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126-492: For thousands of years the area that is today known as Steveston was home to the Halq’eméylem speaking peoples. Specifically, the area is said to be home to at least two Musqueam villages. One known as qʷeyaʔχʷ was located East of what is today known as Garry Point Park . This community was forced out of their homes due to pressure from the canneries who would replace their homes with fishing camps. The second village, qʷɬeyəm,

252-551: A "defence measure". On January 14, 1942, the federal government issued an order calling for the removal of male Japanese nationals between 18 and 45 years of age from a designated protected area of 100 miles (160 km) inland from the British Columbia Coast . The federal government also enacted a ban against Japanese-Canadian fishing during the war, banned shortwave radios, and controlled the sale of gasoline and dynamite to Japanese Canadians. Japanese nationals removed from

378-564: A "prominent banker of Vancouver" and a "manager of some of the largest lumbering companies in British Columbia". They saw Japanese Canadians as being important partners in helping to open Japanese markets to businesses in British Columbia. Despite the work of organizations like the Japan Society, many groups still opposed Japanese immigration to Canada, especially in BC's fishing industry during

504-536: A Steveston landmark, is currently located adjacent to the Steveston Community Centre. Along with Richmond, Steveston transformed from farmland to residential housing. Since the 1970s, the community, which remains an active fishing port, has enhanced its heritage character and waterfront to attract business and tourism. Garry Point, at the southwest tip of the community (and Lulu Island ), was named in 1827 to honour Nicholas Garry, former Deputy Governor of

630-422: A cased Latin alphabet with modifier apostrophes , letter colon for both vowel length and geminate consonants, and the special letters Ō and X̱ . The vowel letters are a for /e/ , e for /ə/ , o for /a/ , and ō for /o/ . Sh is /s/ before xw , and is found in a few English and French loans. Using the letter a as a carrier, á marks high tone, à mid tone, and a low tone. The Cowichan use

756-512: A cased Latin alphabet with modifier apostrophes and doubled letters for vowel length. Ou is used for the long [u] sound in French loanwords, and u is used for schwa. The alphabet includes the tetragraph tthʼ . The Musqueam Band language department collaborated with the University of British Columbia to create a typeface called Whitney Salishan that displays all the characters correctly. Like

882-506: A desire to become Canadian. These arguments reinforced the idea that the Japanese remained strictly loyal to Japan. The situation was exacerbated when, in 1907, the United States began prohibiting Japanese immigrants from accessing the mainland US through Hawaii, resulting in a massive influx (over 7,000 as compared to 2,042 in 1906) of Japanese immigrants into British Columbia. Largely as

1008-512: A dining/recreational area of the Star Cannery. In 1897, this same cannery suffered the first significant fire in Steveston, requiring extensive rebuilding. Steveston's aspirations to rival Vancouver as a port ended during World War I . Salmon runs peaking in 1913 was one of many factors. Canning activity slowly declined and finally ceased in the 1990s. The Gulf of Georgia Cannery , built in 1894

1134-505: A few of these verb roots, this aspect can appear in both a progressive and in a perfective form. The majority of verbs have a resultative form which is adjective-like and does not carry a progressive-perfective distinction. The plural can be optionally marked in all of these forms. The diminutive is also marked, optionally, in only the progressive and resultative aspects. It is possible to internally modify noun roots in Halkomelem for

1260-813: A former internee, attested to the "intense cold during the winter" and her only source of heat was from a "pot-bellied stove" within the stable. General conditions were poor enough that the Red Cross transferred fundamental food shipments from civilians affected by the war to the internees. Some internees spoke out against their conditions, often complaining to the British Columbia Security Commission directly whenever possible. In one incident, 15 men who had been separated from their families and put to work in Slocan Valley protested by refusing to work for four days straight. Despite attempts at negotiation,

1386-423: A full vowel and one or more schwas, the stress is placed on the full vowel. Again, there are exceptions to this pattern, such as in words with a final glottal stop that cannot be preceded by schwa (e.g. as in nə́cʼaʔ "one"). Although minimal pairs contrasting stress are rare, they do exist in the language. The primary stress of a verb root consisting of a resonant, a schwa, and an obstruent followed by

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1512-499: A group of Nisei refused to be shipped out and so were sent to prisoner-of-war camps in Ontario to be detained. The Nisei Mass Evacuation Group was formed to protest family break-ups and lobbied government organizations on the topic. However, their attempts were ignored and members of the group began going underground, preferring to be interned or sent to Ontario rather than join labour groups. By July 1942, after strikes occurred within

1638-635: A growing population. On sunny days, locals and visitors crowd the waterfront boardwalks to enjoy the scenery, people and food. Steveston is also known as "The Gateway to the Orca," being a base for the whale watching industry. Shuttled by boat into the Gulf of Georgia , passengers observe orca (killer whales), seals, eagles and more. On Canada Day , the community hosts the Steveston Salmon Festival, which has been held annually since 1946. This event includes

1764-583: A large part of Steveston's original population. Tomekichi Homma , who settled in Steveston in 1883, was one of the important early members of the Japanese community in the village. Homma Elementary School in Steveston was named in his honour. Around 1897, the Fraser River Japanese Fishermen’s Association Hospital in Steveston was established since the local hospital refused to admit and treat Japanese immigrant patients. The Japanese Canadian internment during World War II

1890-552: A logging operation at Devine (near D'Arcy in the Gates Valley ), which was in the protected zone but without road access to the coast. Japanese-Canadians interned in Lillooet Country found employment within farms, stores, and the railway . The Liberal government also deported able-bodied Japanese-Canadian labourers to camps near fields and orchards, such as BC's Okanagan Valley . The Japanese-Canadian labourers were used as

2016-590: A lot to Steveston's Japanese Canadian fishermen for the purposes of building a joint community centre (which eventually became the Steveston Community Centre); the terms of the agreement also stated that the Japanese Fishermen Benevolent Association be allowed to have a judo room at the centre. In 1969, community discussion led to the development of a Japanese-style martial arts building for Steveston. The martial arts centre, now

