. Batu first blamed Subutai for taking too long to ford the river, but Subutai rebuffed him by saying that they knew fording
14601-591: The capital Esztergom , though the latter's stone citadel held out, and not all sieges proved successful. By early 1242, Subutai was discussing plans to invade the Holy Roman Empire , when news came of the death of Ögedei Khan and a revolt by the Cumans in Russia. Carpini alleges that, over the objections of Subutai, the Mongol princes withdrew the army to Mongolia for the election of a new Great Khan. This account of events
14758-558: The capital of the Golden Horde. The Kublaids in the east retained suzerainty over the Ilkhans until the end of their regime. Kublai also sent his protege Ghiyas-ud-din Baraq to overthrow the court of the Oirat Orghana , the empress of the Chagatai Khanate , who put her young son Mubarak Shah on the throne in 1265, without Kublai's permission after her husband's death. Prince Kaidu of
14915-459: The center of the Yellow River, another to attempt to cross the Yellow River in Shandong in the east, and the last, under Subutai and Tolui , invading the Song Empire and attacking Henan from the more exposed south. The Song initially refused to allow the Mongols passage through the rugged Qinling mountains, so Subutai dodged their forces and isolated the mountain citadels one by one. Disheartened by
15072-535: The charge of the descendants of Genghis Khan's assistants, Borokhula, Boorchu, and Muqali . Kublai began the practice of having the four great aristocrats in his kheshig sign jarligs (decrees), a practice that spread to all other Mongol khanates. Mongol and Han units were organized using the same decimal organization that Genghis Khan used. The Mongols eagerly adopted new artillery and technologies. Kublai and his generals adopted an elaborate, moderate style of military campaigns in southern China. Effective assimilation of
15229-432: The civilians had escaped capture or death by hiding in castles, forests, or marshes, they returned to their ruined fields only to starve. Some historians have claimed that a quarter to a half of Hungary's population may have died from the invasion. Even in 1250, eight years after the Mongols had left, Hungarian King Bela wrote to Pope Innocent IV that Hungary could not withstand another invasion and would have to surrender to
15386-553: The currency was convertible with silver and gold, and the government accepted tax payments in paper currency. In 1273, Kublai issued a new series of state-sponsored bills to finance his conquest of the Song, although eventually, a lack of fiscal discipline and inflation turned this move into an economic disaster. It was required to pay only in the form of paper money. To ensure its use, Kublai's government confiscated gold and silver from private citizens and foreign merchants, but traders received government-issued notes in exchange. Kublai Khan
15543-427: The day of battle, they devour enemy flesh. Behold, they are now unleashed, and they slobber at the mouth with glee. These four dogs are Jebe , and Kublai (different than Kublai Khan ), Jelme , and Subotai. Appointed to the prestigious post of Genghis Khan's ger (yurt) door guard during his teen years, Mongol histories say that Subutai said to Genghis Khan , "I will ward off your enemies as felt cloth protects one from
15700-547: The death of his brother secret and continued the attack on Wuhan , near the Yangtze . While Kublai's force besieged Wuchang , Uryankhadai joined him. The Song minister Jia Sidao secretly approached Kublai to propose terms. He offered an annual tribute of 200,000 taels of silver and 200,000 bolts of silk, in exchange for Mongol agreement to the Yangtze as the frontier between the states. Kublai declined at first but later reached
15857-486: The dynastic name "Great Yuan" in 1271, and ruled Yuan China until his death in 1294. Kublai was the second son of Tolui by his chief wife Sorghaghtani Beki , and a grandson of Genghis Khan . He was almost 12 when Genghis Khan died in 1227. He had succeeded his older brother Möngke as Khagan in 1260, but had to defeat his younger brother Ariq Böke in the Toluid Civil War lasting until 1264. This episode marked
16014-504: The ease of the Mongol advance against their strong fortifications, the Song agreed to supply guides. This time Subutai was able to outmaneuver the Jin armies and cross the Han River to invade Henan from the south. The main Jin army promptly marched to intercept Subutai's army at Mount Yu. Its commander, Wan Yen Heda attempted to ambush the Mongols, but the ambush was detected. In turn, the Mongols attempted to draw him into their own ambush with
16171-464: The east and Abagha in the west. Meanwhile, Mentemu avoided any direct military expedition against Kublai's realm. The Golden Horde promised Kublai their assistance to defeat Kaidu whom Mentemu called the rebel. This was apparently due to the conflict between Kaidu and Mentemu over the agreement they made at the Talas kurultai. The armies of Mongol Persia defeated Baraq's invading forces in 1269. When Baraq died
