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134-445: The suspect, Gunasegaran Ramasamy , was 16 years old when he committed the crime, and he had gone to jail several times for unrelated offences before and after the murder of Soh San. Gunasegaran was originally charged with murder, but he eventually pleaded guilty to a reduced charge of robbery with hurt. On 20 March 2017, 16 years after the stabbing, Gunasegaran was put on trial and sentenced to ten years in prison, and given 12 strokes of

268-587: A dopamine dysregulation syndrome which occurs in some patients taking dopaminergic drugs , such as amphetamine or methamphetamine. Methamphetamine addiction is persistent for many individuals, with 61% of individuals treated for addiction relapsing within one year. About half of those with methamphetamine addiction continue with use over a ten-year period, while the other half reduce use starting at about one to four years after initial use. The frequent persistence of addiction suggests that long-lasting changes in gene expression may occur in particular regions of

402-406: A drug test for sports, employment, poisoning diagnostics, and forensics. Chiral techniques may be employed to help distinguish the source of the drug to determine whether it was obtained illicitly or legally via prescription or prodrug. Chiral separation is needed to assess the possible contribution of levomethamphetamine , which is an active ingredients in some OTC nasal decongestants, toward

536-471: A 28-year-old man walked into Jurong East Neighbourhood Police Centre, confessing to the police that he was responsible for the murder of Soh San. The man, a Singaporean citizen named Gunasegaran Ramasamy, was placed under arrest and charged with murder, leading to the re-opening of investigations in Soh's death. Although the offence of murder carried the death penalty under Singaporean law, Gunasegaran would not face

670-507: A common needle . The level of needle sharing among methamphetamine users is similar to that among other drug injection users. The psychological effects of methamphetamine can include euphoria , dysphoria , changes in libido , alertness , apprehension and concentration , decreased sense of fatigue, insomnia or wakefulness , self-confidence , sociability, irritability, restlessness, grandiosity and repetitive and obsessive behaviors. Peculiar to methamphetamine and related stimulants

804-529: A conviction of vandalism. Caning is not imposed on first-time offenders who use delible substances (e.g. pencil, crayon, chalk) to commit vandalism. Beginning in the 1990s, the higher courts have been more inclined to impose caning sentences in cases where caning is a discretionary punishment. For example, in 1993, an 18-year-old molester was initially sentenced to six months' imprisonment but he appealed against his sentence. Chief Justice Yong Pung How not only dismissed his appeal, but also added three strokes of

938-585: A court of law may also be punished by caning in the same way if they commit aggravated offences while serving time in prison. Similarly, male juvenile delinquents in reformatories may be punished by caning for serious offences. Servicemen in the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF) who commit serious military offences may be sentenced by a military court to a less severe form of caning in the SAF Detention Barracks, which houses military offenders. In

1072-472: A district court can impose for the offence. DPP Singh stated that such a sentence should be given to Gunasegaran for committing an act of "senseless violence" against Soh. He pointed out that the robbery was premeditated and the brutality of the stabbing, and in summarizing Gunasegaran's case, he stated that the accused's actions demonstrated that he had no qualms about using violence without hesitation, and cited Gunasegaran's criminal record to support his case for

1206-470: A district court, Gunasegaran pleaded guilty to both the reduced charge of robbery with hurt and one unrelated charge of consuming methamphetamine . The other charge of drug consumption was brought up due to Gunasegaran admitting to police that he had consumed methamphetamine, and his urine test results confirmed there were traces of the drug in Gunasegaran's urine sample. The charge of robbery with hurt carried

1340-846: A diverse term. It frequently refers to the exaggeration of the unusual effects with features such as irritability, agitation, hallucinations and paranoia. The cardiovascular effects are typically not noticed in young healthy people. Hypertension and tachycardia are not apparent unless measured. A moderate overdose of methamphetamine may induce symptoms such as: abnormal heart rhythm , confusion, difficult and/or painful urination , high or low blood pressure, high body temperature , over-active and/or over-responsive reflexes , muscle aches , severe agitation , rapid breathing , tremor , urinary hesitancy , and an inability to pass urine . An extremely large overdose may produce symptoms such as adrenergic storm , methamphetamine psychosis , substantially reduced or no urine output , cardiogenic shock , bleeding in

1474-699: A greater affinity for σ 1 than σ 2 , and inhibits monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A) and monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B). Sigma receptor activation by methamphetamine may facilitate its central nervous system stimulant effects and promote neurotoxicity within the brain. Dextromethamphetamine is a stronger psychostimulant , but levomethamphetamine has stronger peripheral effects, a longer half-life, and longer perceived effects among heavy substance users. At high doses, both enantiomers of methamphetamine can induce similar stereotypy and methamphetamine psychosis , but levomethamphetamine has shorter psychodynamic effects. The bioavailability of methamphetamine

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1608-421: A greater tendency to be reported in the press. The prison officers who administer caning are carefully selected and specially trained for the job. They are generally physically fit and strongly built. Some hold high grades in martial arts even though proficiency in martial arts is not a requirement for the job. They are trained to use their entire body weight as the power behind every stroke instead of using only

1742-399: A jail sentence, and not as a punishment by itself. Those who are sentenced to caning and are in the process of appealing against their sentences do not have their sentences carried out while pending the outcome of their appeals. Similarly, during the period before the convicts' deadlines of their appeal notices, caning is not carried out until the deadline expires and with the convict not making

1876-411: A long sentence in Gunasegaran's case, given that Gunasegaran continued to commit other offences while he was then on the run for robbing and killing Soh. Defence lawyer Ng Shi Yang, who was assigned to defend Gunasegaran, submitted in mitigation that the killing of Soh San was a result of a robbery gone horribly wrong, and Gunasegaran had been haunted by his conscience since the stabbing, and according to

2010-438: A much milder form, caning is used as a disciplinary measure in schools. Boys aged between 6 and 19 may be given up to three strokes with a light rattan cane on the buttocks over clothing or the palm of the hand as a punishment for serious misconduct, often as a last resort. As the law does not allow schools to cane girls, they receive alternative forms of punishment such as detention or suspension. A smaller cane or other implement

2144-405: A notice of appeal. It is administered in an enclosed area in the prison out of the view of the public and other inmates. However, anecdotal evidence suggests that the offender, while waiting in a queue for his turn to be caned, has the chance to observe or hear the screams and cries of those before him getting caned. The order is determined by the number of strokes the offender is receiving, with

2278-708: A number of international human rights treaties which prohibit the use of corporal punishment. These include the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights , the Convention Against Torture and the International Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance . Under the law, women, men above the age of 50, and men sentenced to death whose sentences have not been commuted, cannot be sentenced to caning. It