2142-470: A new demand for soldiers and an increased need for domestic labour, which meant that the recruitment of minorities was reconsidered. Under this new policy, Japanese Canadians were able to enlist individually by travelling elsewhere in Canada where their presence was deemed less of a threat. By the end of World War I, 185 Japanese Canadians served overseas in 11 different battalions. During World War II , some of

2268-404: A number of Halkomelem affixes mix these categories. Suttles (2004) identifies the following classes of suffixes and prefixes; a sampling of these affixes follow. The following table lists the possessive affixes which appear in attributive possessive structures in Halkomelem. Possession is marked either on the possessed noun (the head) or the word preceding it through these affixes. Together with

2394-426: A parade, and a huge barbecued salmon sale beside the Steveston Community Centre. Municipal, provincial and federal politicians often attend, usually as part of the parade and/or to hand out Canadian flags. Seafair is a neighbourhood and planning area in the city of Richmond , British Columbia . It is often loosely grouped in with Steveston due to loose definition of the neighbourhood's borders. Its commercial centre

2520-588: A patriarchal structure, meaning the husband was the centre of the family. Since husbands were often separated from their families, wives were left to reconfigure the structure of the family and the long-established divisions of labour that were so common in the Japanese-Canadian household. Oftentimes after internment, families could not be reunited. Many mothers were left with children, but no husband. Furthermore, communities were impossible to rebuild. The lack of community led to an even more intensified gap between

2646-479: A price"). Predicate heads can also be words that are definable morphologically. This includes verbs (e.g. ném "go"), adjectives (e.g. θí "big"), nouns (e.g. swə́yʼqeʔ "man"), members of the closed sets of personal words (see the following section), and interrogative words (e.g. stém "what"). Japanese Canadian internment From 1942 to 1949, Canada forcibly relocated and incarcerated over 22,000 Japanese Canadians —comprising over 90% of

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2772-519: A result, on August 12 that year, a group of Vancouver labourers formed an anti-Asiatic league, known as the Asiatic Exclusion League , with its membership numbering "over five hundred". On September 7, some 5,000 people marched on Vancouver City Hall in support of the League, where they had arranged a meeting with presentations from both local and American speakers. By the time of the meeting, it

2898-461: A solution to a shortage of farm workers. This obliterated any Japanese competition in the fishing sector. During the 1940s, the Canadian government created policies to direct Chinese, Japanese, and First Nations into farming, and other sectors of the economy that "other groups were abandoning for more lucrative employment elsewhere." In early March 1942, all ethnic Japanese people were ordered out of

3024-562: A stressed vowel, but it cannot occur between a stressed and an unstressed vowel. Certain processes affect the realization of underlying sounds in Halkomelem. Alternations that occur fairly commonly are discussed in this section, rather than in the following section on morphology . In 1997, the Musqueam First Nation officially adopted the Americanist phonetic alphabet . This alphabet does not use upper-case letters. The Stó꞉lō use

3150-534: A threat to national security, including select senior officials of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP), Royal Canadian Navy , and Department of Labour and Fisheries . Notable individuals on the side of the Japanese Canadians included Hugh Llewellyn Keenleyside , Assistant Under-Secretary at External Affairs during the internment of Japanese Canadians. Sunahara argues that Keenleyside

3276-410: A verbalizing affix. Complex adjectives are formed from adjective roots and lexical suffixes. Halkomelem contains prefixes , suffixes , and infixes . All infixes of the language have been described in the preceding sections. Affixes are typically divisible into inflectional or derivational and grammatical or lexical categories, depending on their involvement in paradigms and meaning, however,

3402-587: Is Seafair Plaza. 49°07′39″N 123°10′53″W  /  49.12750°N 123.18139°W  / 49.12750; -123.18139  ( Steveston ) Halkomelem Halkomelem ( / ˌ h ɒ l k ə ˈ m eɪ l ə m / ; Halq̓eméylem in the Upriver dialect, Hul̓q̓umín̓um̓ in the Island dialect, and hən̓q̓əmin̓əm̓ in the Downriver dialect) is a language of various First Nations peoples of

3528-430: Is a key feature of Island speech). As is the case with many other phonological features, Downriver Halkomelem stands as a link between the other dialect areas, and it is possible that its speakers vary depending on Island or Upriver influence. Other differences between dialects include: Island and Downriver have both /n/ and /l/, while Upriver has merged these as /l/. Upriver Halkomelem lacks the post-vocalic glottal stops of

3654-571: Is a member of the Central Salish branch. There are four other branches of the family: Tsamosan, Interior Salish, Bella Coola, and Tillamook. Speakers of the Central and Tsamosan languages are often identified in ethnographic literature as " Coast Salish ". The word Halkomelem is an anglicization of the name Halq̓eméylem . The language has three distinct dialect groups: The language differences (namely, in phonology and lexicon) are greatest between

3780-420: Is a single phoneme /Rˀ/ that is realized in three distinct ways. In preferring the latter explanation, Suttles holds that there may be five glottalized resonant phonemes in the dialect, although Downriver speakers glottalize resonants very lightly, making them difficult to detect. In most Upriver dialects, glottalized resonants do not exist, while in Island dialects, they are more sharply articulated ( tenseness

3906-430: Is actually a falling pitch; this seems to be characteristic of the last stressed syllable of a phrase in the language. Additional analyses of the sentential intonation patterns are needed. All obstruents (except the glottals) typically follow one another in sequences of up to four, although a sequence of five is also possible (e.g. as in txʷstx̌ʷásʔal "just standing in shock"). There are no specific restrictions on

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4032-402: Is also a set of possessive affixes (prefixes for first and second person singular, suffixes for first-person plural and third person, and a combination of prefix and suffix for second-person plural). This system will be covered, in detail, in the "Syntax" section. Derivational prefixes and suffixes form an inner layer around the word root, while inflectional affixes form an outer layer around