16328-603: The eastern part of the Yuan dynasty. After Kublai's grandson Buqa-Temür crushed the resistance of the Drikung Kagyu , killing 10,000 Tibetans in 1291, Tibet was fully pacified. Kublai Khan invaded Goryeo on the Korean Peninsula and made it a tributary vassal state in 1260. After another Mongol intervention in 1273, Goryeo came under even tighter control of the Yuan. Goryeo became a Mongol military base, and several myriarchy commands were established there. The court of
16485-520: The emperor's station. Despite this close family association, some consider Subutai's career proof that the Mongol Empire was a meritocracy . He was a commoner by birth, the son of Jarchigudai, who was supposedly a blacksmith . When he was 14 years old, Subutai left his clan to join Temujin's army, following in the footsteps of his older brother Jelme who had joined when he was 17 years old, and he rose to
16642-673: The empire, notably the Italian explorer Marco Polo in the 1270s, who was appointed to serve as Khan's foreign emissary throughout the empire and lived in the emperor's lands for 17 years. During the Southern Song, the descendant of Confucius at Qufu , Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to Quzhou , while the newly established Jin dynasty (1115–1234) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng. From that time up until
16799-466: The example of the Mongols under Genghis and Subutai to demonstrate how a mechanized army could fight using the principles of mobility, dispersion and surprise. Due to his innovative battle tactics and novelty in strategy he is a source of inspiration for later generals. In particular, Erwin Rommel and George Patton were avid students of Mongol campaigns. Russia derived the most use out of a careful study of
16956-424: The expansion of the Mongol Empire , the largest contiguous empire in human history . He often gained victory by means of sophisticated strategies and routinely coordinated movements of armies that operated hundreds of kilometers apart from each other. Subutai is regarded by many as the single greatest military commander in history, instrumental in the conquests of Genghis and Ögedei Khan. Historians believe Subutai
17113-518: The feud between them came to open war. The new Khagan placed Subutai in charge, at the age of 71, of the campaign against the Song dynasty for 1246–1247. The papal envoy Plano Carpini saw him when he was in Karakorum , Mongolia. He said Subutai was well respected among the Mongols and called him a Knight/Valiant/Hero (translation of Baghatur). Subutai returned to Mongolia from the Song campaign in 1248 and spent
17270-511: The first major independent exploit mentioned in the sources. Genghis Khan is reported to have called him one of his "dogs of war," who were 4 of his 8 top lieutenants, in The Secret History of the Mongols : They are the Four Dogs of Temujin. They have foreheads of brass, their jaws are like scissors, their tongues like piercing awls, their heads are iron, their whipping tails swords . . . In
17427-405: The following day. This was met with fierce resistance, so catapults were used to clear the opposite bank of crossbowmen, as was noted earlier. Meanwhile, Subutai in secret created a pontoon bridge to the south, where the river was too deep to be forded, and crossed the river in secret with a large force. When the crossing was completed, the second contingent attacked from the south, and a third from
17584-541: The following year. His summer capital was in Shangdu ( Chinese : 上都 ; lit. 'Upper Capital', also called Xanadu, near what today is Dolon Nor ). To unify China, Kublai began a massive offensive against the remnants of the Southern Song in 1274 and finally destroyed the Song in 1279, unifying the country at last at the Battle of Yamen where the last Song Emperor Zhao Bing committed suicide by jumping into
17741-406: The fortified Tongguan Pass and block any access to the Jin stronghold of Henan. They calculated that the scorched earth policies would deny the Mongols the ability to sustain a lengthy siege, and their lines of fortifications and difficult terrain would prevent the Mongols from outmaneuvering them. At the Battle of Daohuigu , Subutai initially attempted to outflank the Jin by feinting an attack at
17898-405: The fortified location of Weizhou and maneuvering through an unguarded side corridor. Though the Jin were fooled by the feint, they moved with great alacrity once Subutai's main advance was discovered, and the attempt to break into the plains of Henan ended in failure after Subutai's advanced raiding parties were checked at Shan-ch’e-hui. The Mongols defeated a relieving force and captured Fengxiang,