2412-478: A positive test result. Dietary zinc supplements can mask the presence of methamphetamine and other drugs in urine. Methamphetamine is a chiral compound with two enantiomers, dextromethamphetamine and levomethamphetamine . At room temperature, the free base of methamphetamine is a clear and colorless liquid with an odor characteristic of geranium leaves. It is soluble in diethyl ether and ethanol as well as miscible with chloroform . In contrast,

2546-470: A psychiatric report, Gunasegaran kept hearing voices condemning him for what he did since the day he killed Soh, and even smelt blood on his hands at random moments. Ng also emphasized that Gunasegaran expressed genuine regret for his actions, which led to him finally surrendering himself to the authorities after 12 years of hiding the truth, and to face the music for what he did with hopes to allow Soh's family get closure and healing. Ng said that Gunasegaran had

2680-453: A report of an offence, the prison provost officers will conduct an investigation to collect and review evidence. After that, the accused inmate is given an opportunity to hear the charge and evidence against him and present his defence before a superintendent. The case will also be reviewed by an independent committee appointed by the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) , comprising reputable members of

2814-425: A shop below her flat at Bukit Batok, which was in the same neighbourhood where Soh San and her family resided. Gunasegaran decided to make use of the errand as an opportunity to commit robbery, and he armed himself with a knife from his sister's kitchen. Gunasegaran, who was then 16 years old, walked to Soh's block and spotted her walking home from work. Gunasegaran, who concealed the knife in his shirt, trailed Soh to

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2948-402: A specific chemical substance, the racemic free base , which is an equal mixture of levomethamphetamine and dextromethamphetamine in their pure amine forms, but the hydrochloride salt, commonly called crystal meth, is widely used. Methamphetamine is rarely prescribed over concerns involving its potential for recreational use as an aphrodisiac and euphoriant , among other concerns, as well as

3082-562: A time-limited withdrawal syndrome that occurs within 24 hours of their last dose". Withdrawal symptoms in chronic, high-dose users are frequent, occurring in up to 87.6% of cases, and persist for three to four weeks with a marked "crash" phase occurring during the first week. Methamphetamine withdrawal symptoms can include anxiety, drug craving , dysphoric mood , fatigue , increased appetite , increased movement or decreased movement , lack of motivation , sleeplessness or sleepiness , and vivid or lucid dreams . Methamphetamine that

3216-529: A towel to put over the buttocks. He couldn't sit for too long so he was standing up. Permanent scars remain after the wounds have healed. Judicial caning is also used as a form of legal punishment for criminal offences in two of Singapore's neighbouring countries, Brunei and Malaysia. There are some differences across the three countries. Male convicts who are not sentenced to caning by the courts may be caned if they commit aggravated or serious offences in prison while serving their sentences. This type of caning

3350-641: A transcription factor, and G9a , a histone methyltransferase enzyme, both directly oppose the induction of ΔFosB in the nucleus accumbens (i.e., they oppose increases in its expression). Sufficiently overexpressing ΔJunD in the nucleus accumbens with viral vectors can completely block many of the neural and behavioral alterations seen in chronic drug use (i.e., the alterations mediated by ΔFosB). ΔFosB also plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards , such as palatable food, sex, and exercise. Since both natural rewards and addictive drugs induce expression of ΔFosB (i.e., they cause

3484-574: Is " punding ", persistent non-goal-directed repetitive activity. Methamphetamine use also has a high association with anxiety , depression , amphetamine psychosis , suicide , and violent behaviors. Methamphetamine is directly neurotoxic to dopaminergic neurons in both lab animals and humans. Excitotoxicity , oxidative stress , metabolic compromise, UPS dysfunction, protein nitration, endoplasmic reticulum stress , p53 expression and other processes contributed to this neurotoxicity. In line with its dopaminergic neurotoxicity, methamphetamine use

3618-414: Is 67% orally , 79% intranasally , 67 to 90% via inhalation ( smoking ), and 100% intravenously . Following oral administration, methamphetamine is well-absorbed into the bloodstream, with peak plasma methamphetamine concentrations achieved in approximately 3.13–6.3 hours post ingestion. Methamphetamine is also well absorbed following inhalation and following intranasal administration. Because of

3752-488: Is a potent central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is mainly used as a recreational or performance-enhancing drug and less commonly as a second-line treatment for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and obesity . It has also been researched as a potential treatment for traumatic brain injury . Methamphetamine was discovered in 1893 and exists as two enantiomers : levo-methamphetamine and dextro-methamphetamine. Methamphetamine properly refers to

3886-637: Is also a mandatory punishment for certain offences such as rape , drug trafficking , illegal moneylending , and for foreigners who overstay by more than 90 days – a measure designed to deter illegal immigrants. While most of Singapore's laws on offences punishable by caning were inherited from the British legal system through the Indian Penal Code , the Vandalism Act was only introduced in 1966 after independence, in what has been argued to be an attempt by

4020-400: Is associated with DAT phosphorylation through a Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CAMK)-dependent signaling pathway, in turn producing dopamine efflux. TAAR1 has been shown to reduce the firing rate of neurons through direct activation of G protein-coupled inwardly-rectifying potassium channels . TAAR1 activation by methamphetamine in astrocytes appears to negatively modulate

4154-481: Is associated with a higher risk of Parkinson's disease . In addition to its dopaminergic neurotoxicity, a review of evidence in humans indicated that high-dose methamphetamine use can also be neurotoxic to serotonergic neurons. It has been demonstrated that a high core temperature is correlated with an increase in the neurotoxic effects of methamphetamine. Withdrawal of methamphetamine in dependent persons may lead to post-acute withdrawal which persists months beyond

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4288-430: Is carried out in the same way as judicial caning ordered by the courts. A prison superintendent may order an inmate to receive up to 12 strokes of the cane for aggravated offences that have serious implications for institutional order and discipline. Such offences include engaging in gang activities, mutiny, attempting to escape, destruction of prison property, and assaulting prison staff or fellow inmates. Upon receiving

4422-482: Is dangerous. Methamphetamine may decrease the effects of sedatives and depressants and increase the effects of antidepressants and other stimulants as well. Methamphetamine may counteract the effects of antihypertensives and antipsychotics owing to its effects on the cardiovascular system and cognition respectively. The pH of gastrointestinal content and urine affects the absorption and excretion of methamphetamine. Specifically, acidic substances will reduce

4556-579: Is especially useful for treatment of concomitant tachycardia and hypertension induced by methamphetamine. The phenomenon of "unopposed alpha stimulation" has not been reported with the use of beta-blockers for treatment of methamphetamine toxicity. Methamphetamine is metabolized by the liver enzyme CYP2D6 , so CYP2D6 inhibitors will prolong the elimination half-life of methamphetamine. Methamphetamine also interacts with monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs), since both MAOIs and methamphetamine increase plasma catecholamines; therefore, concurrent use of both

