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59-679: The term 'Wangara' is sometimes used interchangeably with the Jakhanke or Dyula people , who are also diasporic traders and Islamic clerics of Mande origin. The Wangara, like the Soninke of which they are a part, are descendants from migrants out of the once-fertile Green Sahara . Increased desertification drove these proto-Soninke southwest where they established stone settlements possibly as far back as 4000 B.C.E. or even earlier at sites such as Dhar Tichitt , Dhar Walata , and Dhar Néma in modern-day Mauritania . Related Gangara populations persisted in

118-933: A British pension to Zongoiri in the Gold Coast , where he died in 1904. As a result of the significant centralization of the kingdoms, the French largely kept the administrative organization in place. They made the Mogho Naava in Ouagadougou the primary leader of the region and created five ministers under him that governed different regions (largely adhering to the Mossi kingdom borders). The Mossi kingdoms were organized around five different kingdoms: Ouagadougou , Tenkodogo , Fada N'gourma , Zondoma (later replaced by Yatenga ), and Boussouma . However, there were as many as 19 additional lesser Mossi kingdoms, which retained connection to one of

177-625: A holy war against the Mossi kingdoms in 1497. Although the Mossi forces were defeated in this effort, they resisted the attempts to impose Islam. With the conquest of the Songhai by the Moroccans of the Saadi dynasty in 1591, the Mossi states reestablished their independence. By the 18th century, the economic and military power of the Mossi kingdoms had increased significantly. Foreign trade relations expanded throughout Africa, with important connections made with

236-412: A man. She then came to the house of a Mandé elephant hunter named Rialé. They had a son named Ouédraogo who was given that name from the horse that Yennenga used to escape. Ouédraogo visited his grandfather, The Nayiri, King of Mamprugu, at Gambaga at the age of fifteen and was given four horses and 50 cows. A number of horseman joined his forces, and with them, Ouédraogo conquered the local people, married

295-410: A place where "mines of gold and gold dust" were found. Sultan Muhammed Bello had an 1824 map with Bono state, Elmina, and Bighu clearly marked. In the closing years of the 18th and the opening years of the 19th century, the discoveries of Friedrich Hornemann , Mungo Park and others revived the stories of Wangara and its richness in gold. Geographers of that period, such as James Rennell , shifted

354-458: A response to increased commercial traffic along the trade routes - a consequence of Almoravid and Almohad political and social hegemonies and commercial activity in the Maghreb and Andalusia (9th–15th century) and, in part, an effort to consolidate Ghana's political interests in the southern Sahara. After many years of assimilating with local populations many Wangara communities identified more as

413-399: A similar fashion, each with their own monarchs. While they no longer hold sovereignty, they still retain some cultural and political influence. Accounts of the origin of the Mossi kingdoms and parts of their history are imprecise, with contradictory oral traditions disagreeing on certain aspects of the story. The origin story is unique in that a woman plays a key role as the progenitor of

472-707: A social class of their own than just ethnically Soninke. Yorubaland During the reign of Mansa Musa in the 14th century, the Wangara reached the Yoruba states of southwest Nigeria. There it was called Esin Imale, "Religion of the Malians" or "Hard Knowledge". After a 2nd wave of Songhai language speaking Wangara and a 3rd wave by Muslim Fulani, many Yoruba subgroups such as the Ijesa, Oyo, Ilorin, Egba & Ijebu had sizable Muslim communities by

531-584: A subgroup of the larger Soninke . The Jakhanke have historically constituted a specialized caste of professional Muslim clerics ( ulema ) and educators. They are centered on one larger group in Guinea, with smaller populations in the eastern region of The Gambia, Senegal, and in Mali near the Guinean border. Although generally considered a branch of the Soninke (also known as Serahule, Serakhulle or Sarakollé), their language

590-605: A time of great insecurity due to Mossi incursions and moved to greater Songhay protection, adopted the Songhay language, and perhaps intensified the commercial contacts between Songhay and Hausa . In their eastern migration, it is believed that the Wangara split up in two groups in Gobir , one going to Kano and the other going to the Aïr . There are documented Wangara communities in Kano, Katsina and in