4158-424: Is believed to have been located North of Moncton Street near Railway Avenue. Today, Musqueam's presence in the history of what is today known as Steveston is heavily underrepresented. As Musqueam Councillor Howard Grant explains, there is "almost nothing (in the area) with respect to Musqueam people... or First Nations in general." Richmond is currently working to change this as, "recently, city council voted to rebuild

4284-406: Is low and central to back, often close to [ɑ] . The /u/ is high, back, and rounded, realized somewhere between low [u] or high [o] . When stressed, the schwa /ə/ appears in most environments as a mid-central, but it is fronted and raised before /x/, approaching [ɪ] ; before /j/ it is also fronted, approaching [ɛ] ; before /w/ it is lower and back, approaching [ɑ] ; and before rounded velars it

4410-567: Is mid-back, close to [o] . Unstressed /ə/ can be as high as [ɪ] before /x/ and /j/, and before labialized velars it is realized as [o] or [ʊ] . This phoneme can also be assimilated to a stressed /e/ or a stressed /a/ in an adjacent syllable, by vowel harmony. The plain plosives are less aspirate before vowels than in English, but they are more aspirate finally. Although the glottalized plosives are ejectives , they are not usually strongly released. Suttles (2004) makes several interesting notes on

4536-523: Is non-existent in the language, although some scholars believe to have found a few possible examples. The majority of verb roots have the shapes CAC, CəC, CəCC, while noun roots typically have the shape CVCVC (V is any vowel). The most common shapes of adjective roots are CəC and CAC. There is a prefix that nominalizes verbs and adjectives, and there are several prefixes that make verbs out of nouns. Additionally, there are several ways to make adjective-like words from nouns. Processes of internal modification of

4662-413: Is one vowel with primary stress in every full word, however, its occurrence is not completely predictable. In uninflected words with more than one vowel , the primary stress usually falls on the first vowel (e.g. as in céləx "hand" and léləmʼ "house"). There are exceptions to this general pattern (e.g. as in xəmén "enemy"). As shown by the preceding example, if the word contains both

4788-429: Is produced when the apex of the tongue at the onset is in the position for the lateral release rather than for a /t/, and there is less friction produced than with other affricates. The phonemes /k/ and /kʼ/ occur in "baby talk" as substitutes for /q/ and /qʼ/. The uvular fricative x̌ [χ] is produced with a great deal of friction and/or uvular vibration, and it contrasts strongly with the velar fricative /x/. There

4914-457: Is variation in the extent to which Musqueam speakers glottalize resonants. Phonetically, there are glottalized resonants (e.g. [nˀ] ) and resonants preceded or followed by glottal stops (e.g. [ʔn nʔ] ), however, Suttles (2004) finds no instances of contrastive distribution among any of the three. He puts forth two explanations for these facts: that there are two sequences of phonemes, /Rʔ/ and /ʔR/, with overlapping [Rˀ] allophones, or that there

5040-461: Is written in the native orthography as ⟨ꞏ⟩ . All five vowel phonemes vary considerably phonetically. The phoneme /i/ has three distinct allophones. It is realized as [e] following unrounded uvulars. It is realized as [ɪ] with a central off-glide preceding both unrounded and rounded uvulars. Elsewhere, it is realized as low [i] or high [e] . The /e/ is realized as a low to mid-front vowel, usually between [ɛ] or high [æ] . The /a/

5166-597: The British Columbia Coast . It is spoken in what is now British Columbia , ranging from southeastern Vancouver Island from the west shore of Saanich Inlet northward beyond Gabriola Island and Nanaimo to Nanoose Bay and including the Lower Mainland from the Fraser River Delta upriver to Harrison Lake and the lower boundary of the Fraser Canyon . In the classification of Salishan languages , Halkomelem

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5292-632: The British Columbia Interior . The official policy stated that Japanese Canadians must move east of the Rocky Mountains or be deported to Japan following the end of the war. By 1947, many Japanese Canadians had been granted exemption to this enforced no-entry zone. Yet it was not until April 1, 1949, that Japanese Canadians were granted freedom of movement and could re-enter the "protected zone" along BC's coast. On September 22, 1988, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney delivered an apology, and

5418-494: The Canadian Forces . On the home front , many businesses began hiring groups that had been underrepresented in the workforce (including women, Japanese immigrants, and Yugoslavian and Italian refugees who had fled to Canada during the war) to help fill the increasing demands of Britain and its allies overseas. Businesses that had previously been opposed to doing so were now more than happy to hire Japanese Canadians as there

5544-680: The Canadian declaration of war on Japan during World War II . Similar to the actions taken against Japanese Americans in neighbouring United States, this forced relocation subjected many Japanese Canadians to government-enforced curfews and interrogations, job and property losses, and forced repatriation to Japan. From shortly after the December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor until 1949, Japanese Canadians were stripped of their homes and businesses, then sent to internment camps and farms in British Columbia as well as in some other parts of Canada, mostly towards

5670-551: The Governor General abolished the puller licence entirely despite Japanese-Canadian protests. This resulted in many younger Japanese Canadians being forced from the fishing industry, leaving Japanese-Canadian net men to fend for themselves. Later that year, in August, a change to the borders of fishing districts in the area resulted in the loss of licences for several Japanese-Canadian fishermen, who claimed they had not been informed of

5796-642: The Hudson's Bay Company . The company ships used this promontory as a navigational aid to safely enter the Fraser River . From the 1960s to the early 1990s, it was a federally-owned dump site for sand dredged from the river. Levelling the dunes created Steveston's largest park, opened in 1989. The site of the Steveston Fisherman's Memorial , the park was the major host location for the Vancouver-area festivities of

5922-469: The Kootenay Country in southeastern British Columbia. Leadership positions within the camps were only offered to Nisei , or Canadian-born citizens of Japanese origin, thereby excluding Issei , the original immigrants from Japan. The internment camps in the B.C. interior were often ghost towns with little infrastructure to support the influx of people. When Japanese Canadians began arriving in