18055-488: The fourth brother, the Il-Khan Hulagu , opposed this. Kublai's ethnic Han staff encouraged Kublai to ascend the throne, and almost all the senior princes in northern China and Manchuria supported his candidacy. Upon returning to his own territories, Kublai summoned his own kurultai. Fewer members of the royal family supported Kublai's claims to the title, though the small number of attendees included representatives of all
18212-637: The hated Merkits and their allies, the Cuman-Kipchak confederation , in modern-day central Kazakhstan. Subutai defeated them on the Chu River in 1217 and again in 1219 in Wild Kipchak territory. Before the battle of the Chem River in 1219, Subutai had his vanguard carry children's toys and leave them behind, as if they were a group of families fleeing from the Merkit. As a result of this deception, Subutai's army
18369-581: The head of his pacification commission in 1254. Some officials, who were jealous of Kublai's success, said that he was getting above himself and dreaming of having his own empire by competing with Möngke's capital Karakorum . Möngke Khan sent two tax inspectors, Alamdar (Ariq Böke's close friend and governor in North China) and Liu Taiping, to audit Kublai's officials in 1257. They found fault, listed 142 breaches of regulations, accused Han officials and executed some of them, and Kublai's new pacification commission
18526-468: The introduction of paper currency caused inflation. From 1273 to 1276, the war against the Southern Song dynasty and Japan made the issue of paper currency expand from 110,000 ding to 1,420,000 ding. Within Kublai's court, his most trusted governors and advisers appointed by meritocracy with the essence of multiculturalism were Mongol, Semu , Korean, Hui, and Han peoples. Because the Wokou extended support to
18683-654: The knowledge of Yuan dynasty rulers and merchants. Muslim physicians organized hospitals and had their institutes of Medicine in Beijing and Shangdu . In Beijing was the renown Guang Hui Si "Department of extensive mercy", where Hui medicine and surgery were taught. Avicenna 's works were also published in China during that period. Muslim mathematicians introduced Euclidean Geometry , Spherical trigonometry and Arabic numerals in China. Kublai brought siege engineers Ismail and Al al-Din to China, and together they invented
18840-522: The leading Buddhist monk in northern China, to his ordo in Mongolia. When he met Haiyun in Karakorum in 1242, Kublai asked him about the philosophy of Buddhism. Haiyun named Kublai's son, who was born in 1243, Zhenjin (Chinese: True Gold ). Haiyun also introduced Kublai to the formerly Daoist (Taoist) , and at the time Buddhist monk, Liu Bingzhong. Liu was a painter, calligrapher, poet, and mathematician, and he became Kublai's advisor when Haiyun returned to his temple in modern Beijing. Kublai soon added
18997-524: The main Mongol army against the Jin (in Central China ) and appointed Subutai to salvage the situation. Subutai had originally been assigned to conquer the Kipchak Turks in central Russia in 1229, but was hurriedly recalled to China in 1229–1230 after the Mongol general Doqolqu suffered a major defeat . Against Subutai, the Jin generals retreated from Shaanxi and implemented a scorched earth policy to hold
19154-481: The naval techniques of the Han people allowed the Yuan army to quickly conquer the Song. In 1285 the Drikung Kagyu sect revolted , attacking Sakya monasteries . The Chagatayid Khan, Duwa , helped the rebels, laying siege to Gaochang and defeating Kublai's garrisons in the Tarim Basin . Kaidu destroyed an army at Beshbalik and occupied the city the following year. Many Uyghurs abandoned Kashgar for safer bases back in
19311-556: The need to conquer Novgorod when the principality surrendered, agreed to pay tribute in the future, and gave the Mongols a large bribe. The most notable encounter of the campaign was the battle of the Sit River in 1238. The Grand Duke Yuri of Vladimir, the most prominent of the Rus' leaders, had left Vladimir to raise an army and defeat the Mongols before they reached his city. However, the Mongols evaded his army and captured Vladimir before he even knew what had happened. When Yuri sent out
19468-410: The next year, Kaidu took control of the Chagatai Khanate and recovered his alliance with Mentemu. Meanwhile, Kublai tried to stabilize his control over the Korean Peninsula by mobilizing another Mongol invasion after he enthroned Wonjong of Goryeo (r. 1260–1274) in 1259 on Ganghwado . Kublai also forced two rulers of the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate to call a truce with each other in 1270 despite
19625-621: The north side of the Caspian Sea. Bachman had ensconced himself on an island, and taunted the Mongols. However, they constructed a mini-navy of 200 boats, trapped Bachman within a limited area, and gradually closed the 'net'. Unlike in 1222–23 when the majority of the Rus' states allied against Subutai and Jebe, this time the Mongols apparently struck with such speed that the Rus' were either too paralyzed, or possibly too bitter or distracted to ally. In late 1237, Subutai attacked Ryazan and Vladimir-Suzdal , operating with three columns (attacking as