649-681: A trading diaspora is the Jakhanke tribe from the Upper Guinea . According to Jakhanke historians, these traders began in the city of Jakha (on the Bafing River, a tributary of the Senegal) and, following their businesses, expanded into other locations. New Jakhanke towns were founded, under the auspices of local rulers who often permitted self-governance and autonomy. Sixteenth-century Europeans met Jakhanke traders at coastal points as far afield as Gambia and

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708-472: A woman named Pouiriketa who gave him three sons, and built the city of Tenkodogo . The oldest son was Diaba Lompo , who founded the city of Fada N'gourma . The second son, Rawa , became the ruler of Zondoma Province . His third son, Zoungrana , became the ruler of Tenkodogo after Ouédraogo died. Zoungrana married Pouitenga, a woman sent from the king of the Ninisi people, and the resulting intermarriages between

767-501: Is closer to Western Manding languages such as Mandinka . Since the fifteenth century the Jakhanke clerical communities have constituted an integral part of the region and have exercised a high level of economic and religious influence upon Soninke as well as related Manding-speaking communities (such as the Dyula and Mandinka ) in what is now Mali , Guinea , Senegal , and The Gambia . The endogamous Jakhanke clerics were influential in

826-533: Is held by fooro (free men), which included tunkalemmu (princes), leaders designated to exercise authority. They are followed by mangu (princely advisors), a group linked to a kuralemme (warrior) class who acted as defenders and mediators. The third in fooro hierarchy is occupied by modinu (priests, Jakanke), representing Islam's influence on Soninke society. Highly respected for their religious knowledge, modinu are responsible for establishing justice, providing Islamic education and protecting

885-508: Is respected throughout the Muslim world for producing erudite and distinguished Islamic scholars. Their curriculum vitae are considered an excellent quality, nurturing the young with Muslim values while simultaneously encouraging intellectual pursuits in their natural environment. The standard Majalis program offered for Islamic sciences begins by incorporating a formal introduction into the rules governing recitation ( tajwīd ) and memorization of

944-550: Is the King of Nanumba, who resides in Bimbilla. Yennenga’s grandsons are the Kings of Tenkodogo , Fada N'gourma , Zondoma Province , Boussouma and stretching across large expanse of Burkina Faso. This event of the story of Yennenga dates in different oral histories to be anytime between the 11th and the 15th centuries. According to the story, the princess Yennenga escaped dressed as

1003-600: The Birim , Pra and Offin river basins, as well as in modern-day Ivory Coast ). It marks the southern end of the long-distance trade route from Djenné and Timbuktu, and was where precious goods from the forest zone ( gold , kola ) were produced; it also forms the border and link between the Mande- Dyula and Hausa- Zongo linguistic and economic spheres.The Wangara founded the important Islamic centers of Kong and Bouna , as well of Begho , Bole (Boualé), Bondoukou and others on

1062-555: The Borgou . While there, they established "kingship" with royal councils of indigenous priestchiefs from among the members of local lineages. A certain Mohamed Korau , a Wangara, elected in 1492/3, became the first Muslim Sarkin Katsina . While the Wangara themselves were only able to build communities as far east as Kano , their nomadic Fulani vassals proved more successful in penetrating

1121-626: The Chad basin , especially after the rise of 18th and 19th century Jihad states such as Macina and the Sokoto Caliphate . Wangara trade undoubtedly benefited, albeit vicariously, through the extension of the eastward routes by the pastoral Fulani on their Hajj to Mecca . The Volta Basin The Volta basin has been important for the Wangara in several respects: it comprised some of the main gold-producing areas (Lobi, Banda) while being linked to others (in

1180-564: The Fula kingdoms and the Mali Empire . During this time, the Mossi were attacked by a variety of African forces. Although there were a number of jihad states in the region trying to forcibly spread Islam, namely the Massina Empire and the Sokoto Caliphate , the Mossi kingdoms largely retained their traditional religious and ritual practices. Domestically, the Mossi kingdoms distinguished between