4690-540: Is expected to develop with regular methamphetamine use and, when used recreationally, this tolerance develops rapidly. In dependent users, withdrawal symptoms are positively correlated with the level of drug tolerance. Depression from methamphetamine withdrawal lasts longer and is more severe than that of cocaine withdrawal. According to the current Cochrane review on drug dependence and withdrawal in recreational users of methamphetamine, "when chronic heavy users abruptly discontinue [methamphetamine] use, many report

4824-457: Is found; the usual effective dose is around 20–25 mg/day. Methamphetamine is sometimes prescribed off label for narcolepsy and idiopathic hypersomnia . In the United States, methamphetamine's levorotary form is available in some over-the-counter (OTC) nasal decongestant products. As methamphetamine is associated with a high potential for misuse, the drug is regulated under

4958-427: Is medically fit for the caning. If he is certified fit, he proceeds to receive his punishment; if he is certified unfit, he is sent back to the court for the sentence to be remitted or converted to additional time in prison. A prison officer confirms with him the number of strokes he has been sentenced to. In practice, the offender is required to strip completely naked for the caning. Once he has removed his clothes, he

5092-605: Is more due to users' other choices. They suggest the side effect has been exaggerated and stylized to create a stereotype of current users as a deterrence for new ones. Methamphetamine use was found to be related to higher frequencies of unprotected sexual intercourse in both HIV-positive and unknown casual partners, an association more pronounced in HIV-positive participants. These findings suggest that methamphetamine use and engagement in unprotected anal intercourse are co-occurring risk behaviors, behaviors that potentially heighten

5226-467: Is no more than 6.35 mm (0.25 inches) in diameter (about half the thickness of the prison/judicial cane). During the punishment, the offender is secured in a bent-over position to a trestle similar to the one used for judicial/prison canings. Caning is used as a form of legal corporal punishment in government homes, remand homes and other homes for youths. Youths aged 16 and below who have allegedly committed crimes may be placed in remand homes during

5360-418: Is not enough evidence on hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis in cases of methamphetamine intoxication to determine their usefulness. Forced acid diuresis (e.g., with vitamin C ) will increase methamphetamine excretion but is not recommended as it may increase the risk of aggravating acidosis, or cause seizures or rhabdomyolysis. Hypertension presents a risk for intracranial hemorrhage (i.e., bleeding in

5494-510: Is not reported in these statistics and is difficult to know. Unlike fentanyl which causes respiratory depression, methamphetamine is not a respiratory depressant. Some deaths are as a result of intracranial hemorrhage and some deaths are cardiovascular in nature including flash pulmonary edema and ventricular fibrillation. Acute methamphetamine intoxication is largely managed by treating the symptoms and treatments may initially include administration of activated charcoal and sedation . There

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5628-629: Is often used by some parents to punish their children. This practice is allowed in Singapore but not encouraged by the government. The Singaporean government has stated that in its opinion, the Convention on the Rights of the Child does not prohibit "the judicious application of corporal punishment in the best interest of the child ." Caning, as a form of legally sanctioned corporal punishment for convicted criminals,

5762-609: Is present in a mother's bloodstream can pass through the placenta to a fetus and be secreted into breast milk . Infants born to methamphetamine-abusing mothers may experience a neonatal withdrawal syndrome, with symptoms involving of abnormal sleep patterns, poor feeding, tremors, and hypertonia . This withdrawal syndrome is relatively mild and only requires medical intervention in approximately 4% of cases. Unlike other drugs, babies with prenatal exposure to methamphetamine do not show immediate signs of withdrawal. Instead, cognitive and behavioral problems start emerging when

5896-424: Is restrained in a large wooden trestle based on the British dual-purpose prison flogging frame. He stands barefooted on the trestle base and bends over a padded horizontal crossbar on one side of the trestle, with the crossbar adjusted to around his waist level. His feet are tied to a lower crossbar on the same side by restraining ankle cuffs made of leather, while his hands are secured to another horizontal crossbar on

6030-468: Is subject only to fines; it is not and has never been an offence punishable by caning. In 1993, the number of caning sentences ordered by the courts was 3,244. By 2007, this figure had doubled to 6,404, of which about 95% were actually implemented. Since 2007, the number of caning sentences has experienced an overall decline, falling to 1,257 in 2016. Caning takes place at several institutions around Singapore, most notably Changi Prison , and including

6164-527: Is subject to substantial interindividual variability . CYP2D6 , dopamine β-hydroxylase , flavin-containing monooxygenase 3 , butyrate-CoA ligase , and glycine N-acyltransferase are the enzymes known to metabolize methamphetamine or its metabolites in humans. The primary metabolites are amphetamine and 4-hydroxymethamphetamine ; other minor metabolites include: 4-hydroxyamphetamine , 4-hydroxynorephedrine , 4-hydroxyphenylacetone , benzoic acid , hippuric acid , norephedrine , and phenylacetone ,

6298-514: Is the most severe. It is applicable to only male convicts under the age of 50 for a wide range of offences under the Criminal Procedure Code , up to a maximum of 24 strokes per trial. Always ordered in addition to a prison sentence, it is inflicted by specially trained prison staff using a long and thick rattan cane on the prisoner's bare buttocks in an enclosed area in the prison. Male criminals who were not sentenced to caning earlier in

6432-526: Is typically preceded by convulsions and coma . Use of methamphetamine can result in a stimulant psychosis which may present with a variety of symptoms (e.g., paranoia , hallucinations , delirium , and delusions ). A Cochrane Collaboration review on treatment for amphetamine, dextroamphetamine, and methamphetamine use-induced psychosis states that about 5–15% of users fail to recover completely. The same review asserts that, based upon at least one trial, antipsychotic medications effectively resolve

6566-581: The American Dental Association , meth mouth "is probably caused by a combination of drug-induced psychological and physiological changes resulting in xerostomia (dry mouth), extended periods of poor oral hygiene , frequent consumption of high-calorie, carbonated beverages and bruxism (teeth grinding and clenching)". As dry mouth is also a common side effect of other stimulants, which are not known to contribute severe tooth decay, many researchers suggest that methamphetamine-associated tooth decay

6700-482: The Controlled Substances Act and is listed under Schedule II in the United States. Methamphetamine hydrochloride dispensed in the United States is required to include a boxed warning regarding its potential for recreational misuse and addiction liability. Desoxyn and Desoxyn Gradumet are both pharmaceutical forms of the drug. The latter is no longer produced and is a extended-release form of