19782-566: The north. The threat of now reassembled Mongol force, enveloping the Hungarian army on the far side of the Sajo river, forced the Hungarians to retreat into their wagon laager camp, a traditional tool of fighting against nomadic armies. However, the Mongols surrounded the fortified Hungarian camp, and bombarded it with trebuchets, gunpowder weapons, and flaming arrows. Hungarian cavalry charges were lured further away from their camp and encircled. The result
19939-480: The old Mongol living traditions, and as his reign continued, these traditions would clash increasingly frequently with traditional Chinese economic and social culture. Kublai decreed that partner merchants of the Mongols should be subject to taxes in 1262 and set up the Office of Market Taxes to supervise them in 1268. After the Mongol conquest of the Song, the Muslim, Uighur and Chinese merchants expanded their operations to
20096-445: The other Jin armies holding the other fronts at the battles of Yangyi (24 February 1232), and T’iehling (1 March 1232). The heavily fortified city of Kaifeng required an eight month long siege. Subutai was forced to construct lines of circumvallation that had a perimeter stretching 87 km (54 mi). Additionally, the Jin began to employ a cutting edge gunpowder weapon called "Thunder Crash Bombs", which made it very difficult for
20253-480: The peasantry was attempted, but it never really got off the ground, perhaps in part due to the flat open plains of central Hungary allowing scant opportunity for ambush or withdrawal. After the defeat of the Hungarians at Mohi, Subutai used a stolen royal seal to issue bogus decrees across the country, leaving many unassuming inhabitants at his mercy. In order to keep the pressure on Bela, Subutai split his forces into several detachments. A light cavalry force under Kadan
20410-445: The relentless chase meant he could not rally his forces. As a result, the several hundred thousand man Khwarezm forces in reserve remained divided and were easily destroyed piecemeal by Genghis Khan's main army. Drained by the fierce pursuit, Mohammed fell ill and died at a fishing village on an island in the Caspian Sea in early 1221, an ignominious end for the man who styled himself the 'Second Alexander'. Subutai and Jebe spent part of
20567-566: The remainder of his life at his home in the vicinity of the Tuul River (near modern Ulaanbaatar ), dying there at the age of 72. A folk legend claimed that Subutai wished to die by his son Uriyangkhadai by the banks of the Danube river . Subutai's descendants such as Uriyangkhadai and Aju would serve the Great Khans for the next three decades as commanders. Uriyangkhadai would successfully conquer
20724-399: The rest of Yunnan. Duan Xingzhi, the last king of Dali, was appointed by Möngke Khan as the first tusi or local ruler; Duan accepted the stationing of a pacification commissioner there. After Kublai's departure, unrest broke out among certain factions. In 1255 and 1256, Duan Xingzhi was presented at court, where he offered Möngke Khan maps of Yunnan and counsels about the vanquishing of
20881-489: The river would take time, and Batu had launched his attack preemptively. In the end Batu apologized to Subutai. This was not the first time that Subutai had to bail Batu out of a mistake: during the invasion of Russia, Batu had struggled for weeks to conquer the fortress of Torzhok , launching several failed assaults. Subutai had to divert his movements, take command, and conquered the fortress in three days with ease. Either at this feast or another one shortly after, Batu got into
21038-504: The sea and ending the Song dynasty . Most of the Yuan domains were administered as provinces, also translated as the "Branch Secretariat", each with a governor and vice-governor. This included China proper , Manchuria , Mongolia , and a special Zhendong branch Secretariat that extended into the Korean Peninsula. The Central Region ( Chinese : 腹裏 ) was separate from the rest, consisting of much of present-day North China . It
21195-457: The smaller Mongol army in Poland had won the Battle of Legnica , Subutai launched his attack, thus beginning the Battle of Mohi during the night of 10 April 1241. At Mohi, the Mongols fixated the Hungarian attention in the center by assaulting the lone bridge and attempting to ford to the north and around the bridge. The main body began to cross the Sajo by the bridge at Mohi, and continued to attack
21352-425: The southern front, Kublai attempted a diplomatic resolution and sent envoys to Hangzhou , but Jia broke his promise and arrested them. Kublai sent Abishqa as new khan to the Chagatai Khanate . Ariq Böke captured Abishqa, two other princes, and 100 men, and he had his own man, Alghu , crowned khan of Chagatai 's territory. In the first armed clash between Ariq Böke and Kublai, Ariq Böke lost and his commander Alamdar