6048-742: The League of Nations in 1933, ignored the naval ratio set up by the Washington Naval Conference of 1922, refused to follow the Second London Naval Treaty in 1936, and allied with Germany with the Anti-Comintern Pact . Because many Canadians believed that resident Japanese immigrants would always remain loyal to their home country, the Japanese in British Columbia, even those born and raised in Canada, were often judged for these militant actions taken by their ancestral home. When

6174-576: The Pacific War began, discrimination against Japanese Canadians increased. Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941, Japanese Canadians were all categorized, regardless of citizenship, as enemy aliens under the War Measures Act , yet the place of residency at the outbreak of the war significantly affected the removal of their personal rights. Starting on December 8, 1941, 1,200 Japanese-Canadian-owned fishing vessels were impounded as

6300-487: The University of California Press published American linguist Brent Galloway 's Dictionary of Upriver Halkomelem . A Halkomelem iPhone app was released in 2011. This was followed by an Android version was released in 2016. The app was developed by the FirstVoices website. There are 1754 words archived and 690 phrases archived on the FirstVoices website. As of 2014, 263 fluent speakers had been reported. In 2014,

6426-473: The interior . The internment in Canada included the theft, seizure, and sale of property belonging to this forcefully displaced population, which included fishing boats, motor vehicles, houses, farms, businesses, and personal belongings. Japanese Canadians were forced to use the proceeds of forced sales to pay for their basic needs during the internment. In August 1944, Prime Minister Mackenzie King announced that Japanese Canadians were to be moved east out of

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6552-457: The suffix /-t/ " transitive " can fall on either the root or the suffix, allowing for minimal pairs such as mə̀kʼʷət "salvage it" and məkʼʷə́t "finish it all." The secondary stress appears most often in words that are composed of a root that has retained its stress and a stressed suffix (e.g. as in cʼéwəθàmx "help me"). It may be the case, however, that the secondary stress recorded by Suttles (2004) in words like cʼéwəθàmx

6678-499: The 1920s and 1930s. Prior to the 1920s, many Japanese labourers were employed as pullers, a job that required them to help the net men row the boats out to fish. The job required no licence, so it was one of the few jobs for first-generation Japanese immigrants who were not Canadian citizens. In 1923, however, the government lifted a ban on the use of motorboats and required that pullers be licensed. This meant that first-generation immigrants, known as Issei , were unable to get jobs in

6804-415: The 1920s, other groups had begun to come forward to the defence of Japanese Canadians, such as the Japan Society. In contrast to rival groups' memberships consisting of mostly labourers, farmers, and fishermen, the Japan Society was primarily made up of wealthy white businessmen whose goal was to improve relations between the Japanese and Canadians both at home and abroad. The heads of the organization included

6930-500: The 2002 Tall Ships Challenge . Approximately 400,000 people came to see a fleet of restored sailing ships docked along the river. The financial loss incurred by the event prompted strong criticism from Richmond City Council. A maritime festival continues to be held annually. In 1990, the Steveston Harbour Authority was established. In 1998, the 44-acre BC Packers cannery site was rezoned residential in exchange for keeping

7056-579: The BC coast. Small numbers of military-age Japanese-Canadian men were permitted to serve in the Canadian Army in the Second World War as interpreters and in signal/intelligence units. By January 1945, several Japanese Canadian men were attached to British units in the Far East as interpreters and translators. In total, about 200 Canadian Nisei joined Canadian forces during World War II. Throughout

7182-513: The Canadian government announced a compensation package, one month after President Ronald Reagan made similar gestures in the United States following the internment of Japanese Americans . The package for interned Japanese Canadians included $ 21,000 to each surviving internee, and the reinstatement of Canadian citizenship to those who were deported to Japan. Following Mulroney's apology, the Japanese Canadian Redress Agreement

7308-694: The Canadian government issued order in council PC 1486, which allowed for the removal of "all persons of Japanese origin". This order in council granted the minister of justice the broad powers of removing people from any protected area in Canada, but was meant for Japanese Canadians on the Pacific coast in particular. On February 25, the federal government announced that Japanese Canadians were being moved for reasons of national security. In all, 27,000 people were detained without charge or trial, and their property confiscated. Others were deported to Japan. However, not all Canadians believed that Japanese Canadians posed

7434-580: The Island and Upriver dialects, with the Downriver dialect (especially the Tsawwassen First Nation) providing a central link between the other two. The diversity of the Halkomelem dialects is noted to be the result of complex social and economic forces and linguistic change, as many Island people crossed the Georgia Strait to camp along the Fraser River (in both the Downriver and Upriver areas) for

7560-559: The Japanese are an assimilable race." Bordering the Pacific Ocean, British Columbia was believed to be easily susceptible to enemy attacks from Japan. Even though both the RCMP and the Department of National Defence lacked proof of any sabotage or espionage, there were fears that Japanese Canadians supported Japan in the war. Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King , for example, agreed with

7686-585: The Musqueam obstruents . The labiodental fricative /f/ occurs in recent loans from English and their derivatives such as in káfi "coffee" and in číf "chief." The stops /t/ and /tʼ/ are articulated at a point slightly forward of that of the usual English /t d/, while the affricates c /ts/ and cʼ /tsʼ/ are somewhat more retracted than these same English /t d/. The affricate [d͡ʒ] has only been recorded in kinjáj "English people" and kinjájqən "English (language)." The glottalized lateral affricate /ƛʼ/ [tɬʼ]

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7812-546: The UK and the United States. Prime Minister King wrote in his diary daily for most of his life. These diary entries have provided historians with a sense of the thoughts and feelings King held during the war. Historian N.F. Dreisziger has written that, "though he undoubtedly considered himself a man of humanitarian outlook, he was a product of his times and shared the values of his fellow Canadians. He was—beyond doubt—an anti-Semite , and shouldered, more than any of his Cabinet colleagues,