6834-478: The Singapore Bar Association stated, "The blows are applied with the full force of the jailer's arm. When the rattan hits the bare buttocks, the skin disintegrates, leaving a white line and then a flow of blood." Usually, the buttocks will be covered with blood after three strokes. More profuse bleeding may occur in the case of a larger number of strokes. An eyewitness described that after 24 strokes,

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6968-628: The United Nations Convention on Psychotropic Substances treaty. While dextromethamphetamine is a more potent drug, racemic methamphetamine is illicitly produced more often, owing to the relative ease of synthesis and regulatory limits of chemical precursor availability. In low to moderate doses, methamphetamine can elevate mood , increase alertness, concentration and energy in fatigued individuals, reduce appetite, and promote weight loss. At very high doses, it can induce psychosis , breakdown of skeletal muscle , seizures , and bleeding in

7102-520: The chromatin that contribute to the persistent epigenetic changes found in methamphetamine addiction. A 2018 systematic review and network meta-analysis of 50 trials involving 12 different psychosocial interventions for amphetamine, methamphetamine, or cocaine addiction found that combination therapy with both contingency management and community reinforcement approach had the highest efficacy (i.e., abstinence rate) and acceptability (i.e., lowest dropout rate). Other treatment modalities examined in

7236-425: The hippocampus , and the prefrontal cortex . Chronic methamphetamine use caused gene-specific histone acetylations, deacetylations and methylations . Gene-specific DNA methylations in particular regions of the brain were also observed. The various epigenetic alterations caused downregulations or upregulations of specific genes important in addiction. For instance, chronic methamphetamine use caused methylation of

7370-450: The presynaptic neuron , and their subsequent release into the synaptic cleft by the phosphorylated transporters. Other transporters that methamphetamine is known to inhibit are SLC22A3 and SLC22A5 . SLC22A3 is an extraneuronal monoamine transporter that is present in astrocytes, and SLC22A5 is a high-affinity carnitine transporter. Methamphetamine is also an agonist of the alpha-2 adrenergic receptors and sigma receptors with

7504-483: The substituted phenethylamine and substituted amphetamine chemical classes . It is related to the other dimethylphenethylamines as a positional isomer of these compounds, which share the common chemical formula C 10 H 15 N . In the United States, methamphetamine hydrochloride, sold under the brand name Desoxyn , is approved by the FDA for treating ADHD and obesity in both adults and children; however,

7638-532: The Dangerous Fireworks Act states that caning is mandatory for a manager or owner of a company which imports, delivers or sells dangerous fireworks. Another example is the transporting of illegal immigrants; a manager of a company who authorises or participates in such activity can be sentenced to caning. In July 1998, police reported six cases of employers sentenced to imprisonment and caning for hiring illegal immigrants. The importation of chewing gum

7772-612: The Detention Barracks. In all cases, the caning sentence must be approved by the Armed Forces Council before it can be administered. The minimum age for a serviceman to be sentenced to caning is 16 (now 16 + 1 ⁄ 2 de facto , since entry into the SAF is restricted to those above that age). This form of caning was originally intended primarily for use on recalcitrant teenage conscripts serving full-time National Service in

7906-878: The FDA advises monitoring the height and weight of growing children and adolescents during treatment. Methamphetamine is a sympathomimetic drug that causes vasoconstriction and tachycardia . Methamphetamine also promotes abnormal extra heart beats and irregular heart rhythms some of which may be life threatening. The effects can also include loss of appetite , hyperactivity, dilated pupils , flushed skin , excessive sweating , increased movement , dry mouth and teeth grinding (potentially leading to condition informally known as meth mouth ), headache, rapid breathing , high body temperature , diarrhea, constipation, blurred vision , dizziness , twitching , numbness , tremors , dry skin, acne , and pale appearance . Long-term meth users may have sores on their skin; these may be caused by scratching due to itchiness or

8040-446: The FDA also indicates that the limited therapeutic usefulness of methamphetamine should be weighed against the inherent risks associated with its use. To avoid toxicity and risk of side effects, FDA guidelines recommend an initial dose of methamphetamine at doses 5–10 mg/day for ADHD in adults and children over six years of age, and may be increased at weekly intervals of 5 mg, up to 25 mg/day, until optimum clinical response

8174-435: The SAF. Military caning is less severe than its civilian counterpart, and is designed not to cause undue bleeding or to leave permanent scars. The offender must be certified by a medical officer to be in a fit condition of health to undergo the punishment and shall wear "protective clothing" as prescribed. The punishment is administered on the buttocks, which are covered by a "protective guard" to prevent cuts. The cane used

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8308-437: The United States, where racemic methamphetamine and dextromethamphetamine are classified as Schedule II controlled substances. Levomethamphetamine is available as an over-the-counter (OTC) drug for use as an inhaled nasal decongestant in the United States. Internationally, the production, distribution, sale, and possession of methamphetamine is restricted or banned in many countries, owing to its placement in schedule II of

8442-574: The absorption of methamphetamine and increase urinary excretion, while alkaline substances do the opposite. Owing to the effect pH has on absorption, proton pump inhibitors , which reduce gastric acid , are known to interact with methamphetamine. Methamphetamine has been identified as a potent full agonist of trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1), a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that regulates brain catecholamine systems. Activation of TAAR1 increases cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) production and either completely inhibits or reverses

8576-421: The analysis included monotherapy with contingency management or community reinforcement approach, cognitive behavioral therapy , 12-step programs , non-contingent reward-based therapies, psychodynamic therapy , and other combination therapies involving these. As of December 2019 , there is no effective pharmacotherapy for methamphetamine addiction. A systematic review and meta-analysis from 2019 assessed

8710-406: The arm and body before he fled, leaving the dying Soh behind. Gunasegaran ran down the stairs and returned to his sister's flat, where he cleaned the knife and returned it to the kitchen. He also tried asking his friends to help him flee Singapore but they ultimately could not. Over the next 12 years, Gunasegaran went to prison thrice for other offences like robbery and assault, and his connection to

8844-463: The arrest and trial of Gunasegaran, she stated that she was glad that Gunasegaran was willing to come forward to admit to his actions and face justice, even though he had the other choice of continuing to hide the truth. Wong said she had long forgiven the attacker of her elder daughter for what he did since the year she lost Soh, and had moved on by seeking solace in her Christian faith. Wong expressed some disbelief when she heard that her elder daughter

8978-427: The availability of safer substitute drugs with comparable treatment efficacy such as Adderall and Vyvanse . Dextromethamphetamine is a stronger CNS stimulant than levomethamphetamine. Both racemic methamphetamine and dextromethamphetamine are illicitly trafficked and sold owing to their potential for recreational use. The highest prevalence of illegal methamphetamine use occurs in parts of Asia and Oceania, and in