1239-629: The Gold Coast ; hence, they imagined the city called "Jaga" (Jakha) was a great metropolis controlling trade in all West Africa. Trading groups like the Dyula and Jakhanke did indeed dominate commerce of Upper Guinea, becoming involved not just in moving merchandise, but also in production of goods on plantations worked by their slaves. The Jakhanke were the Islamic cleric caste of the Soninke social stratification system. The Soninke social hierarchy organizes individuals into endogamous strata. The top level

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1298-640: The Kano Chronicle the Wangarawa—as many as 160 people—emigrated under the leadership of Shaikh Abderrahman Za(gha)iti to Kano and introduced Islam in Yaji's time (1349–1385) or under Muhammad Rumfa (AH 867–904, 1463–99), after having left Mali in 835 AH (1433 AD). The surname, derived from "Zagha" or "Zeghai", may point to the town of Dia in the Inner Niger Delta south of Timbuktu . These Wangara left during

1357-702: The Tagant plateau until the 18th century and in the Assaba until the 19th. The first mention of the Wangara in the historical record lists them as a tribe under the Ghana Empire who traded in gold dust. Al-Bakri called them "specialist gold traders in the region of the Senegal and Niger rivers." Ibn Battuta described them in 1352 as traders from "west of the interior delta of the Niger." The geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi referred to

1416-460: The nakombse and the tengbiise . The nakombse claimed lineage connections to the founders of the Mossi kingdoms and the power of naam, which gave them the divine right to rule. The tengbiise , in contrast, were people who had been assimilated into the kingdoms and would never have access to naam . However, because of their connections to the area, they did have tenga, which allowed them to make decisions about land issues. The rulers' naam and

1475-448: The "country of Wanqara" was Tiraqqa or Tombouze, a predecessor of Timbuktu . It was one of the great commercial centers of the region—a meeting place of caravans from Ghana and Tadmakka in the 10th and 11th centuries—and a dependency of Ghana. Al-Idrisi describes it as "one of the towns of Wanqara"—large, well populated, and unwalled—and relates that it was "subject to the ruler of Ghana, in litigation."It remained an important mart until

1534-479: The 13th century, at which time Timbuktu replaced it. A Malian source, cited in the Tarikh al-Sudan , distinguishes the Wangara on a socio-professional level from their Malinke kinsmen by claiming the latter to be princes and warriors and the former "traders who carry gold dust from country to country as the courtiers of princes". Valentim Fernandes mentions the Wangara gold traders operating out of Jenne , controlling

1593-660: The 13th century, leading to conflicts between the Mossi kingdoms and other nearby powerful states. In 1896, the French took over the kingdoms and created the French Upper Volta colony, which for many decades largely governed using the Mossi administrative structure. Some Mossi Kingdoms still exist today as constituent monarchies within Burkina Faso. Most notably, Naba Baongo II currently reigns as Mogho Naba of Wogodogo (Ouagadougou). The kingdoms of Boussouma , Fada N'gourma , Tenkodogo , and Yatenga currently co-exist in

1652-515: The 19th century. Mossiland The infiltration of Wangara traders (also known as Marka or Yalsé) into Mossi territory began with the Mossi incursions into the Niger valley and the Mandé city of Walata in the early 15th century. The Mossi (who were hostile to Islam) in earlier times raided the northern markets for trade goods, especially salt, but later permitted Muslim traders from these areas to import

1711-614: The Dagbamba—mamprusi, dagomba, And namumba, the Mandé, the Ninisi, and local peoples became the Mossi people. Zoungrana and Pouitenga had a son, Oubri, who further expanded the kingdom by conquering the Kibissi and some Gurunsi peoples. Oubri, who ruled from around 1050 to 1090 CE, is often considered the founder of the Ouagadougou dynasty, which ruled from the capital of Ouagadougou . Following