21509-505: The summer of 1234 during Subutai's absence. Subutai returned, destroyed the three Song armies by isolating and defeating them, and retook the cities. He then made a preemptive raid into Song territory to force them to adopt a defensive position. Though war had begun between the Mongols and Song, Subutai was recalled to the west. Still, Subutai's victories had taught the Song a lesson they would heed: no Song army would dare venture north to attack Mongol territory afterward. Ögedei decided to send
21666-524: The throne. Möngke dismissed Mahmud Yalavach, which met with resistance from Han Confucian-trained officials. In 1253, Kublai was ordered to attack Yunnan and he tried to ask the Dali Kingdom to submit. The ruling Gao family resisted and killed Mongol envoys . The Mongols divided their forces into three. One wing rode eastward into the Sichuan basin. The second column under Subutai's son Uryankhadai took
21823-543: The tribes who had not yet surrendered. Duan then led a considerable army to serve as guides and vanguards for the Mongol army. By the end of 1256, Uryankhadai had completely pacified Yunnan . Kublai was attracted by the abilities of Tibetan monks as healers. In 1253 he made Drogön Chögyal Phagpa of the Sakya school, a member of his entourage. Phagpa bestowed on Kublai and his wife, Chabi (Chabui), an empowerment (initiation ritual). Kublai appointed Lian Xixian (1231–1280)
21980-402: The very highest command available to one who was not a blood relative to Genghis. Within a decade he rose to become a general, in command of one of 4 tumens operating in the vanguard. During the invasion of Northern China in 1211, Subutai was partnered with the senior Mongol general Jebe, an apprentice and partnership they would maintain until Jebe's death in 1223. In 1212 he took Huan by storm,
22137-539: The west and joined with Genghis's main army to conquer the east. In 1227, he conquered the Jin districts along the upper Wei River , and even raided the Kingdom of Tibet. Though the Mongols conquered Xi Xia, Mongol operations against Jin China were interrupted by the death of Genghis Khan in 1227. Genghis Khan was succeeded by his son Ögedei in 1229. After a humiliating defeat by the resurgent Jin in 1230–1231, Ögedei personally led
22294-461: The wind." This access enabled him to listen on, and later join, the Mongol strategy meetings somewhere around his late teens and early twenties. Throughout most of Genghis Khan's lifetime, Subutai would have the opportunity to apprentice on detached missions under the elite Jebe (1211–12, 1213–14, 1219–23) and Muqali (1213–14), in addition to Genghis Khan himself (1219). Subutai's first chance at independent command came in 1197 during action against
22451-577: Was 12. Kublai's father Tolui would serve as regent for two years until Genghis' successor, Kublai's third uncle Ogedei , was enthroned as Khagan in 1229. After the Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty , in 1236, Ogedei gave Hebei (attached with 80,000 households) to the family of Tolui, who died in 1232. Kublai received an estate of his own, which included 10,000 households. Because he was inexperienced, Kublai allowed local officials free rein. Corruption amongst his officials and aggressive taxation caused large numbers of ethnic Han peasants to flee, which led to
22608-531: Was a five-pronged attack. Kaidu and Orda Khan ravaged Northern Poland, Baidar Southern Poland, while Shiban attacked through the rugged terrain in northeastern Hungary, Subutai and Batu invaded central Hungary, and Guyuk marched south through Transylvania. The Mongols dispersed their forces in order to confuse the Europeans as to their ultimate objectives, and defeat the European armies piecemeal before they could mass into
22765-634: Was able to surprise, encircle, and capture all of the Merkit/Kipchak leadership. Mohammed II of Khwarizm attacked Subutai shortly afterwards along the Irghiz River . Despite being outnumbered three to one against the Sultan's elite forces which had conquered much of Central Asia, Subutai held him off after a fierce battle and retreated during the night. According to Persian sources, this battle seems to have eroded Mohammed's confidence in his ability to defeat
22922-495: Was abolished. Kublai sent a two-man embassy with his wives and then appealed in person to Möngke , who publicly forgave his younger brother and reconciled with him. The Daoists had obtained their wealth and status by seizing Buddhist temples . Möngke repeatedly demanded that the Daoists cease their denigration of Buddhism and ordered Kublai to end the clerical strife between the Daoists and Buddhists in his territory. Kublai called