9112-413: The belief that insects are crawling under their skin, and the damage is compounded by poor diet and hygiene. Numerous deaths related to methamphetamine overdoses have been reported. Additionally, "[p]ostmortem examinations of human tissues have linked use of the drug to diseases associated with aging, such as coronary atherosclerosis and pulmonary fibrosis", which may be caused "by a considerable rise in

9246-399: The brain , circulatory collapse , hyperpy rexia (i.e., dangerously high body temperature), pulmonary hypertension , kidney failure , rapid muscle breakdown , serotonin syndrome , and a form of stereotypy ("tweaking"). A methamphetamine overdose will likely also result in mild brain damage owing to dopaminergic and serotonergic neurotoxicity. Death from methamphetamine poisoning

9380-437: The brain . Chronic high-dose use can precipitate unpredictable and rapid mood swings , stimulant psychosis (e.g., paranoia , hallucinations , delirium , and delusions ), and violent behavior . Recreationally, methamphetamine's ability to increase energy has been reported to lift mood and increase sexual desire to such an extent that users are able to engage in sexual activity continuously for several days while binging

9514-442: The brain to produce more of it), chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological state of addiction. ΔFosB is the most significant factor involved in both amphetamine addiction and amphetamine-induced sex addictions , which are compulsive sexual behaviors that result from excessive sexual activity and amphetamine use. These sex addictions (i.e., drug-induced compulsive sexual behaviors) are associated with

9648-558: The brain) and, if severe, is typically treated with intravenous phentolamine or nitroprusside . Blood pressure often drops gradually following sufficient sedation with a benzodiazepine and providing a calming environment. Antipsychotics such as haloperidol are useful in treating agitation and psychosis from methamphetamine overdose. Beta blockers with lipophilic properties and CNS penetration such as metoprolol and labetalol may be useful for treating CNS and cardiovascular toxicity. The mixed alpha- and beta-blocker labetalol

9782-453: The brain, and may contribute importantly to the addiction phenotype. In 2014, a crucial role was found for epigenetic mechanisms in driving lasting changes in gene expression in the brain. A review in 2015 summarized a number of studies involving chronic methamphetamine use in rodents. Epigenetic alterations were observed in the brain reward pathways , including areas like ventral tegmental area , nucleus accumbens , and dorsal striatum ,

9916-443: The buttocks may still occur in the days after the caning. M Ravi , a human-rights lawyer, described the injuries of his client, Ye Ming Yuen, who received 24 strokes, as follows: All over his buttocks were multiple marks and deep lacerations. It was so shocking [that] my female paralegal who was with me almost fainted. [...] The wounds were so deep with blood, flesh and layers of the skin exposed. He didn't have any bandages, just

10050-441: The buttocks will be a "bloody mess". Men who were caned have variously described the pain they experienced as "unbearable", "excruciating", "equivalent to getting hit by a lorry", "having a hot iron placed on your buttocks", etc. A recipient of 10 strokes said, "The pain was beyond description. If there is a word stronger than excruciating, that should be the word to describe it". Most offenders struggle violently after each of

10184-585: The cane . On 2 October 2001, a resident surnamed Lim who lived at one of the flats in Bukit Batok discovered the body of a young woman wedged between the lift doors, with her belongings scattered all over the area. Lim reported the discovery to the police. The victim was identified to be Lim's 28-year-old neighbour, Soh San, who worked as a manager of a telecommunications company. Soh lived in Bukit Batok with her mother and stepfather. She had one younger sister who

10318-485: The cane to the sentence. This precedent set by the Chief Justice became a benchmark for sentences in molestation cases, where the court is expected to sentence a molester to at least nine months' imprisonment and three strokes of the cane if the offence involves touching the victim's private parts. In some cases, male employees can be sentenced to caning for offences committed by the company they work for. For instance,

10452-454: The caning, the offender is released from the trestle and receives medical treatment. Antiseptic lotion ( gentian violet ) is applied on the wounds. The offender is also given painkillers and antibiotics. The wounds usually take between a week and a month to heal, depending on the number of strokes received. During this time, offenders cannot sit down or lie down on their backs, and experience difficulties controlling their bowels. Bleeding from

10586-582: The caning: They are not only afraid of the physical pain, but are also worried whether they can prevent themselves from crying out because crying means that they would " lose face " and be labelled "weak" by their fellow inmates. Gopal Baratham , a Singaporean neurosurgeon and opponent of the practice, in his book The Caning of Michael Fay: The Inside Story by a Singaporean , criticised the American tabloid press for false claims, such as that canings are public events (in fact they always take place privately inside

10720-399: The children reach school age. A prospective cohort study of 330 children showed that at the age of 3, children with methamphetamine exposure showed increased emotional reactivity, as well as more signs of anxiety and depression; and at the age of 5, children showed higher rates of externalizing disorders and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Methamphetamine overdose is

10854-528: The choice to not surrender, and the Soh San case would have remained cold, and his decision to surrender allowed the police to finally solve the case. After receiving the submissions, District Judge Tan Jen Tse returned with a verdict, sentencing 32-year-old Gunasegaran Ramasamy to ten years' imprisonment and 12 strokes of the cane for the charge of robbery with hurt, and the jail term was backdated to 18 November 2013. A concurrent sentence of eight months' imprisonment

10988-505: The court has to extend a convict's prison term in lieu of caning, the extension will range from nine to 12 months when the case involves more than 19 strokes of the cane. Singaporean law allows caning to be ordered for over 35 offences, including hostage-taking / kidnapping , robbery , gang robbery with murder , rioting , causing grievous hurt , drug abuse , vandalism , extortion , voyeurism , sexual abuse, molestation (outrage of modesty) , and unlawful possession of weapons . Caning

11122-457: The death of Soh was not detected by the police. Still, Gunasegaran felt an increasing sense of guilt and remorse, and was haunted by the fact that he killed a person. Eventually, he decided to surrender to the police for murdering Soh. In 2016, after they took into consideration that Gunasegaran had surrendered himself, the prosecution decided to reduce Gunasegaran's murder charge to one of robbery with hurt. On 20 March 2017, after standing trial at

11256-648: The development of drug addictions, since its overexpression in D1-type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens is necessary and sufficient for most of the behavioral and neural adaptations that arise from addiction. Once ΔFosB is sufficiently overexpressed, it induces an addictive state that becomes increasingly more severe with further increases in ΔFosB expression. It has been implicated in addictions to alcohol , cannabinoids , cocaine , methylphenidate , nicotine , opioids , phencyclidine , propofol , and substituted amphetamines , among others. ΔJunD ,