7938-417: The alternate name of Salmonopolis . Each summer large numbers of Japanese, Chinese, First Nations, and European fishermen and cannery workers descended upon the village, joining a growing year-round settlement. At the port, sailing ships loaded canned salmon for export. The fishery also supported a significant boatbuilding industry. Steveston Fire Department existed 1912–1917. Otherwise, the closest firehall

8064-405: The appearance of affixes, possession also requires a structural component, in that the possessor of the head is found to the right of the head. The possessor is always preceded by a determiner, although depending on the noun class, it can also appear with an oblique case marker. If the possessor is a common noun, it will be introduced by a determiner, but without an oblique case marker. If, however,

8190-496: The armed forces, and, when the forced removal and internment of Japanese Canadians was underway, the conditions Japanese Canadians faced in internment camps. William Lyon Mackenzie King served his final term as prime minister between 1935 and 1948, at which point he retired from Canadian politics. He had served two previous terms as prime minister, but this period was perhaps his most well-known. His policies during this period included unemployment insurance and tariff agreements with

8316-448: The camp. Japanese-Canadian women and children faced a specific set of challenges that greatly affected their way of life and broke down the social and cultural norms that had developed. Whole families were taken from their homes and separated from each other. Husbands and wives were almost always separated when sent to camps and, less commonly, some mothers were separated from their children as well. Japanese-Canadian families typically had

8442-408: The change. While these events did result in reduced competition from Japanese Canadians in the fishing industry, it created further tensions elsewhere. Japanese Canadians had already been able to establish a secure position in many businesses during World War I, but their numbers had remained relatively small as many had remained in the fishing industry. As Japanese Canadians began to be pushed out of

8568-511: The coast after the January 14 order were sent to road camps around Jasper, Alberta .On February 19, 1942, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 , which called for the removal of 110,000 people of Japanese ancestry from the American coastline. Anne Sunahara , a historian of internment, argues that "the American action sealed the fate of Japanese Canadians." On February 24,

8694-505: The day." In 1919, 3,267 Japanese immigrants held fishing licences and 50% of the total licences issued that year were issued to Japanese fishermen. These numbers were alarming to European-descended Canadian fishermen who felt threatened by the growing number of Japanese competitors. While groups like the Asiatic Exclusion League and the White Canada Association viewed Japanese Canadians as cultural and economic threats, by

8820-514: The first time) their new husbands, became common after 1908. The influx of female immigrants—and soon after, Canadian-born children—shifted the population from a temporary workforce to a permanent presence, and Japanese-Canadian family groups settled throughout British Columbia and southern Alberta . Japan during World War I was an ally of the United Kingdom and opinions of Japanese Canadians improved slightly. Some Japanese Canadians enlisted in

8946-467: The first white settlers in the area. The townsite began in 1880 as a crown grant to William Herbert Steves, his son. During the following decade, over 100 individuals purchased land in this original section comprising a grid pattern of 237 small lots. Becoming Steveston in 1889, this area south of today's Steveston Highway and west of No. 1 Rd. was the first subdivision in Richmond. In 1887, London's Landing, at

9072-433: The fishing industry, they increasingly began to work on farms and in small businesses. This outward move into farming and business was viewed as more evidence of the economic threat Japanese Canadians posed towards white Canadians, leading to increased racial tension. In the years leading up to World War II , approximately 29,000 people of Japanese ancestry lived in British Columbia; 80% of these were Canadian nationals. At

9198-523: The fishing industry, which resulted in large–scale unemployment among these Issei . Second-generation Japanese Canadians, known as Nisei , and who were born in Canada, began entering the fishing industry at a younger age to compensate for this, but even they were hindered as the increased use of motorboats resulted in less need for pullers and only a small number of fishing licences were issued to Japanese Canadians. This situation escalated in May 1938, when

9324-494: The foot of No. 2 Rd., was also laid out on a grid. New Westminster - Vancouver Island ferries called at Steveston from the early 1860s onward, becoming a Steveston-Vancouver Island run in the 1920s. Salmon canning began on the river in 1871 with the first major cannery being the Phoenix, established in 1882 by Marshall English and Samuel Martin. By the 1890s there were 45 canneries, about half of which were at Steveston, giving rise to

9450-516: The generations. Children had no one with whom to speak Japanese outside the home and as a result they rarely learned the language fluently. This fracturing of community also led to a lack of Japanese cultural foundation and many children lost a strong connection with their culture. Mothers had also learned to be bolder in their own way and were now taking on wage-earning jobs, which meant that they had less time to teach their children about Japanese culture and traditions. The internment camps forever changed

9576-400: The groups were hindered in their attempt to assimilate due to the difficulty they had in finding steady work at equal wages. In reference to Japanese Canadians specifically, human geographer Audrey Kobayashi argues that prior to the war, racism "had defined their communities since the first immigrants arrived in the 1870s." Starting in 1877 with Manzo Nagano —a 19-year-old sailor who

9702-483: The historic First Nations Bunkhouse in Britannia Heritage Shipyards--believed to be the only structure of its kind remaining along B.C.'s coast." The village is named for Manoah Steves , who arrived with his family around 1877–1878 from Moncton , New Brunswick , via Chatham, Ontario . Born Manoah Steeves, a second cousin of William Steeves , he dropped the second 'e' en route. The family was

9828-487: The hopes of gaining previously denied citizenship rights. In the early years of the war, however, the supply of enlisting men surpassed demand, so recruiting officers could be selective in who they accepted. Still, large numbers of Japanese Canadians volunteered, as did members of other visible minorities like Black Canadians and First Nations , so the Canadian government proposed a compromise that, if enlisted, minorities could fight separately. The Japanese Canadian community

9954-540: The interned Japanese Canadians were combat veterans of the Canadian Expeditionary Force , including several men who had been decorated for bravery on the Western Front . Despite the first iterations of veterans affairs associations established during World War II, fear and racism drove policy and trumped veterans' rights, meaning that virtually no Japanese-Canadian veterans were exempt from being removed from