1770-519: The Jakhanke monopolized their regional trading circuits, just like Zawaya clerics did in other markets. West Africa's pre-Islamic trading networks with North Africa and the Middle East grew with the arrival of Muslim traders after the 8th century. These traders formed mutually supporting communities as networks that the African historian Philip Curtin dubbed a " trading diaspora ." One good example of such

1829-545: The Kingdom of Yatenga to the north and the Kingdom of Rizim. War between Komdimie and Yatenga lasted for many years, with Yatenga eventually taking over the independent Mossi state of Zondoma. At the same time, Komdimie created a new level of authority for his sons as Dimas of separate provinces. They had some autonomy but recognized the sovereignty of the Ouagadougou dynasty. This system of taking over territory and appointing sons as Dimas would continue to be practiced by many of

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1888-461: The Mossi kingdoms. The last king of Ouagadougou, named Wobgo or Wobogoo, was warned a day before the French forces were going to attack. He sent a force to meet them in battle as he fled the city. Wobgo's brother, Kouka, then became the king of Ouagadougou and allied himself with the French and Yatenga to try and capture Wobgo. When the French and British agreed on the boundary between their colonies, Wobgo lost his main support system and he retired with

1947-540: The Niger River and Jahaba on the Bafing River, from which they moved to Bundu, Futa Jallon and Gambia. The Jakhanke were not primarily merchants, but agriculturists supported by slave labor. The various Jakhanke villages were independent of each other and of the local chiefs. The Jakhanke were committed to peaceful coexistence and refused to become engaged in politics or war. When threatened, they simply relocated their villages into safer territory. Often their villages enjoyed

2006-592: The Qur'an. Recitation should be done according to rules of pronunciation, intonation, and caesuras established by Muhammad, though first recorded in the 8th century. There are seven schools of tajwid , the most popular being the school of Hafs on the authority of ‘asim. This is followed by an in-depth inquiry into the classical studies of Ulum al-hadith (Science of Hadith), Usul al-fiqh (Islamic Jurisprudence), Nahw arabī or Qawāidu 'l-luġati 'l'Arabiyyah (Standard Arabic Grammar): and language acquisition , which studies

2065-561: The Senegal River in present-day Senegal) embraced Islam, being among the earliest sub-Saharan ethnic groups to follow the teachings of Muhammad . In Senegambia, the Jakhanke inhabited scattered towns and villages in Futa Jallon , Futa Bundu , Dentilia , Bambuk, and other places. By 1725, at least fifteen Jakhanke villages were located in what would become Bundu. They claim to originate in Ja on

2124-468: The Wangara as being from "the land of gold, famous on account of the great quantities and good quality of that metal." By tradition all gold nuggets belonged to the king, but gold dust was extensively traded. It is unclear if the Wangara were Muslim at this stage, but they soon adopted the heterodox Khariji rite, which spread with them around West Africa. Located in the Lakes Region at the eastern end of

2183-464: The Wangara country far to the east and confused Idrisi's description with accounts which probably referred to Lake Chad . Jakhanke The Jakhanke -- also spelled Jahanka , Jahanke , Jahanque , Jahonque , Diakkanke , Diakhanga , Diakhango , Dyakanke , Diakhanké , Diakanké , or Diakhankesare -- are a Manding -speaking ethnic group in the Senegambia region, often classified as

2242-652: The desired goods into their own country. These traders and court marabouts were established in Mane, Zitenga , Kaya , Bulsa and Bilanga . By 1750, the Wangara had also entered Ouagadougou . The survival of the Songhay Empire in the eastern Gourma following the Moroccan conquest of 1592, could be explained as a consequence of the gradual and peaceful penetration of the Wangara into these eastern regions: Gourma (with Boulsa, Bilanga), Dendi and Borgou . Hausaland According to

2301-559: The diffusion of Islam among the Manding people in West Africa. While originally a religious caste of the Sarakollé, the Jakhanke later facilitated the trans-Saharan trade routes as merchants, such as in coastal rice and slaves, from the Guinea and Gambian coasts to the interior from at least the 17th century. In this way they are often compared with the Dyula , who formed a trade diaspora from