11390-409: The dose is excreted in urine as methamphetamine and 10–23% as amphetamine. Following IV doses, about 45% is excreted as methamphetamine and 7% as amphetamine. The elimination half-life of methamphetamine varies with a range of 5–30   hours, but it is on average 9 to 12   hours in most studies. The elimination half-life of methamphetamine does not vary by route of administration , but

11524-790: The drug, flattening the curve of the effect of the drug while extending it. Methamphetamine is often used recreationally for its effects as a potent euphoriant and stimulant as well as aphrodisiac qualities. According to a National Geographic TV documentary on methamphetamine, an entire subculture known as party and play is based around sexual activity and methamphetamine use. Participants in this subculture, which consists almost entirely of homosexual male methamphetamine users, will typically meet up through internet dating sites and have sex. Because of its strong stimulant and aphrodisiac effects and inhibitory effect on ejaculation , with repeated use, these sexual encounters will sometimes occur continuously for several days on end. The crash following

11658-425: The drug. Methamphetamine is known to possess a high addiction liability (i.e., a high likelihood that long-term or high dose use will lead to compulsive drug use) and high dependence liability (i.e., a high likelihood that withdrawal symptoms will occur when methamphetamine use ceases). Discontinuing methamphetamine after heavy use may lead to a post-acute-withdrawal syndrome , which can persist for months beyond

11792-460: The effect of the stroke. If he is too far, the stroke will only cover part of the buttocks." Strokes are delivered at intervals of about 30 seconds. The caning officer is required to exert as much strength as he can muster for each stroke. The offender receives all the strokes in a single caning session, not in instalments. According to anecdotal evidence, if the sentence involves a large number of strokes, two or more officers will take turns to cane

11926-728: The efficacy of 17 different pharmacotherapies used in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) for amphetamine and methamphetamine addiction; it found only low-strength evidence that methylphenidate might reduce amphetamine or methamphetamine self-administration. There was low- to moderate-strength evidence of no benefit for most of the other medications used in RCTs, which included antidepressants (bupropion, mirtazapine , sertraline ), antipsychotics ( aripiprazole ), anticonvulsants ( topiramate , baclofen , gabapentin ), naltrexone , varenicline , citicoline , ondansetron , prometa , riluzole , atomoxetine , dextroamphetamine, and modafinil . Tolerance

12060-426: The first three strokes and then their struggles lessen as they become weaker. By the time the caning is over, those who receive more than three strokes will be in a state of shock . During the caning, some offenders will pretend to faint but they have not been able to fool the medical officer, who decides whether the punishment continues or stops. Offenders often undergo a lot of psychological distress before and during

12194-408: The formation of ceramides , pro-inflammatory molecules that can foster cell aging and death." Methamphetamine users, particularly heavy users, may lose their teeth abnormally quickly, regardless of the route of administration, from a condition informally known as meth mouth . The condition is generally most severe in users who inject the drug, rather than swallow, smoke, or inhale it. According to

12328-416: The formation of reactive oxygen species. Current models of addiction from chronic drug use involve alterations in gene expression in certain parts of the brain, particularly the nucleus accumbens . The most important transcription factors that produce these alterations are ΔFosB , cAMP response element binding protein ( CREB ), and nuclear factor kappa B ( NFκB ). ΔFosB plays a crucial role in

12462-449: The gallows since he committed the crime of murder while he was below 18 years of age, and if convicted, he would be sentenced to life imprisonment and caning instead. After he surrendered himself, Gunasegaran confessed to the murder, and gave police the account of what happened. According to Gunasegaran's confession, on 2 October 2001, the date of the murder itself, Gunasegaran's sister gave him S$ 5 and asked him to buy instant noodles from

12596-427: The high lipophilicity of methamphetamine due to its methyl group, it can readily move through the blood–brain barrier faster than other stimulants, where it is more resistant to degradation by monoamine oxidase . The amphetamine metabolite peaks at 10–24 hours. Methamphetamine is excreted by the kidneys, with the rate of excretion into the urine heavily influenced by urinary pH. When taken orally, 30–54% of

12730-459: The intention of sexual abuse , a second or subsequent conviction of rape , a second or subsequent offence relating to prostitution , and living on or trading in prostitution. Caning remained on the statute book after Malaya became independent from Britain in 1957, and after Singapore ceased to be part of Malaysia in 1965. Subsequent legislation has been passed by the Parliament of Singapore over

12864-561: The largest number going first. A medical officer and the Superintendent of Prisons are required to be present at every caning session. The offender is not told in advance when he will be caned; he is notified only on the day his sentence is to be carried out. Offenders often undergo a lot of psychological distress as a result of being put into such uncertainty. On the day itself, the medical officer examines him by measuring his blood pressure and other physical conditions to check whether he

12998-860: The level of biomarkers of metabolic integrity and synthesis occur in recreational users, such as a reduction in N -acetylaspartate and creatine levels and elevated levels of choline and myoinositol . Methamphetamine has been shown to activate TAAR1 in human astrocytes and generate cAMP as a result. Activation of astrocyte-localized TAAR1 appears to function as a mechanism by which methamphetamine attenuates membrane-bound EAAT2 (SLC1A2) levels and function in these cells. Methamphetamine binds to and activates both sigma receptor subtypes, σ 1 and σ 2 , with micromolar affinity. Sigma receptor activation may promote methamphetamine-induced neurotoxicity by facilitating hyperthermia , increasing dopamine synthesis and release, influencing microglial activation, and modulating apoptotic signaling cascades and

13132-469: The lift lobby, where he entered the same lift as Soh, pressing the left button before using his knuckle to quickly wipe away his fingerprint. Gunasegaran then took out the knife and threatened Soh, forcing her to hand over her money. Soh, who was attacked from behind and stabbed on the arm, gave Gunasegaran S$ 30 but the youth was dissatisfied and tried to snatch away Soh's purse. Soh resisted, which angered Gunasegaran further, prompting Gunasegaran to stab her on

13266-638: The lysine in position 4 of histone 3 located at the promoters of the c-fos and the C-C chemokine receptor 2 (ccr2) genes, activating those genes in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). c-fos is well known to be important in addiction . The ccr2 gene is also important in addiction, since mutational inactivation of this gene impairs addiction. In methamphetamine addicted rats, epigenetic regulation through reduced acetylation of histones, in brain striatal neurons, caused reduced transcription of glutamate receptors . Glutamate receptors play an important role in regulating

13400-414: The maximum sentence of 20 years' imprisonment with not less than 12 strokes of the cane , while the maximum penalty for consumption of methamphetamine was ten years in prison and a fine of S$ 20,000. In his submissions on sentence, Deputy Public Prosecutor (DPP) Bhajanvir Singh urged the court to sentence Gunasegaran to ten years' imprisonment and 12 strokes of the cane, which was the maximum sentence that