10080-403: The internees – green wood to build accommodation and a stove was all that most received. Men could make some money in construction work to support their families, but women had very few opportunities. Yet, finding work was almost essential since interned Japanese Canadians had to support themselves and buy food using the small salaries they had collected or through allowances from the government for

10206-449: The labour camps themselves, the federal government made a policy to keep families together in their removal to internment camps in the BC interior or sugar beet farms across the prairies. Many Canadians were unaware of the living conditions in the internment camps. The Japanese Canadians who resided within the camp at Hastings Park were placed in stables and barnyards, where they lived without privacy in an unsanitary environment. Kimiko,

10332-464: The loss of life that it [the bomb] will occasion among innocent people as well as those that are guilty." On August 6, 1945, the day of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, King wrote in his diary: "It is fortunate that the use of the bomb should have been upon the Japanese rather than upon the white races of Europe. For many Japanese Canadians, World War I provided an opportunity to prove their loyalty to Canada and their allies through military service in

10458-713: The majority of Salishan languages , Halkomelem is polysynthetic . A word in Halkomelem may consist of a root standing alone and unaltered, or of a root altered by one or more processes of internal modification and/or accompanied by one or more affixes. Since all words (with the exception of a few adverbs) can function as predicate heads, there is no basis for distinguishing verbs, nouns, and adjectives. There are other bases, however, for distinguishing these classes. Verbs have progressive forms and do not take possessive affixes, while nouns do not have progressive forms and do take possessive affixes. Adjectives have neither progressive forms, nor do they take possessive affixes. Compounding

10584-465: The men and their families were processed through Hastings Park in Vancouver; others were sent immediately for various destinations eastward. Many of the men at the park were separated from their families and sent into the British Columbia Interior or elsewhere in Canada, but most women and children stayed in the park until they were sent to Internment Camps in the interior or decided as a family to join

10710-517: The men were eventually informed that they would be sent to the Immigration Building jail in Vancouver for their refusal to work. Their mistreatment caused several of the men to begin hoping that Japan would win the war and force Canada to compensate them. Tashme , a camp on Highway 3 just east of Hope, was notorious for the camp's harsh conditions and existed just outside the protected area. Other internment camps, including Slocan , were in

10836-466: The mob without any serious injury or loss of life. After the riot, the League and other nativist groups used their influence to push the government into an arrangement similar to the United States' Gentlemen's Agreement , limiting the number of passports given to male Japanese immigrants to 400 per year. Women were not counted toward the quota, so " picture brides ", women who married by proxy and immigrated to Canada to join (and in many cases, meet for

10962-472: The number of Head Start Programs was 21, and this included a language-nest immersion preschool. Note: All examples are drawn from the Downriver dialect of Halkomelem spoken by the Musqueam band. Relevant differences in the phonology of the Island and Upriver dialects are noted at the foot of the phoneme charts. Halkomelem has five vowel phonemes. Long and short vowels (but not schwa) contrast. Vowel length

11088-406: The other natural classes in Halkomelem. The glottal stop occurs only adjacent to a vowel, and, within words, it does not follow any obstruent except (the prefix) /s/. It can never occur in final position following a schwa . /h/ occurs only before vowels, following a resonant or one of the fricatives at morpheme boundaries, but never following other obstruents. It can appear between an unstressed and

11214-492: The other two dialects, and shows compensatory lengthening in that environment. Additionally, Upriver dialects have greater pitch differences, and some words are differentiated by pitch alone. Based on Suttles' (2004) recordings of several speakers of the Downriver (Musqueam) dialect, stress in Halkomelem consists of an increase in intensity and an accompanying rise in pitch . The three levels of stress are primary (marked /׳/), secondary (marked /`/), and weak (unmarked). There

11340-410: The plural, the diminutive, and the diminutive plural. Compare: A few nouns may have resultative forms. They do not have progressive forms, but they may be made into a verb with a verbalizing affix and then express this form. Similar to noun roots, adjective roots can be internally modified for plural, diminutive, and diminutive plural. They can only have progressive forms if made into verbs by means of

11466-612: The populace in British Columbia (BC). Canadian sociologist Forrest La Violette reported in the 1940s that these early sentiments had often been "organized around the fear of an assumed low standard of living [and] out of fear of Oriental cultural and racial differences." It was a common prejudiced belief within British Columbia that both Japanese and Chinese immigrants were stealing jobs away from white Canadians . Canadian academic Charles H. Young concluded that many Canadians argued based on this fear that "Oriental labour lowers

11592-631: The possessor is a proper noun, it must appear in the oblique case. Thus, it will be preceded by an oblique case marker, and the possessed noun will appear without a possessive affix. For proper nouns, the determiner and the oblique case marker are fused into a single particle. Marking common nouns with an oblique case marker results in an ungrammatical construction: Most verbs roots are semantically patient -oriented (e.g. they have glosses like "get hit" or "get washed"), while few verbs are semantically agent -oriented (e.g. "look" or "see"). All are grammatically intransitive . These relations are different with

11718-510: The power to intern all "persons of Japanese racial origin". A 100-mile (160 km) wide strip along the Pacific coast was deemed "protected", and men of Japanese origin between the ages of 18 and 45 were removed. Thereafter, the entire Japanese Canadian population was uprooted from this designated zone. By November 1942, 22,000 people were displaced. Japanese Canadians on the west coast were forcibly moved to road camps, sugar beet farms, or prisoner-of-war camps . Before being sent off, many of

11844-643: The protected area, and a daytime-only curfew was imposed on them. Various camps in the Lillooet area and in Christina Lake were formally "self-supporting projects" (also called "relocation centres") which housed selected middle- and upper-class families and others not deemed as much of a threat to public safety. The forced removal of many Japanese-Canadian men to become labourers elsewhere in Canada created confusion and panic among families, causing some men to refuse orders to ship out to labour camps. On March 23, 1942,