23079-608: Was also strictly forbidden. Thirty Muslims served as high officials in the court of Kublai Khan. Eight of the dynasty's twelve administrative districts had Muslim governors appointed by Kublai Khan. Among the Muslim governors was Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar , who became administrator of Yunnan . He was a well-learned man in the Confucian and Daoist traditions and is believed to have propagated Islam in China . Other administrators were Nasr al-Din (Yunnan) and Mahmud Yalavach (mayor of
23236-482: Was an uprising in the old capital Karakorum that he barely contained. Kublai's actions were condemned by traditionalists and his critics still accused him of being too closely tied to Han Chinese culture. They sent a message to him: "The old customs of our Empire are not those of the Han Chinese laws ... What will happen to the old customs?" Kaidu attracted the other elites of Mongol Khanates, declaring himself to be
23393-569: Was born in the year 1175, probably just west of the upper Onon River in what is now Mongolia . Some historical accounts claim that he belonged to the Uriankhai clan. As a member of the reindeer people, according to these accounts, Subutai lacked the natural horsemanship training from birth that all Mongols possessed, making him an outsider among them. However, recent scholarship has discounted this earlier narrative. Stephen Pow and Jingjing Liao note that "...the sense of irony conjured by imagining that
23550-539: Was complete panic; and to ensure that the Hungarians did not fight to the last man, the Mongols left an obvious gap in their encirclement. This was one of Subutai's classic tricks, to create a tactical situation which appeared to be favourable to the enemy. Subutai did not want a battle where the massed crossbowmen, supported by mounted knights, stood firm and fought to the death against his army. He far preferred to let them flee and be slaughtered individually. The apparent gap in
23707-563: Was considered the most important region of the dynasty and was directly governed by the Zhongshu Sheng at Dadu. Tibet was governed by another top-level administrative department called the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs . Kublai promoted economic growth by rebuilding the Grand Canal , repairing public buildings, and extending highways. However, his domestic policy included some aspects of
23864-501: Was formerly used in Mongolia , China , and Russia . It is a standardized written language used in the 18th century and 20th centuries. Classical Mongolian sometimes refers to any language documents in Mongolian script that are neither Pre-classical (i.e. Middle Mongol in the Mongolian script ) nor modern Mongolian . This article about a Mongolic language or related topic
24021-423: Was in a position to look beyond China. However, Kublai's costly invasions of Vietnam (1258) , Sakhalin (1264) , Burma (1277) , Champa (1282) , and Vietnam again (1285) secured only the vassal status of those countries. Mongol invasions of Japan (1274 and 1281), the third invasion of Vietnam (1287–88) , and the invasion of Java (1293) failed. At the same time, Kublai's nephew Ilkhan Abagha tried to form
24178-598: Was killed at the battle. In revenge, Ariq Böke had Abishqa executed. Kublai cut off supplies of food to Karakorum with the support of his cousin Kadan , son of Ögedei Khan . Karakorum quickly fell to Kublai's large army, but following Kublai's departure it was temporarily re-taken by Ariq Böke in 1261. Yizhou governor Li Tan revolted against Mongol rule in February 1262, and Kublai ordered his Chancellor Shi Tianze and Shi Shu to attack Li Tan. The two armies crushed Li Tan's revolt in just
24335-554: Was later noted that corpses littered the countryside over the space of a two-day journey. Two archbishops and three bishops were killed at the Sajo, plus more than 10,000 fighting men. In one stroke, the bulk of Hungarian fighting men were totally destroyed, but Mongol casualties in the center had been higher than normal: in addition to anywhere from many hundreds to many thousands of regular soldiers, Batu lost 30 of his 4,000 strong ba'aaturs (heavily armored bodyguards) and one of his lieutenants (Bagatu/Bakatu), which caused tension later in
24492-402: Was planned and carried out by Subutai, who achieved his lasting fame with his victories there. Having devastated the various Russian principalities, he sent spies as far as Poland, Hungary, and Austria in preparation for an attack into the heartland of Europe. Having a clear picture of the European kingdoms, he brilliantly prepared an attack nominally commanded by Batu Khan and two other princes of
24649-434: Was sent to chase King Bela along the Adriatic Coast , while the main army with its siege engines under Subutai and Batu attempted to pacify Hungary proper. Other Mongol forces raided outside the borders of Hungary, even reaching Austria before being repulsed in a skirmish near Wiener Neustadt. The Mongols successfully besieged several cities, including the fortified city at Oradea , the castle of St. Martin of Pannonia , and
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