2360-441: The end of Ramadan and other Muslim holidays. Jakhanke people inherited their cleric roles and some pursued Islamic scholarship, as ulema or marabouts . Over time, they expanded into trade wherein their clerical and merchant roles were intertwined. Their trade included rice, salt, cloth, gold and slaves in the later centuries, first across the trans-Saharan caravan routes and later the trans-Atlantic market. In some regions,

2419-544: The forest fringe. They also had some success in the conversion of Mossi , Dagbon & Bono people . They were noted for their honesty and industry. In contemporary Ghana , "Wangara" refers to Mande speakers and those believed to be of Mande origin and associated with trade. Whereas the Hausa language is a lingua franca among the Zongo Settlements and Gonja , Dyula is spoken as a lingua franca in northern Ivory Coast ,

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2478-422: The four main kingdoms. Each of these retained significant domestic autonomy and independence but shared kinship, military, and ritualistic bonds with one another. Each kingdom had similar domestic structures with kings, ministers, and other officials, and a high degree of administrative centralization. There were prominent rivalries between the different kingdoms, namely between Yatenga and Ouagadougou. Ouagadougou

2537-509: The future rulers. The increasing power of the Mossi kingdoms resulted in larger conflicts with regional powers. The Kingdom of Yatenga became a key power, attacking the Mali and Songhai Empire between 1328 and 1477, taking over Timbuktu and sacking the important trading post of Macina . When Askia Mohammad I became the leader of the Songhai Empire and desired to spread Islam , he waged

2596-619: The gold trade between Jenne and the Bono State goldfields. The first Wangara commercial expansion came between the 9th-11th centuries into Takrur and the Futa Jallon . Between the 12th and 14th centuries, the Wangara extended their trade networks eastwards towards the Gao Empire & the Lake Chad basin and south to the Guinea Highlands and Volta River . Their strategic movements were

2655-553: The heartlands of the Mali Empire to the coast of what is today Côte d'Ivoire . According to Levtzion, "The Mande -speaking Muslim traders, with whom the Portuguese negotiated on the Gambia were Diakhanke. The Diakhanke clans are of Soninke origin, and their traditions go back to Dinga, ancestor of the ruling dynasty of the ancient kingdom of Wagadu . They remember Dia in Massina as

2714-535: The imposition of Islam and had retained independence from the main Islamic states of West Africa, there began to be a sizable number of Muslims living in the kingdom. In Ouagadougou, the Mogho Naaba assigned an Imam who was allowed to deliver readings of the Qur'an to royalty in exchange for recognizing the genealogical power of the king. The first European explorer to enter the region was German Gottlob Krause in 1888. This

2773-481: The learner's processes of acquiring language. The program is concluded following advanced level courses on the science of Qur'anic exegesis ( tafsir ). A total of 28 books must be mastered before a student is eligible to receive the cijaza or sanad (license to teach) from the University. In order to graduate, students are required to completely copy these 28 individual books by hand. If approved by their sheikh ,

2832-400: The population with prayers. Below the fooro strata, have been the despised castes of nayamala (dependent men). These included tago (blacksmiths), sakko (carpenters), jaroo (praise-singers), garanko (cobblers) and others. The strata below the horoo (free-men) and nayamala (dependent men) have been the endogamous komo ( slaves ). The Jakhanke clerical tradition

2891-628: The privileges of sanctuary, judicial independence, and freedom from military service. The Jakhanke were noted Islamic scholars. They trace their spiritual ancestry to the sahabas of the Prophet who came to spread the message of Islam and intermarry with the people of North Africa. Sheikh Al-Hajj Salim Suwari (d. 1525), a Muslim scholar who lived in the late fifteenth century, Karamba Touba Diaby, Karang Foday, Mahmudou Jaylani Jaiteh, and many others. They adhere to Maliki fiqh , although they have been tolerant of customary practices. Primary importance