11970-433: The responsibility of keeping Jewish refugees out of the country on the eve of and during the war." Prior to the dropping of the atomic bombs on Japan , Prime Minister King was not considered a racist. He seemed concerned for humanity and was against the use of the atomic bomb and even its creation. When King learned of the estimated date of the bomb dropping, he wrote in his diary: "It makes one very sad at heart to think of

12096-486: The root include reduplication (of initial CV and CVC), shift in stress and vowel grade, and glottalization of resonants (which also affects suffixes). Roots of different shapes often undergo different processes to produce forms that are grammatically identical. Verbs roots are identified as perfective , as opposed to progressive, aspect. Several verbs also have a durative aspect , which can occur in both forms. A number also have an iterative-dispositional aspect. For

12222-629: The root. Among derivational affixes, those with lexical meaning stand closer to the root than those with purely grammatical meaning. Among inflectional affixes, those of the voice and person systems stand closer to the root than the aspectual prefixes and modal suffixes. In Musqueam, a sentence minimally consists of a predicate . Predicate heads can be bare roots (e.g. cákʼʷ "far"), derived forms (e.g. spéʔeθ "black bear"), inflected forms (e.g. cʼéwət "help him/her/them"), and forms including both derivational and inflectional affixes (e.g. kʷə́xnəct "name-base-transitive," as in "name

12348-491: The standard of living of White groups." It was also argued that Asian immigrants were content with a lower standard of living. The argument was that many Chinese and Japanese immigrants in BC lived in unsanitary conditions and were not inclined to improve their living space, thereby proving their inferiority and their unwillingness to become truly Canadian. Violette refuted this claim by stating that, while Japanese and Chinese immigrants did often have poor living conditions, both of

12474-654: The suffixes of the voice system. A verb that is made up of an inactive root and an intransitive suffix is grammatically intransitive, but semantically active. An inactive or active root that takes on a transitive suffix is grammatically transitive and takes an object. The transitive suffix is the base for an object or passive person suffix. Two of the most commonly used transitive suffixes distinguish actions performed with limited control or accidentally from those performed with full control or purposely. Aspectual prefixes, which precede predicate heads, have adverbial meaning and express temporal distinctions. Modal suffixes follow

12600-471: The suffixes of the voice system and indicate desire or intention and search or arrangement. Lexical suffixes can be related to verb roots as objects , locus, or instruments; to adjective roots as noun heads ; and to noun roots as noun possessors or the noun heads of modifiers . The personal affixes distinguish first, second, and third person in singular and plural. There are neither dual forms nor inclusive/exclusive distinctions in this language. There

12726-607: The sugar beet farms in the Prairies . Many of the Japanese nationals removed from the coast after January 14, 1942, were sent to road camps in the BC interior or sugar beet projects on the Prairies, such as in Taber, Alberta . Despite the 100-mile quarantine, a few Japanese-Canadian men remained in McGillivray Falls , which was just outside the protected zone. However, they were employed at

12852-402: The summer and fall of 1942, any accommodations given were shared between multiple families and many had to live in tents while shacks were constructed in the summer of 1942. The shacks were small and built with damp, green wood. When winter came, the wood made everything damp and the lack of insulation meant that the inside of the shacks often froze during the night. Very little was provided for

12978-460: The summer runs of salmon. Arranged marriages between children in different language areas was also common, helping to establish a regional social network in the Strait of Georgia– Puget Sound Basin. The Halkomelem language is near extinction. In 2000, it was estimated that the number of fluent Halkomelem speakers was fewer than twenty-five. Most are middle-aged or older, and few are monolingual, as there

13104-441: The time, they were denied the right to vote and barred by law from various professions. Racial tensions often stemmed from the belief of many Canadians that all Japanese immigrants, both first-generation Issei and second-generation Nisei , remained loyal to Japan alone. In Maclean's Magazine , a professor at the University of British Columbia stated that the "Japanese in B.C. are as loyal to [Japan] as Japanese anywhere in

13230-630: The total Japanese Canadian population—from British Columbia in the name of " national security ". The majority were Canadian citizens by birth and were targeted based on their ancestry. This decision followed the events of the Japanese Empire 's war in the Pacific against the Western Allies , such as the invasion of Hong Kong , the attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , and the Fall of Singapore which led to

13356-491: The types of obstruent sequences that can occur. Plosives appearing in sequences are rearticulated, and sequences of /ss/ are common in the language. Resonants only appear adjacent to vowels. When these sounds occur in the middle of words, they are found in sequences of resonant-obstruent, resonant-resonant, and obstruent-resonant. An initial resonant is always followed by a vowel, and a final resonant must be preceded by one. The laryngeals are more restricted than members of

13482-490: The unemployed. The relief rates were so low that many families had to use their personal savings to live in the camps. By the spring of 1943, however, some conditions began to change as Japanese Canadians in the camp organized themselves. Removal from the coast to ghost towns had been done based on location, so many communities moved together and were placed in same camp together. This preserved local communal ties and facilitated organizing and negotiating for better conditions in

13608-516: The uprooting and internment of Japanese Canadians under the Defence of Canada Regulations . Since the arrival of Japanese, Chinese, and South Asian immigrants to British Columbia in the late 1800s, there had been calls for their exclusion. Vancouver Member of Parliament Ian Mackenzie saw the war as an opportunity to expel Japanese Canadians from British Columbia. He wrote to a constituent that "their country should never have been Canada ... I do not believe

13734-501: The view that all Japanese Canadians "would be saboteurs and would help Japan when the moment came." In total, 22,000 Japanese Canadians (14,000 of whom were born in Canada) were interned starting in 1942. Widespread internment was authorized on March 4, 1942, with order-in-council 1665 passed under the Defence of Canada Regulations of the War Measures Act , which gave the federal government

13860-431: The war, Canadians of "Oriental racial origin" were not called upon to perform compulsory military service. Japanese Canadian men who had chosen to serve in the Canadian army during the war to prove their allegiance to Canada were discharged only to discover they were unable to return to the BC coast, or unable to have their rights reinstated. After Canada's declaration of war on Japan on December 8, 1941, many called for