13534-423: The membrane expression and function of EAAT2 , a type of glutamate transporter . In addition to its effect on the plasma membrane monoamine transporters, methamphetamine inhibits synaptic vesicle function by inhibiting VMAT2 , which prevents monoamine uptake into the vesicles and promotes their release. This results in the outflow of monoamines from synaptic vesicles into the cytosol (intracellular fluid) of

13668-522: The metabolites of amphetamine. Among these metabolites, the active sympathomimetics are amphetamine, 4‑hydroxyamphetamine , 4‑hydroxynorephedrine , 4-hydroxymethamphetamine , and norephedrine. Methamphetamine is a CYP2D6 inhibitor. The main metabolic pathways involve aromatic para-hydroxylation, aliphatic alpha- and beta-hydroxylation, N-oxidation, N-dealkylation, and deamination. The known metabolic pathways include: Methamphetamine and amphetamine are often measured in urine or blood as part of

13802-460: The methamphetamine hydrochloride salt is odorless with a bitter taste. It has a melting point between 170 and 175 °C (338 and 347 °F) and, at room temperature, occurs as white crystals or a white crystalline powder. The hydrochloride salt is also freely soluble in ethanol and water. The crystal structure of either enantiomer is monoclinic with P2 1 space group ; at 90 K (−183.2 °C; −297.7 °F), it has lattice parameters

13936-565: The mortuary. In November 2001, a month after the murder of Soh San, the Singaporean crime show Crimewatch re-enacted the case, and sent a public appeal for witnesses to help solve the case. Soh's mother also came on-screen to be interviewed and to seek public assistance to catch her daughter's killer. However, the case remained unsolved for the next 12 years, until 2013, when a suspect surrendered himself and confessed to murdering Soh after he robbed her of S$ 30 in cash. On 17 November 2013,

14070-740: The murder of Soh San as one of the nine most terrible crimes that brought shock to Singapore in the 2000s. Caning in Singapore Caning is a widely used form of corporal punishment in Singapore . It can be divided into several contexts: judicial, prison, reformatory, military, school and domestic. These practices of caning as punishment were introduced during the period of British colonial rule in Singapore . Similar forms of corporal punishment are also used in some other former British colonies, including two of Singapore's neighbouring countries, Malaysia and Brunei . Of these, judicial caning

14204-486: The now defunct Queenstown Remand Centre, where Michael Fay was caned in 1994. Canings are also administered in Drug Rehabilitation Centres. Most caning sentences are far below the legal limit of 24 strokes. Although sentences of between three and six strokes are much more common, they usually receive less or no coverage by the media. Normally, only the more serious cases involving heavier sentences will have

14338-446: The offender every six strokes to ensure that the later strokes are as forceful as the earlier ones. During the caning, if the medical officer certifies that the offender is not in a fit state of health to undergo the rest of the punishment, the caning must be stopped. The offender will then be sent back to the court for the remaining number of strokes to be remitted or converted to a prison term of no more than 12 months, in addition to

14472-421: The original prison term he was sentenced to. Caning can cause significant physical damage, depending largely on the number of strokes inflicted. Michael Fay , who received four strokes, said in an interview, "The skin did rip open, there was some blood. I mean, let's not exaggerate, and let's not say a few drops or that the blood was gushing out. It was in between the two. It's like a bloody nose." A report by

14606-401: The other side by wrist cuffs of similar design; his hands can hold on to the crossbar. After he is secured to the trestle in a bent-over position at an angle of close to 90° at the hip, protective padding is tied around his lower back to protect the vulnerable kidney and lower spine area from any strokes that might land off-target. The punishment is administered on his bare buttocks to minimise

14740-431: The past or are currently taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors should not take methamphetamine. The FDA also advises individuals with bipolar disorder , depression , elevated blood pressure , liver or kidney problems, mania , psychosis , Raynaud's phenomenon , seizures , thyroid problems, tics , or Tourette syndrome to monitor their symptoms while taking methamphetamine. Owing to the potential for stunted growth,

14874-605: The period of investigation. If convicted, they may be sent to the state-run reformatories , namely the Singapore Boys' Home and the Singapore Girls' Home, for up to three years. The Singapore Boys' Home has youths aged 11 through 18 who have been sent there by the courts for committing offences such as theft, robbery or rioting, or because they have been deemed to be Beyond Parental Control. Methamphetamine Methamphetamine (contracted from N -methylamphetamine )

15008-427: The police, who investigated the case. This fear lingered until the next day, when none of the residents dared to use the lift where Soh had been killed. The police classified the case as murder, and the probable motive behind Soh's murder was deduced to be robbery. The murder weapon was never recovered despite extensive searches made by the police. Soh's family also sent out posters to seek the assistance from members of

15142-410: The prison): Two lashers took turns to wield the bamboo cane. Blood spurted, bits of flesh flew and the prisoner screamed in pain. ... The canings drew hundreds of people, including a lot of women and everybody seemed to love it. Each time the guy got wacked [ sic ], the crowd would roar – like at a hockey game. They really enjoyed what they saw. ( New York Newsday , 20 April 1994) After

15276-718: The public and including at least one legally-trained member. After that, the Commissioner of Prisons will review the case and confirm the punishment imposed or vary it accordingly. Depending on the circumstances, the case may be referred to a visiting justice , who has the authority to order an inmate to be caned. In 2021, the MHA revealed that from 2011 to 2020, the Singapore Prison Service administered 2,875 instances of prison caning to 2,149 inmates for committing aggravated or major offences in prison. The median number of strokes

15410-418: The public to solve the case, which shocked the nation at that time. Soh's family were saddened over her death, and they also questioned why would the killer commit such a terrible and violent act on Soh. Soh's birth father once said that he reminded his late daughter to not resist when she faced a robber and comply to his demands, since he himself was also a victim of robbery. Soh's father identified Soh's body at

15544-411: The reinforcing effects of addictive drugs. Administration of methamphetamine to rodents causes DNA damage in their brain, particularly in the nucleus accumbens region. During repair of such DNA damages, persistent chromatin alterations may occur such as in the methylation of DNA or the acetylation or methylation of histones at the sites of repair. These alterations can be epigenetic scars in

15678-450: The risk of HIV transmission among gay and bisexual men. Methamphetamine use allows users of both sexes to engage in prolonged sexual activity, which may cause genital sores and abrasions as well as priapism in men. Methamphetamine may also cause sores and abrasions in the mouth via bruxism , increasing the risk of sexually transmitted infection. Besides the sexual transmission of HIV, it may also be transmitted between users who share