2950-528: The reign of Oubri, centralization and small-scale expansion of the kingdoms were the primary tasks of rulers. The Ouagadougou dynasty retained control in Ouagadougou , but the other kingdoms established by the sons of Ouedraogo retained independence in Tenkodogo, Fada N'gourma, and Zondoma. Under the fifth ruler, Komdimie (circa 1170), two revolutions were started by members of the Ouagadougou dynasty that established

3009-418: The royal line. The origins of the Mossi state are claimed by one prominent oral tradition to come from when a [[Moré-Dagbamba princess, Yennenga , left home because of a dispute with her father, Naa Gbewaa , the founder of the Kingdom of the now Tri-kingdoms of Mamprugu, Dagban, and Namumba. The Dagbamba ethnic group comprises Mamprusi, dagomba, Nanumba, and Mossi People. These four sub-groups sprung out of

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3068-585: The south of Burkina Faso and northwestern Ghana. In Ghana, it is heard from Wa down to Wenchi . Though the Wangarans kept the location a secret to protect their monopoly, the general area of the Akan goldfields was known by the sixteenth century. In his Esmeraldo de Situ Orbis (1505–1508), Duarte Pacheco Pereira described the gold trade in Djenne and Bighu . Abul Qasim ibn Mohammed al-Ghassani in 1586 described Bighu as

3127-467: The student is officially awarded permission to begin Islamic instruction at their own Karanta (school). Abdou Kader Taslimanka Sylla, Bani Israel du Sénégal ou Ahl Diakha, peuple de diaspora, Éditions Publibook, Paris, 448 p. ( ISBN   9782748388626 ) Mossi Kingdoms The Mossi Kingdoms , were a group of kingdoms in modern-day Burkina Faso that dominated the region of the upper Volta river for hundreds of years. The largest Mossi kingdom

3186-509: The support of tenga were connected, creating a two-way balance of power in society. Being located near many of the main Islamic states of West Africa, the Mossi kingdoms developed a mixed religious system, recognizing some authority for Islam while retaining their indigenous Mossi Religion . The king participated in two great festivals, one focused on the genealogy of the royal lineage (in order to increase their naam ) and another of sacrifices to tenga . Although they had initially resisted

3245-455: The three sons and daughter of the Great King, Naa Gbewaa. Naa Gbewaa found his kingdom from Pusiga, near Bawku, stretching across almost all of Northern Ghana, Burkina Faso, and parts of northern Togo. The Mossi branch is of Yennenga , the Sister of the three brothers. The eldest of the sons is the Nayiri, King of Mamprugu He resides in Nalerigu. His younger brother is the Yaa Naa, King of Dagon He resides in Yendi. The third and youngest brother

3304-498: The town of their ancestor, Suware, a great marabout and a saint." They later established Diakaba in Bambuk . The Jakhanke cultural ethos is best characterized by a staunch dedication to Islam, historical accuracy, rejection of jihad, non-involvement in political affairs and the religious instruction of young people. Formation of their regional Islamic identity began shortly after contact with Muslim Almoravid traders from North Africa in 1065, when Soninke nobles in Takrur (along

3363-402: Was followed by a British expedition in 1894 led by George Ekem Ferguson , who convinced the Mossi leaders to sign a treaty of protection. Despite this, the French entered the area in 1896 and ignored the treaty of protection, conquering the Mossi Kingdom and make it part of the Upper Volta colony. The French had already conquered or taken over all of the surrounding kingdoms, which had isolated

3422-399: Was stressed on obedience to the murshid , or Sufi master, and of stages of initiation into the teachings of the community. Schooled in the bāṭin (secret) sciences, Jakhanke clerics interpreted dreams and gave amulets for protection, which continue to be highly prized items. They celebrate the mawlid an-nabī (birthday of the Prophet) and the ‘īdu l-fiṭr ( عيد الفطر ) feasts at

3481-411: Was that of Ouagadougou. The king of Ouagadougou, known as the Mogho Naaba, or King of All the World, served as the Emperor of all the Mossi. The first kingdom was founded when warriors from the ancient Great Naa Gbewaa kingdom in present-day Ghana region and Mandé warriors moved into the area and intermarried with local people. The different kingdom's consolidation of political and military power began in

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