13986-488: The waterfront portion publicly accessible. Years of controversy followed regarding the zoning of the foreshore buildings. Steveston is a popular location for filming both movies and television shows, which has included the following: Even with extensive redevelopment, Steveston maintains the character of a quaint, historic fishing village, with over 600 fishing boats––Canada's largest fleet calling Steveston Harbour home. It boasts over 350 businesses and services to accommodate

14112-452: The way of Japanese-Canadian life. The dispossession began in December 1941 with the seizure of fishing vessels owned by Japanese Canadians, and eventually led to the loss of homes, farms, businesses and smaller belongings such as family heirlooms. Ian MacKenzie , the federal Minister of Pensions and National Health and British Columbia representative in Cabinet, was a political advocate for

14238-427: The world." Other Canadians felt that tensions, in British Columbia specifically, originated from the fact that the Japanese were clustered together almost entirely in and around Vancouver . As a result, as early as 1938, there was talk of encouraging Japanese Canadians to begin moving east of the Rocky Mountains . The actions of Japan leading up to World War II were also seen as cause for concern. Japan withdrew from

14364-452: Was Marpole , half an hour to an hour away, depending upon road conditions. A 1908 fire in the eastern section caused over $ 35,000 in damages. The 1918 inferno, totalling over $ 0.5m in damages, destroyed three canneries (the Star, Steveston, and Lighthouse), three hotels (Star, Richmond, and London), and most of Brick Block. The Marpole firetruck broke down on the way. This devastating fire started in

14490-456: Was "more than enough work for all". However, by the end of the war, soldiers returning home to find their jobs filled by others, including Japanese immigrants, were outraged. While they had been fighting in Europe, the Japanese had established themselves securely in many business and were now, more than ever, perceived as a threat to white workers. "'Patriotism' and 'Exclusion' became the watchwords of

14616-463: Was a flood of English-speaking settlers in the region in the mid-19th century. Language programs at the Stó꞉lō Nation , Seabird Island First Nation , and Cowichan First Nation have been developed to save the language. A program aimed at adults at Musqueam is a collaboration between the band and the University of British Columbia First Nations and endangered languages program. In September 2009,

14742-509: Was a serious blow to the community, although some of the internees returned when they were allowed and a sizable Japanese Canadian community still exists. For example, a Japanese judo and martial arts centre was developed in Steveston after the internment. During World War II, the Department of Transport facility monitored German and Japanese (Kana code) submarine traffic. The facility closed in 1945. In 1954, BC Packers manager Ken Fraser donated

14868-440: Was a sympathetic administrator who advocated strongly against the removal of Japanese Canadians from the BC coast. He unsuccessfully tried to remind other government officials of the distinction between Japanese foreign nationals and Canadian citizens in regards to personal and civil rights. Frederick J. Mead, RCMP Assistant Commissioner, also used his position to advocate for Japanese Canadians and mitigate government actions. Mead

14994-470: Was at one time the largest plant in British Columbia. The cannery (1994) and Britannia Shipyard (1991) received National Historic Site designations. The BCER Vancouver-Marpole-Steveston interurban tram operated 1905–1958. A new building houses the static tram car 1220. Once a pioneer bank building, the Steveston Museum & Visitor Centre also operates a post office. Japanese Canadians formed

15120-603: Was established in 1988, along with the Japanese Canadian Redress Foundation (JCRF; 1988–2002), to issue redress payments for internment victims, with the intent of funding education. The tension between Canadians and Japanese immigrants to Canada existed long before the outbreak of World War II. Starting as early as 1858 with the influx of Asian immigrants during the Fraser Canyon Gold Rush , beliefs and fears about Asian immigrants began to affect

15246-533: Was estimated that at least 25,000 people had arrived at the City Hall and, following the speakers, the crowd broke out in rioting, marching into Chinatown and Japantown . The rioters stormed through Chinatown first, breaking windows and smashing store fronts. Afterwards, the rioters turned to the Japanese-Canadian neighbourhood. Alerted by the previous rioting, Japanese Canadians in Little Tokyo were able to repel

15372-441: Was given the task of implementing several federal policies, including the removal of Japanese Canadians from the "protected zone" along the coast in 1942. Mead attempted to slow down the process, allowing individuals and families more time to prepare by following the exact letter of the law, which required a complicated set of permissions from busy government ministers, rather than the spirit of quick removal it intended. However, it

15498-441: Was not just government officials, but also private citizens, who were sympathetic to the Japanese-Canadian cause. Writing his first letter in January 1941, Captain V.C. Best, a resident of Salt Spring Island , advocated against mistreatment of Japanese Canadians for over two years. Best wrote to Keenleyside directly for much of that period, protesting anti-Japanese sentiment in the press, advocating for Japanese-Canadian enlistment in

15624-484: Was the first Japanese person to officially immigrate to Canada, and entering the salmon-exporting business—the Japanese were quick to integrate themselves into Canadian industries . Some European-descended Canadians felt that, while the Chinese were content with being "confined to a few industries", the Japanese were infiltrating all areas of industry and competing with white workers. This sense of unease among white Canadians

15750-482: Was very energetic on this front. The Canadian Japanese Association of Vancouver offered to raise a battalion in 1915 and, upon receiving a polite reply, proceeded to enlist and train 277 volunteers at the expense of the Japanese Canadian community. This offer, however, was rejected by Prime Minister Robert Borden and his federal cabinet. Yet, by the summer of 1916, the death toll in the trenches had risen, creating

15876-467: Was worsened by the growing rate of Japanese fishermen in the early 1900s. Japanese immigrants were also accused of being resistant to assimilation into British Canadian society, because of Japanese-language schools, Buddhist temples, and low intermarriage rates, among other examples. It was asserted that the Japanese had their own manner of living, and that many who had become naturalized in Canada did so to obtain fishing licences rather than out of

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