15812-412: The risk of any injury to bones and organs. He is not gagged. The caning officer positions himself beside the trestle. The Director of Prisons explained in a 1974 press conference, "Correct positioning is critically important. If he is too near the prisoner, the tip of the cane will fall beyond the buttocks and the force of the stroke will cause the unsupported tip to dip and bend the cane and thus reduce

15946-550: The ruling People's Action Party (PAP) to suppress the opposition's activities in the 1960s because opposition supporters vandalised public property with anti-PAP graffiti. Vandalism was originally prohibited by the Minor Offences Act, which made it punishable by a fine of up to S$ 50 or a week in jail, but did not permit caning. Today, the Vandalism Act imposes a mandatory caning sentence of between three and eight strokes for

16080-413: The school and military contexts. The cane is soaked in water overnight to make it supple and prevent it from splitting and embedding splinters in the wounds. The Prisons Department denies that the cane is soaked in brine , but has said that it is treated with antiseptic before use to prevent infection. A lighter cane is used for juvenile offenders. Caning is, in practice, always ordered in addition to

16214-414: The strength from their arms, as well as to induce as much pain as possible. They can swing the cane at a speed of up to 160 km/h (99 miles per hour) and produce a force upon impact of at least 880 N . A rattan cane, no more than 12.7 mm (0.5 inches) in diameter and about 1.2 m (3.9 feet) in length, is used for judicial and prison canings. It is about twice as thick as the canes used in

16348-471: The symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis. Amphetamine psychosis may also develop occasionally as a treatment-emergent side effect. The CDC reported that the number of deaths in the United States involving psychostimulants with abuse potential to be 23,837 in 2020 and 32,537 in 2021. This category code (ICD–10 of T43.6) includes primarily methamphetamine but also other stimulants such as amphetamine, and methylphenidate. The mechanism of death in these cases

16482-792: The time of the offence, and accepted that Gunasegaran was truly remorseful for murdering Soh. After his sentencing, Gunasegaran was sent to Changi Prison , where he served his sentence of ten years with the possibility of parole after completing at least two-thirds of his sentence (equivalent to six years and eight months) on the condition that he maintained good behaviour in prison. Gunasegaran has since been released from prison. Soh's family eventually moved out of their flat in Bukit Batok and lived elsewhere in Singapore. A local Chinese newspaper, Lianhe Zaobao , revealed in 2017 that Soh's mother and stepfather had immigrated to Australia about five to six years before Gunasegaran's trial. When Soh's mother, Katherine Wong (aged in her 60s as of 2017), heard about

16616-460: The transport direction of the dopamine transporter (DAT), norepinephrine transporter (NET), and serotonin transporter (SERT). When methamphetamine binds to TAAR1, it triggers transporter phosphorylation via protein kinase A (PKA) and protein kinase C (PKC) signaling, ultimately resulting in the internalization or reverse function of monoamine transporters . Methamphetamine is also known to increase intracellular calcium, an effect which

16750-423: The typical withdrawal period. At high doses, methamphetamine is neurotoxic to human midbrain dopaminergic neurons and, to a lesser extent, serotonergic neurons. Methamphetamine neurotoxicity causes adverse changes in brain structure and function, such as reductions in grey matter volume in several brain regions, as well as adverse changes in markers of metabolic integrity. Methamphetamine belongs to

16884-538: The typical withdrawal period. Magnetic resonance imaging studies on human methamphetamine users have also found evidence of neurodegeneration, or adverse neuroplastic changes in brain structure and function. In particular, methamphetamine appears to cause hyperintensity and hypertrophy of white matter , marked shrinkage of hippocampi , and reduced gray matter in the cingulate cortex , limbic cortex , and paralimbic cortex in recreational methamphetamine users. Moreover, evidence suggests that adverse changes in

17018-600: The use of methamphetamine in this manner is very often severe, with marked hypersomnia (excessive daytime sleepiness). The party and play subculture is prevalent in major US cities such as San Francisco and New York City. Methamphetamine is contraindicated in individuals with a history of substance use disorder , heart disease , or severe agitation or anxiety, or in individuals currently experiencing arteriosclerosis , glaucoma , hyperthyroidism , or severe hypertension . The FDA states that individuals who have experienced hypersensitivity reactions to other stimulants in

17152-435: The years to increase the minimum strokes an offender receives, and the number of crimes that may be punished with caning. Sections 325–332 of the Criminal Procedure Code 2010 lay down the procedures governing caning. They include the following: Any male convict, whether sentenced to caning or not, may also be caned in prison if he commits certain offences while serving time in prison. Singapore has not signed or ratified

17286-415: Was also imposed for the charge of methamphetamine consumption. District Judge Tan stated in his verdict that Gunasegaran had committed a very serious offence and there were several aggravating factors in his case, including the violence displayed by Gunasegaran during the robbery, which justified the sentence imposed in Gunasegaran's case. However, District Judge Tan also acknowledged Gunasegaran's young age at

17420-579: Was first introduced to Malaya and Singapore during the period of British colonial rule in the 19th century. It was formally codified under the Straits Settlements Penal Code Ordinance IV in 1871. In that era, offences punishable by caning were similar to those punishable by birching or flogging (with the cat o' nine tails ) in England and Wales . They included robbery , aggravated forms of theft , burglary , assault with

17554-456: Was killed by a 16-year-old youth, who wielded a knife and stabbed her elder daughter even after he gotten the money from Soh. Soh's uncle, 62-year-old Myke Wong, stated that it was sick to stab a person nine times and said Gunasegaran deserved to be haunted by what he did to his late niece. He said Gunasegaran should be put behind bars for life for having viciously killed a person at the young age of 16. A 2021 article from The Smart Local named

17688-479: Was not uncommon for the courts to extend, by up to 12 months, the prison terms of offenders originally sentenced to caning but later found to be medically unfit to undergo the punishment. However, on 9 May 2017, the High Court ruled that the courts should not automatically impose an additional jail term in lieu of caning unless there are reasons to do so. According to judicial indicative guidelines, in situations where

17822-467: Was then studying in England, and she herself graduated from National University of Singapore and had a long-time boyfriend prior to her death. An autopsy report certified that Soh sustained a total of nine stab wounds to her arm, chest and abdomen, which eventually led to her death. Many residents were shocked to hear that a brutal murder had happened at their block. The area was cordoned for about six hours by

17956-485: Was three and the most common offences involved aggravated violence against other inmates and violence against prison staff. No cases were referred to visiting justices during that period. In the Singapore Armed Forces (SAF), a subordinate military court, or the officer in charge of the SAF Detention Barracks, may sentence a serviceman to a maximum of 24 strokes of the cane for committing certain military offences or for committing aggravated offences while being detained in

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